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Project Report - Early LUNG Cancer Detection Using

Machine Learning AND Image Processing
computer etworks (Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and
Technology)

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EARLY LUNG CANCER DETECTION USING MACHINE

LEARNING AND IMAGE PROCESSING

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

PRAJWALA G (111516205042)
RAMYA M (111516205045)

RAMYA GEETHA S V (111516205046)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in

INFORMATION TECHNOLGY

R.M.D ENGINEERING COLLEGE, THIRUVALLUR

ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2020

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ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “EARLY LUNG CANCER DETECTION
USING MACHINE LEARNING AND MAGE PROCESSING”, is the
bonafide work of “PRAJWALA G (111516205042), RAMYA M
(111516205045), RAMYA GEETHA S V (111516205046)” who carried out the
project work under my supervision, for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Information Technology.
Certified further that to the best of my knowledge and belief, the work reported herein
does not form part of any other thesis or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or
an award was conferred on an earlier occasion.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. K. Balasubadra M.E., Ph.D., Dr. R. Jothilakshmi M.E., Ph.D.,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Dept of Information Technology, Associate Professor,

R.M.D. Engineering College, R.M.D. Engineering College,

R.S.M. Nagar, R.S.M. Nagar,

Kavaraipettai-601206. Kavaraipettai-601206.

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CERTIFICATE OF EVALUATION

College Name : R.M.D ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Department : INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Semester : 08

Title of Project Name of the Name of the

Students with Supervisor with
Register Numbers designation

Prajwala G
(111516205042)
EARLY LUNG CANCER Dr. R. Jothilakshmi
DETECTION USING
MACHINE LEARNING Ramya M M.E., Ph.D.,
AND IMAGE (111516205045)
PROCESSING ASSOCIATE
Ramya Geetha S V
PROFESSOR
(111516205046)

The report of the project work submitted by the above students in partial
fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY of Anna University was evaluated and
confirmed to be the report of the work done by the above students and then
evaluated.

Submitted the project during the viva voce held on ...………..

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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ACKNOWLDGEMENT

A project of this magnitude and nature requires the kind co-operation and
support from many, for successful completion. We wish to express our sincere
thanks to all those who were involved in the completion of this project.

It is our immense pleasure to express our deep sense of gratitude to our chairman
Thiru R.S.MUNIRATHINAM, our vice chairman Thiru R.M.KISHORE, and
our director Thiru R.JOTHI NAIDU, for the facilities and support given by them
in the college.

We are extremely thankful to our Principal Dr.N.ANBUCHEZIAN, for having

given us an opportunity to serve the purpose of any education.

We wish to express our special thanks to our Dean – Research

Dr.K.SIVARAM, and Dean – Academic Dr.K.K.THYAGHARAJAN for their
constant support and encouragement.

We are indebted to Dr.K.BALASUBADRA, M.E, Ph.D., Head of the

Department of Information Technology, for her valuable guidance and useful
suggestions during the course of the project.

We are thankful to our project supervisor Dr.R.JOTHILAKSHMI, M.E.,

Ph.D., Associate Professor in Department of Information Technology, R.M.D.
Engineering College for his helpful guidance and valuable support given to us
throughout the project.

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ABSTRACT

Lung cancer is the second most common cancer in both men and women, and

is by far the leading cause of cancer death among both men and women. Each year,

more people die of lung cancer than of colon, breast, and prostate cancers combined.

Early detection of lung cancer can increase the chance of survival among people.

The overall 5-year survival rate for lung cancer patients increases from 14 to 49% if

the disease is detected in time. Although Computed Tomography (CT) can be more

efficient than X-ray. However, problem seemed to merge due to time constraint in

detecting the present of lung cancer regarding on the several diagnosing method

used. Hence, a lung cancer detection system using image processing is used to

classify the present of lung cancer in a CT- images. In this project, MATLAB have

been used through every procedures made. In this image processing involve, image

pre-processing, segmentation is based on PPA and K-Means clustering and feature

extraction by Neural network. We are aiming to get the more accurate results by

using various enhancement and segmentation techniques.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT 5

LIST OF FIGURES 9

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 10

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 IMAGE PROCESSING 11

1.2 OVERLAPPING FIELDS 14
1.3 PURPOSE OF IMAGE PROCESSING 15
1.4 APPLICATIONS 16

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 19
3 SYSTEM ANALYSIS

3.1 EXISTING SYSTEM 24

3.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM 24
3.3 FEASIBILITY STUDY 25
3.3.1 ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY 25
3.3.2 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY 25

4 UML DIAGRAMS

4.1 USECASE DIAGRAMS 26

4.2 SEQUENCE DIAGRAMS 27
4.3 COLLOBARATION DIAGRAMS 28
4.4 ACTIVITY DIAGRAMS 29

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5 REQUIREMENT SPECIFICATIONS

5.1 HARDWARE REQUIRMENTS 31

5.2 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS 31

6 MODULES

6.1 MODULE DESCRIPTION 32

6.2 ENHANCEMENT PROCESS 33
6.2.1 HISTOGRAM EQUALIZATION 33
6.3 SEGMENTATION WITH PPA AND K- 33
MEANS
6.3.1 K-MEANS ALGORITHM 34
6.3.2 PRINCIPAL PATTERN ANALYSIS 35
6.4 CLASSIFIER 36
6.4.1 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK 36

7 SYSTEM TESTING

7.1 TESTING OBJECTIVES 37

7.2 TAXONOMY OF TESTING 38
7.2.1 WHITEBOX TESTING 38
7.2.2 BLACKBOX TESTING 39
7.3 TESTING IN PARTICULAR 41
7.3.1 UNIT TESTING 41
7.3.2 INTEGRATION TESTING 42
8 CONCLUSION 43

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9 APPENDIX

SCREENSHOTS 44
9.1 STEPS INVOLVED IN THE 44
ALGORITHM
9.2 FILTERING PROCESS OF THE IMAGE 45
9.3 EQUALIZATION PROCESS 45
9.4 BINARIZATION PROCESS 46
9.5 CUCKOO SEARCH 46
9.6 APPLYING K-MEANS ALGORITHM 47
9.7 PROCESSING OF THE K-MEANS 47
ALGORITHM
9.8 NORMALIZATION PROCESS 48
9.9 ANN CLASSIFICATION 49
9.10 FINAL RESULT 49

10 REFERENCES
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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

3.1 ARCHITECTURE DIAGRAM 23

4.1 USE CASE DIAGRAM 26
4.2 SEQUENCE DIAGRAM 27

4.3 COLLABORATION DIAGRAM 28

4.4 ACTIVITY DIAGRAM 29

K-MEANS ALGORITHM FLOWCHART 34

6.1
7.1 TAXONOMY OF TESTING 37

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CT - COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY

MRI - MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING

ROI - REGIONS OF INTEREST

HU - HOUSEFIELD UNITS
PCA - PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS
SVM - SUPPORT VECTOR MACHINE
PPA - PRINCIPAL PATTERN ANALYSIS
UML - UNIFIED MODELLING LANGUAGE

ANN - ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 IMAGE PROCESSING

Image processing is a method to convert an image into digital form and

perform some operations on it, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some
useful information from it. It is a type of signal dispensation in which input is image,
like video frame or photograph and output may be image or characteristics
associated with that image. Usually Image Processing system includes treating
images as two dimensional signals while applying already set signal processing
methods to them.

Among rapidly growing technologies today, with its applications in various

aspects of a business. Image Processing forms core research area within engineering
and computer science disciplines too.
Signal processing is a discipline in electrical engineering and in mathematics that
deals with analysis and processing of analog and digital signals, and deals with
storing, filtering, and other operations on signals. These signals include transmission
signals, sound or voice signals, image signals, and other signals etc.

Out of all these signals, the field that deals with the type of signals for which
the input is an image and the output is also an image is done in image processing. As
it name suggests, it deals with the processing on images. It can be further divided
into analog image processing and digital image processing.

Analog image processing

Analog image processing is done on analog signals. It includes processing on
two dimensional analog signals. In this type of processing, the images are
manipulated by electrical means by varying the electrical signal. The common
example include is the television image.
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Digital image processing has dominated over analog image processing with the
passage of time due its wider range of applications.

Digital image processing

The digital image processing deals with developing a digital system that
performs operations on a digital image.

Image

An image is nothing more than a two dimensional signal. It is defined by the

mathematical function f(x,y) where x and y are the two co-ordinates horizontally and
vertically.

128 30 123

232 123 321

123 77 89

80 255 255

Each number represents the value of the function f(x,y) at any point. In this case the
value 128, 232,123 each represents an individual pixel value. The dimensions of the
picture is actually the dimensions of this two dimensional array.
Relationship between a digital image and a signal

If the image is a two dimensional array then what does it have to do with a
signal? In order to understand that, we need to first understand what is a signal?

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Signal
In physical world, any quantity measurable through time over space or any
higher dimension can be taken as a signal. A signal is a mathematical function, and
it conveys some information.

A signal can be one dimensional or two dimensional or higher dimensional

signal. One dimensional signal is a signal that is measured over time. The common
example is a voice signal.

The two dimensional signals are those that are measured over some other
physical quantities. The example of two dimensional signal is a digital image. We
will look in more detail in the next tutorial of how a one dimensional or two
dimensional signals and higher signals are formed and interpreted.

Relationship
Since anything that conveys information or broadcast a message in physical
world between two observers is a signal. That includes speech or (human voice) or
an image as a signal. Since when we speak , our voice is converted to a sound
wave/signal and transformed with respect to the time to person we are speaking to.
Not only this , but the way a digital camera works, as while acquiring an image from
a digital camera involves transfer of a signal from one part of the system to the
other.

Digital Image Formation

Since capturing an image from a camera is a physical process. The sunlight is

used as a source of energy. A sensor array is used for the acquisition of the image.
So when the sunlight falls upon the object, then the amount of light reflected by that
object is sensed by the sensors, and a continuous voltage signal is generated by the
amount of sensed data. In order to create a digital image, we need to convert this
data into a digital form. This involves sampling and quantization. (They are
discussed later on). The result of sampling and quantization results in an

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two dimensional array or matrix of numbers which are nothing but a digital image.

1.2 OVERLAPPING FIELDS

Machine/Computer vision
Machine vision or computer vision deals with developing a system in which
the input is an image and the output is some information. For example: Developing a
system that scans human face and opens any kind of lock. This system would look
something like this.

Computer graphics
Computer graphics deals with the formation of images from object models,
rather than the image is captured by some device. For example: Object rendering.
Generating an image from an object model. Such a system would look something
like this.

Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence is more or less the study of putting human intelligence
into machines. Artificial intelligence has many applications in image processing. For
example: developing computer aided diagnosis systems that help doctors in
interpreting images of X-ray , MRI, etc. and then highlighting conspicuous section
to be examined by the doctor.

Signal processing
Signal processing is an umbrella and image processing lies under it. The
amount of light reflected by an object in the physical world (3d world) is pass
through the lens of the camera and it becomes a 2d signal and hence result in image
formation. This image is then digitized using methods of signal processing and then
this digital image is manipulated in digital image processing.

Image processing basically includes the following three steps

 Importing the image with optical scanner or by digital photography.

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 Analyzing and manipulating the image which includes data compression and
image enhancement and spotting patterns that are not to human eyes like
satellite photographs.
 Output is the last stage in which result can be altered image or report that is
based on image analysis.

1.3 Purpose of Image processing

The purpose of image processing is divided into 5 groups. They are:
1. Visualization - Observe the objects that are not visible.
2. Image sharpening and restoration - To create a better image.
3. Image retrieval - Seek for the image of interest.
4. Measurement of pattern – Measures various objects in an image.
5. Image Recognition – Distinguish the objects in an image.

Types
The two types of methods used for Image Processing are analog and digital
image processing. Analog or visual techniques of image processing can be used for
the hard copies like printouts and photographs. Image analysts use various
fundamentals of interpretation while using these visual techniques. The image
processing is not just confined to area that has to be studied but on knowledge of
analyst. Association is another important tool in image processing through visual
techniques. So analysts apply a combination of personal knowledge and collateral
data to image processing.
Digital Processing techniques help in manipulation of the digital images by
using computers. As raw data from imaging sensors from satellite platform contains
deficiencies. To get over such flaws and to get originality of information, it has to
undergo various phases of processing. The three general phases that all types of data
have to undergo while using digital technique are Pre- processing, enhancement and
display, information extraction.

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1.4 Applications
 Intelligent Transportation Systems – This technique can be used in
Automatic number plate recognition and Traffic sign recognition.
 Remote Sensing – For this application, sensors capture the pictures of the
earth’s surface in remote sensing satellites or multi – spectral scanner which is
mounted on an aircraft. These pictures are processed by transmitting it to the
Earth station. Techniques used to interpret the objects and regions are used in
flood control, city planning, resource mobilization, agricultural production
monitoring, etc.
 Moving object tracking – This application enables to measure motion
parameters and acquire visual record of the moving object. The different types
of approach to track an object are:
 Motion based tracking
 Recognition based tracking

 Defense surveillance – Aerial surveillance methods are used to continuously

keep an eye on the land and oceans. This application is also used to locate the
types and formation of naval vessels of the ocean surface. The important duty
is to divide the various objects present in the water body part of the image. The
different parameters such as length, breadth, area, perimeter, compactness are
set up to classify each of divided objects. It is important to recognize the
distribution of these objects in different directions that are east, west, north,
south, northeast, northwest, southeast and south west to explain all possible
formations of the vessels. We can interpret the entire oceanic scenario from the
spatial distribution of these objects.
 Biomedical Imaging techniques – For medical diagnosis, different types of
imaging tools such as X- ray, Ultrasound, computer aided tomography (CT) etc
are used. The diagrams of X- ray, MRI, and computer aided tomography (CT)
are given below.

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Some of the applications of Biomedical imaging applications are as follows:

a) Heart disease identification– The important diagnostic features such as size
of the heart and its shape are required to know in order to classify the heart
diseases. To improve the diagnosis of heart diseases, image analysis
techniques are employed to radiographic images.
b) Lung disease identification – In X- rays, the regions that appear dark contain
air while region that appears lighter are solid tissues. Bones are more radio
opaque than tissues. The ribs, the heart, thoracic spine, and the diaphragm that
separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity are clearly seen on the X-
ray film.
c) Digital mammograms – This is used to detect the breast tumor. Mammograms
can be analyzed using Image processing techniques such as segmentation,
shape analysis, contrast enhancement, feature extraction, etc.
d) Automatic Visual Inspection System – This application improves the quality
and productivity of the product in the industries.
e) Automatic inspection of incandescent lamp filaments – This involves
examination of the bulb manufacturing process. Due to no uniformity in the
pitch of the wiring in the lamp, the filament of the bulb gets fused within a
short duration. In this application, a binary image slice of the filament is
created from which the silhouette of the filament is fabricated. Silhouettes are
analyzed to recognize the non-uniformity in the pitch of the wiring in the lamp.
This system is being used by the General Electric Corporation.
f) Automatic surface inspection systems – In metal industries it is essential to
detect the flaws on the surfaces. For instance, it is essential to detect any kind
of aberration on the rolled metal surface in the hot or cold rolling mills in a
steel plant. Image processing techniques such as texture identification, edge
detection, fractal analysis etc are used for the detection.

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g) Faulty component identification – This application identifies the faulty

components in electronic or electromechanical systems. Higher amount of
thermal energy is generated by these faulty components. The Infra-red images
are produced from the distribution of thermal energies in the assembly. The
faulty components can be identified by analyzing the Infra-red images.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

The research papers used for literature survey in the project are

 Feature Extraction and Principal Component Analysis for Lung Cancer

Detection in CT scan Images
 A survey on early detection and prediction of lung cancer
 Analysis and Edge Detection of Lung Cancer – Survey
 Prediction of lung cancer using image processing techniques: A review
 K-Means Clustering using Fuzzy C-Means Based Image Segmentation for
Lung Cancer.

PAPER: 1
Feature Extraction and Principal Component Analysis for Lung Cancer
Detection in CT scan Images
Ada, Rajneet Kaur

 A hybrid technique based on feature extraction and Principal Component

Analysis (PCA) is presented for lung detection in CT scan images.
 Lung cancer, if detected successfully at early stages, enables many treatment
options, reduced risk of invasive surgery and increased survival rate.
 In this paper features are extracted using principal component analysis and
Histogram Equalization is used for preprocessing of the images. The system
produces promising results for lung cancer detection.

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PAPER: 2
A survey on early detection and prediction of lung cancer
Neha Panpaliya , Neha Tadas , Surabhi Bobade , Rewti Aglawe , Akshay Gudadhe

 Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death worldwide. The earlier
detection of lung cancer is a challenging problem due to structure of cancer
cell, where most of the cells are overlapped each other.
 For early detection and treatment stages image processing technique are
widely used and for prediction of lung cancer, identification of genetic as
well as environmental factors are very important in developing novel
method of lung cancer prevention.
 In various cancer tumors such as lung cancer the time factor is very
important to discover the abnormality issue in target images. Prediction of
lung cancer we consider significant pattern and their corresponding weight
age and score using decision tree algorithm.
 Using the significant pattern tool for lung cancer prediction system will
develop. In this proposed system we use Histogram Equalization is used for
preprocessing of images and feature extraction processes and neural
network classifier to check the state of patient whether it is normal or
abnormal.
 If the lung cancer is successfully detected and predicted in its early stages
will reduce many treatment options and also reduce risk of invasive surgery
and increase survival rate.
 Therefore lung cancer detection and prediction system will propose which
is easy, cost effective and time saving. This will produce promising result
for detection and prediction of lung cancer.
 Therefore early detection and prediction of lung cancer should play a vital
role in the diagnosis process and also increase the survival rate of patient.

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PAPER: 3
Analysis and Edge Detection of Lung Cancer – Survey
C. Jeya Bharathi, Dr. P. Kabilan

 Treating cancer in the early stages can provide more treatment options, less
invasive surgery, and increases the survival rate.
 This paper deals with the detection of cancerous cells from Lungs CT scan
images. To analyze the cancerous cells, physicians tackle many challenging
tasks.
 Locating lung cancer at an early stage is a challenging task since there are few
or no symptoms in this stage of the disease and majority of the cases are
diagnosed in the later stages of the disease.
 The majority of lung cancers originate as a small growth or nodule in the lung.
Screening CT scans are extremely sensitive in detecting nodules as small as 2
or 3mm within the lungs.
 CT screening is efficient in locating majority of lung cancers. Lung CT Scan
helps in detecting lung cancers at an early stage when compared with other
scans like MRI, X-Ray, etc.

 This present work proposes a method to detect the cancerous cells effectively
from the CT scan images by reducing the detection error made by the
physicians’ naked eye for medical study based on canny edge detection.

PAPER: 4
Prediction of lung cancer using image processing techniques: A review

 Prediction of lung cancer is most challenging problem due to structure of

cancer cell, where most of the cells are overlapped each other.
 The image processing techniques are mostly used for prediction of lung
cancer and also for early detection and treatment to prevent the lung cancer.
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To predict the lung cancer various features are extracted from the images
therefore, pattern recognition based approaches are useful to predict the lung
cancer.
 Here, a comprehensive review for the prediction of lung cancer by previous
researcher using image processing techniques is presented. The summary for
the prediction of lung cancer by previous researcher using image processing
techniques is also presented.

PAPER: 5
K-Means Clustering using Fuzzy C-Means Based Image Segmentation for Lung
Cancer
K. Kaviarasu , V. Sakthivel

 Lung lesion segmentation refers to the process of partitioning an image into

mutually exclusive regions.
 This study gives a new approach to K-means clustering technique (K-CT)
integrated with Fuzzy C-means algorithm for lung segmentation. In the study,
large number of images with various types of segmentation was selected and
examined.
 It is followed by thresholding and level set segmentation stages to provide an
accurate region growing detection. The method starts with lung segmentation
based on region growing and standard image processing techniques.
 K-means clustering technique Segmentation is an important process to cluster
information from complex lung lesion. Image Segmentations refers to the
process of fuzzy c means an image into groups of pixels which are
standardized with some criteria.
 Fuzzy C-means algorithms are area oriented instead of pixel oriented. The
result of lung segmentation is the splitting up of the image into connected
region growing.

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 Thus segmentation is concerned with dividing an image in to meaningful

regions. The proposed technique can get benefits of the K-means clustering
for lung lesion segmentation in the aspects of minimal computation time.
 In addition, it can get advantages of the Fuzzy C-means in the aspects of
accuracy. The method starts with lung segmentation based on region growing
and standard image processing techniques.

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CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

3.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

 Regions of Interest (ROI) are calculated using a priori information and

Hounsfield Units (HU)
 Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithm is employed in classification stage

3.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM

 Segmentation process is based on principal pattern analysis (PPA)

algorithm and K-means algorithm.
 Neural network is used for Classification

Figure 3.1: Architecture Diagram

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3.3 FEASIBILITY STUDY

The feasibility of the project is analyzed in this phase and business proposal is
put forth with a very general plan for the project and some cost estimates. During
system analysis the feasibility study of the proposed system is to be carried out. This
is to ensure that the proposed system is not a burden to the company. For feasibility
analysis, some understanding of the major requirements for the system is essential.
Two key considerations involved in the feasibility analysis are,
 Economic Feasibility
 Technical Feasibility

3.3.1 ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY

Study is carried out to check the economic impact that the system will have on
the organization. The amount of fund that the company can pour into the research and
development of the system is limited. The expenditures must be justified. Thus, the
developed system as well within the budget and this was achieved because most of
the technologies used are freely available. Only the customized products had to be
purchased.

3.3.2 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY

Study is carried out to check the technical feasibility, that is, the technical
requirements of the system. Any system developed must not have a high demand on
the available technical resources. This will lead to high demands on the available
technical resources. This will lead to high demands being placed on the client. The
developed system must have a modest requirement, as only minimal or null changes
are required for implementing this system.

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CHAPTER 4

UML DIAGRAMS
The Unified Modeling Language (UML) was created to forge a common,
semantically and syntactically rich visual modeling language for the architecture,
design, and implementation of complex software systems both structurally and
behaviorally. UML has applications beyond software development, such as process
flow in manufacturing.
It is analogous to the blueprints used in other fields, and consists of different
types of diagrams. In the aggregate, UML diagrams describe the boundary, structure,
and the behavior of the system and the objects within it.
UML is not a programming language but there are tools that can be used to
generate code in various languages using UML diagrams. UML has a direct relation
with object-oriented analysis and design.

4.1 USE CASE DIAGRAMS

 A use case is a list of steps that define interaction between an actor (a human
who interacts with the system or an external system) and the system itself.
Use case diagrams depict the specifications of a use case and model the
functional units of a system.
 These diagrams help development teams understand the requirements of their
system, including the role of human interaction therein and the differences
between various use cases.
 A use case diagram might display all use cases of the system, or just one
group of use cases with similar functionality.
 To begin a use case diagram, add an oval shape to the center of the
drawing.
 Type the name of the use case inside the oval.

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 Represent actors with a stick figure near the diagram, then use lines to
model relationships between actors and use cases.

image of lungs

extracting features

User Application

stored as a training set

predict disease

Figure 4.1: Use case Diagram

4.2 SEQUENCE DIAGRAM

Sequence diagrams, also known as event diagrams or event scenarios,

illustrate how processes interact with each other by showing calls between different
objects in a sequence. These diagrams have two dimensions: vertical and horizontal.
The vertical lines show the sequence of messages and calls in chronological order,
and the horizontal elements show object instances where the messages are relayed.

 To create a sequence diagram, write the class instance name and class name in
a rectangular box.
 Draw lines between class instances to represent the sender and receiver of
messages.

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 Use solid arrowheads to symbolize synchronous messages, open arrowheads

for asynchronous messages, and dashed lines for reply messages.

:User
:User :Application
:Application :Image
Processing

1: feed image by browsing()

2: stored on dataset()

3: Extract image using algorithm()

4: Predict disease()

Figure 4.2: Sequence diagram

4.3 COLLABORATION DIAGRAM

Communication diagrams offer benefits similar to sequence diagrams, but they

will offer a better understanding of how components communicate and interact with
each other rather than solely emphasizing the sequence of events. They can be a
useful reference for businesses, organizations, and engineers who need to visualize
and understand the physical communications within a program. Try drawing a
sequence diagram to:

 Model the logic of a sophisticated procedure, function, or operation. 

 Identify how commands are sent and received between objects or components
of a process.
 Visualize the consequences of specific interactions between various
componentsin a process.

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 Plan and understand the detailed functionality of an existing or future

scenario. 

3: Extract image using algorithm()

:User :Image
Processing

2: stored on dataset()

1: feed image by browsing()

4: Predict disease()

:Application

Figure 4.3: Collaboration diagram

4.4 ACTIVITY DIAGRAM

Activity diagrams show the procedural flow of control between class objects,
along with organizational processes like business workflows. These diagram are
made of specialized shapes, then connected with arrows. The notation set for activity
diagrams is similar to those for state diagrams.

 Begin your activity diagram with a solid circle.

 Connect the circle to the first activity, which is modeled with a round-edged
rectangle.
 Now, connect each activity to other activities with lines that demonstrate the
stepwise flow of the entire process.
 You can also try using swim lanes to represent the objects that perform each
activity.
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User

Feed images on
dataset

Extract feature
of image

Predict
disease

Figure 4.4: Activity Diagram

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CHAPTER 5

REQUIREMENT SPECIFICATION
The requirements specification is a technical specification of requirements for
the software products. It is the first step in the requirements analysis process it lists
the requirements of a particular software system including functional, performance
and security requirements. The purpose of the requirements analysis is to identify
and assess the system requirements for the proposed system.

5.1 HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

 Laptop / Desktop
 4GB RAM
 Core i3/i5/i7 processor
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 500GB HDD

5.2 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

 Platform : Windows XP/7/8
 Front End : MATLAB R2014, Image processing tool

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CHAPTER 6

MODULES

A modular design reduces complexity, facilities change (a critical aspect of

software maintainability), and results in easier implementation by encouraging
parallel development of different part of system. Software with effective modularity
is easier to develop because function may be compartmentalized and interfaces are
simplified.
Software architecture embodies modularity that is software is divided into
separately named and addressable components called modules that are integrated to
satisfy problem requirements. Modularity is the single attribute of software that
allows a program to be intellectually manageable. The five important criteria that
enable us to evaluate a design method with respect to its ability to define an effective
modular design are:
 Modular decomposability
 Modular Compensability
 Modular Understandability
 Modular continuity
 Modular Protection.

The following are the modules of the project, which is planned in aid to complete the
project with respect to the proposed system, while overcoming existing system and
also providing the support for the future enhancement.

6.1 MODULE DESCRIPTION

This project contains 3 modules

 Enhancement process
 Segmentation process
 Classification process

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6.2 ENHANCEMENT PROCESS

6.2.1 HISTOGRAM EQUALIZATION

 Histogram equalization is used to enhance contrast. It is not necessary that

contrast will always be increase in this. There may be some cases were
histogram equalization can be worse.
 In those cases the contrast is decreased. Histogram method usually increases
the global contrast of many images, especially when the usable data of the
image is represented by close contrast values.
 Through this adjustment, the intensities can be better distributed on the
histogram. This allows for areas of lower local contrast to gain a higher
contrast.
 Histogram equalization accomplishes this by effectively spreading out the most
frequent intensity values. The method is useful in images with backgrounds
and foregrounds that are both bright or both dark.
 In particular, the method can lead to better views of bone structure in x-ray
images, and to better detail in photographs that are over or under-exposed.
 A key advantage of the method is that it is a fairly straightforward technique
and an invertible operator.

6.3 SEGMENTATION WITH PPA AND K-MEANS

 Segmentation is the most important part in image processing. Fence off an

entire image into several parts which is something more meaningful and easier
for further process.
 These several parts that are rejoined will cover the entire image. Segmentation
may also depend on various features that are contained in the image. It may be
either color or texture.
 The main motto of segmentation is to reduce the information for easy analysis.
Segmentation is also useful in Image Analysis and Image Compression.
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6.3.1 K MEANS ALGORITHM

 K-means is one of the simplest unsupervised learning algorithms that solve the
well-known clustering problem.
 The procedure follows a simple and easy way to classify a given data set
through a certain number of clusters (assume k clusters) fixed apriori. The
main idea is to define k centers, one for each cluster.
 These centers should be placed in a cunning way because of different location
causes different result.
 So, the better choice is to place them as much as possible far away from each
other. The next step is to take each point belonging to a given data set and
associate it to the nearest center.
 When no point is pending, the first step is completed and an early group age is
done. At this point we need to re-calculate k new centroids as barycenter of the
clusters resulting from the previous step.
 After we have these k new centroids, a new binding has to be done between the
same data set points and the nearest new center. A loop has been generated.
 As a result of this loop we may notice that the k centers change their location
step by step until no more changes are done or in other words centers do not
move any more.

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Figure 6.1: K-means algorithm flowchart

6.3.2 PRINCIPAL PATTERN ANALYSIS (PPA) ALGORITHM

 Still there is an ever growing needs for techniques related to the

dimensionality reduction and classification.
 A novel algorithm called Principal Pattern Analysis algorithm (PPA) is
presented in our proposed work. The work partially implements k-means
algorithm and then employs the principal pattern analysis algorithm,
consequently evaluating the feature patterns.
 The weight with which each principal-pattern contributes to the intensity-
pattern can be represented on a set of orthogonal axes that span a previously
introduced pattern space.
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6.4 CLASSIFIER

6.4.1 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK (ANN)

 ANN Classification is the process of learning to separate samples into

different classes by finding common features between samples of known
classes.
 Artificial neural networks are relatively crude electronic networks of neurons
based on the neural structure of the brain. They process records one at a time, and
learn by comparing their classification of the record (i.e., largely arbitrary) with the
known actual classification of the record.
 Neural networks are typically organized in layers. Layers are made up of a
number of interconnected 'nodes' which contain an 'activation function'.
Patterns are presented to the network via the 'input layer', which
communicates to one or more 'hidden layers' where the actual processing is
done via a system of weighted 'connections'. The hidden layers then link to an
'output layer'.

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CHAPTER 7

SYSTEM TESTING

Testing is the process of detecting errors. Testing plays a critical role in

assuring quality and ensuring the reliability of software. The results of testing are
used later on during maintenance also.

The purpose of testing is to discover errors and every conceivable fault or

weakness in a work product. It provides a way to check the functionality of
components, sub-assemblies, assemblies and/or a finished product. It is the process of
exercising software with the intent of ensuring that the Software system meets its
requirements and user expectations and does not fail in an unacceptable manner.
There are various types of test. Each test type addresses a specific testing
requirement.

7.1 TESTING OBJECTIVES

The main objective of testing is to uncover a host of errors, systematically and with
minimum effort and time.

 Testing is a process of executing a program with the intent of finding an error

 A good test case is one that has a high probability of finding error, if it exists
 The tests are inadequate to detect possibly present errors
 The software more or less confirms to the quality and reliable standards

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7.2 TAXONOMY OF TESTING

Fig 7.1 Taxonomy of Testing

7.2.1 WHITE BOX TESTING

White Box texting is also known as glass box testing. This type of testing, tests
the internal structure of the program. This can be applied at the unit, integration and
system levels of testing. Mostly, it is used in the unit level of the software testing
process. Sometimes it may not reveal defects in areas which have not been
implemented. It has its own advantages and its own disadvantages. The advantage is
that knowing the programming language code and familiarizing with them may prove
vital and help in identifying the errors quickly and at times may help in avoiding
them at the earliest.

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7.2.2 BLACK BOX TESTING

It is amongst the two methods of mostly used testing methods. This tests the
main functionality of the program. It can be applied to every level of testing such as
Unit, Integration, System and Acceptance levels of testing. Exhaustive input testing
is required to find all errors. For doing this type of testing knowing the internal code
and how it works is not needed but what it is supposed to do is known by the person
who is performing the test. The test cases are developed based on the specific
requirements according to the goals. There are Boundary Valve Analysis, Class
Partitioning, and Cause Effect Graph etc.

UNIT TESTING

Unit testing is also known as Module Testing which focuses on verification

efforts on the module. The module is tested separately and this is carried out at the
programming stage itself. Unit test comprises of the set of tests performed by an
individual programmer before integration of the unit into the system. This will help to
test each and every single part or we can say as each and every module completely.
These may even be small parts of the code and test cases will be developed which are
independent of each other.

FUNCTIONAL TESTING

Functional testing is mainly used as a Quality Assurance process. This is a very

simple process where each function is provided with an appropriate input and is
verified against an expected output and with boundary values. This would help in
ensuring that the output is as acquired according to the expectations and would help
assuring the quality. The various functions developed using Java are separately tested
for their proper working by executing them as separate files.

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INTEGRATION TESTING

It is a systematic technique for constructing the program structure while at the

same time conducting tests to uncover errors associated with in the interface. It takes
the unit tested modules and builds a program structure. Integration of all the
components to form the entire system and an overall testing is executed. Integration
testing is any type of software testing that seeks to verify the interfaces between
components against a software design. Software components may be integrated in an
iterative way or all together as in a on the whole approach. Normally the former is
considered a better practice since it allows interface issues to be located more
quickly and fixed. It is mainly done based on by taking into account of the number
of modules used, how many number of interfaces maybe required to integrate them,
which had to be combined and clustering process.

VALIDATION TESTING

Validation test succeeds when the software functions in a manner that can be
reasonably expected by the client. Software validation is achieved through a series of
black box testing which confirms to the requirements. The software is validated
based on the series of tests that it passes through according to the condition posed by
the customer. Mostly the customer main requirements would be to make every
process as simple as possible and to reduce the complexity of the usage of the final
product. Taking all these conditions into mind the validation testing is done and the
various test cases are design.

SYSTEM TESTING

System testing of software or hardware is testing conducted on complete,

integrated system to evaluate the system’s compliance with its specified
requirements. Once all of the modules have been completely developed and both
unit testing and integration testing is done on the various parts of the modules later

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the system testing is done so as to ensure that the requirements are fulfilled properly.
All it basically does is it performs tests to find the discrepancies between the system
and its original objective, current specifications and system documentation. If any
discrepancy is to be found the respective errors will be rectified and again system
testing will be performed to make sure the rectification does not introduce a new
error into the system.

STRUCTURE TESTING

It is concerned with exercising the internal logic of a program and traversing

certain execution paths. Structure testing takes into account of all process that works
internally to make the entire system to work properly. The basic structure and the
background codes and fragments that help in upholding the system are used.
This goes layer by layer as in till reaching the core process. The various layers
or levels depends on the type of the project and the domain it comes under. This is
considered to be a part of the White Box Testing Process. This is done so as to make
sure all the internal processes work properly. If they don’t then the probability that
the entire process may collapse is a possibility and this causes a grave danger to the
project leading to failure.

7.3 TESTING IN PARTICULAR

7.3.1 UNIT TESTING

Unit testing is a software testing method by which individual units of source code,
sets of one or more computer program modules together with associated control
data, usage procedures, and operating procedures, are tested to determine whether
they are fit for use. In this project, all statements are executed properly. All units of
program programs are tested in different computer. And the result of the project is
same in all system.

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7.3.2 INTEGRATION TESTING

Integration testing (sometimes called integration and testing, abbreviated I&T)

is the phase in software testing in which individual software modules are combined
and tested as a group. It occurs after unit testing and before validation testing.
Integration testing takes as its input modules that have been unit tested, groups them
in larger aggregates, applies tests defined in an integration test plan to those
aggregates, and delivers as its output the integrated system ready for system testing.

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CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION

Image edges help us to determine objects. In this proposed method, the

cancerous part in the lung using CT scan images is identified successfully. Physicians
use the naked eye to detect the growth and spread of cancerous nodule in the lungs
from the CT scan images. The expert physicians diagnose the disease and identify the
stage of cancer by experience. The treatment includes surgery, chemotherapy,
radiation therapy and targeted therapy. These treatments are lengthy, costly and
painful.
Hence, an attempt is made to atomize this procedure to detect the lung cancer
using image processing techniques. CT scan images are acquired from various
hospitals. These images include less noise as compared to X-ray and MRI images.
An image improvement technique is developing for earlier disease detection; the time
factor is taken in account to discover the abnormality issues in target images. The CT
captured images are processed. Gabor filter and watershed segmentation gives best
results for pre-processing stage. Canny Operator gives best results for edge detection
while comparing to other edge detection.

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APPENDIX

SCREENSHOTS

Steps involved in the algorithm

Figure S.1: Steps involved in the algorithm

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Filtering process of the image

Figure S.2: Filtered image of lungs

Equalization process

Figure S.3: Equalized image

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Binarization process

Figure S.4: Binarization process

Cuckoo Search

Figure S.5: Cuckoo Search

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Applying K-means Algorithm

Figure S.6: K-means algorithm

Processing of the K-means algorithm

Figure S.7: Calculation process

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Figure S.8: Result of K-means process

Normalization process

Figure S.9: Normalization process

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ANN Classification

Figure S.10: Neural networks Classification

Final Result

Figure S.11: Consolidated output

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REFERENCES

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