MODULE -1

Introduction of Operating System

An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being initially loaded into the
computer by a boot program, manages all of the other application programs in a
computer. The application programs make use of the operating system by making
requests for services through a defined application program interface (API). In
addition, users can interact directly with the operating system through a user interface,
such as a command-line interface (CLI) or a graphical UI (GUI).

Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the
computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
The operating system's job
Your computer's operating system (OS) manages all of
the software and hardware on the computer. Most of the time, there are several
different computer programs running at the same time, and they all need to access
your computer's central processing unit (CPU), memory, and storage. The
operating system coordinates all of this to make sure each program gets what it needs.

Functions of Operating System

Some typical operating system functions may include managing memory, files,
processes, I/O system & devices, security, etc.
Functions of Operating System
In an operating system software performs each of the function:

1. Process management:- Process management helps OS to create and delete

processes. It also provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication
among processes.

2. Memory management:- Memory management module performs the task of

allocation and de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of this
resources.

3. File management:- It manages all the file-related activities such as

organization storage, retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.

4. Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This

module also responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. It also
performs the task of allocation and de-allocation of the devices.

5. I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the
peculiarities of that hardware devices from the user.

6. Secondary-Storage Management: Systems have several levels of storage

which includes primary storage, secondary storage, and cache storage.
 Instructions and data must be stored in primary storage or cache so that a
running program can reference it.

7. Security:- Security module protects the data and information of a computer

system against malware threat and authorized access.

8. Command interpretation: This module is interpreting commands given by the

and acting system resources to process that commands.

9. Networking: A distributed system is a group of processors which do not share

memory, hardware devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one
another through the network.

10. Job accounting: Keeping track of time & resource used by various job
and users.
11. Communication management: Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, and another software resource of the various users of
the computer systems.

Features of Operating System (OS)

Here is a list important features of OS:
1. Protected and supervisor mode
2. Allows disk access and file systems Device drivers Networking Security
3. Program Execution
4. Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking
5. Handling I/O operations
6. Manipulation of the file system
7. Error Detection and handling
8. Resource allocation
9. Information and Resource Protection
Advantage of using Operating System
 Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction
 Easy to use with a GUI
 Offers an environment in which a user may execute programs/applications
 The operating system must make sure that the computer system convenient to
use
 Operating System acts as an intermediary among applications and the hardware
components
 It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format
 Acts as an intermediator between all hardware’s and software’s of the system

Disadvantages of using Operating System

 If any issue occurs in OS, you may lose all the contents which have been stored
in your system
 Operating system’s software is quite expensive for small size organization
which adds burden on them. Example Windows
 It is never entirely secure as a threat can occur at any time

What is Kernel in Operating System?

The kernel is the central component of a computer operating systems. The only job
performed by the kernel is to the manage the communication between the software
and the hardware. A Kernel is at the nucleus of a computer. It makes the
communication between the hardware and software possible. While the Kernel is the
innermost part of an operating system, a shell is the outermost one.
Function of kernel
The kernel is the core component of an operating system which acts as an interface
between applications, and the data is processed at the hardware level.

When an OS is loaded into memory, the kernel is loaded first and remains in
memory until the OS is shut down. After that, the kernel provides and manages the
computer resources and allows other programs to run and use these resources. The
kernel also sets up the memory address space for applications, loads the files with
application code into memory, and sets up the execution stack for programs.

The kernel is responsible for performing the following tasks:

 Input-Output management
 Memory Management
 Process Management for application execution.
 Device Management
 System calls control

Earlier, all the basic system services like process and memory management,
interrupt handling, etc., were packaged into a single module in the kernel space.
This type of kernel was called the Monolithic Kernel. The problem with this
approach was that the whole kernel had to be recompiled for even a small change.

In a modern-day approach to monolithic architecture, a microkernel contains

different modules like device management, file management, etc. It is dynamically
loaded and unloaded. With this modern-day approach, the kernel code size was
reduced while its stability increased.

Types of Kernels
There are many types of kernels that exists, but among them, the two most popular
kernels are:
1. Monolithic
A monolithic kernel is a single code or block of the program. It provides all the
required services offered by the operating system. It is a simplistic design which
creates a distinct communication layer between the hardware and software.
2. Microkernels
Microkernel manages all system resources. In this type of kernel, services are
implemented in different address space. The user services are stored in user address
space, and kernel services are stored under kernel address space. So, it helps to reduce
the size of both the kernel and operating system.

Difference between Firmware and Operating System

Firmware Operating System

Define Firmware: Firmware is one kind Define Operating System: OS provides

of programming that is embedded on a functionality over and above that which
chip in the device which controls that is provided by the firmware.
specific device.
Firmware is programs that been encoded OS is a program that can be installed by
by the manufacture of the IC or the user and can be changed.
something and cannot be changed.
It is stored on non-volatile memory. OS is stored on the hard drive.

Difference between 32-Bit vs. 64 Bit Operating System

SR. Parameters 32. Bit 64. Bit
No.
1. Architecture Allow 32 bit of data Allow 64 bit of data
and Software processing simultaneously processing simultaneously
2. Compatibility 32-bit applications require 32- 64-bit applications require
bit OS and CPUs. a 64-bit OS and CPU.

3. Systems All versions of Windows 8, Windows XP Professional,

Available Windows 7, Windows Vista, Vista, 7, Mac OS X and
and Windows XP, Linux, etc. Linux.
4. Memory 32-bit systems are limited to 64-bit systems allow a
Limits 3.2 GB of RAM. maximum 17 Billion GB of
RAM.

Operating System as a Resource Manager

A computer has many resources (Hardware and Software), which may be required to
complete a task. The commonly required resources are Input/output devices, Memory
file storage space, CPU (Central Processing Unit) time and so on.

The operating system acts as the manager of these resources and allocates them to
specific programs and users as necessary for their tasks. Therefore we can say an
operating system is a resource allocator. This is the main features of an operating
system.

When a number of computers connected through a network more than one computers
trying for a computer print or a common resource, then the operating system follow
same order and manage the resources in an efficient manner.

Generally, resources sharing in two ways "in time" and "in space". When a resource is
a time-sharing resource, first one of the tasks get the resource for some time, then
another and so on.
For example, a CPU in the time-sharing system. In the time-sharing system, OS fixes
the time slot for the CPU. First one of the processes gets the CPU, when the time slot
expires, the CPU switch to the next process in the ready queue. In this example, the
CPU is a time resource. CPU Scheduling in Operating System

The other kind of sharing is the "space sharing". In this method, the users share the
space of resource. For example, the main memory consisting of several processes at a
time, so the process of sharing the resources.

The main difference between "in time" sharing resources and "in space" sharing
resources is "in time" resources are not divided into units, whereas "in space" sharing
resources are divided into units.

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory.
Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own
address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a
program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the
following activities for memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what
part are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when
and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been
terminated.
Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor
when and for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An
Operating System does the following activities for processor management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for
this task is known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It
does the following activities for device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as
the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.
File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage.
These directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities
are often known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents
unauthorized access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a
service and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs
and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other software’s and users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the
various users of the computer systems.

Operating system types and examples

Although the fundamental roles of an operating system are ubiquitous, there are
countless operating systems that serve a wide range of hardware and user needs.

General-purpose operating system. A general-purpose OS represents an array of

operating systems intended to run a multitude of applications on a broad selection of
hardware, enabling a user to run one or more applications or tasks simultaneously. A
general-purpose OS can be installed on many different desktop and laptop models and
run applications from accounting systems to databases to web browsers to games.
General-purpose operating systems typically focus on process (thread) and hardware
management to ensure that applications can reliably share the wide range of
computing hardware present.

Common desktop operating systems include the following:

 Windows is Microsoft's flagship operating system, the de facto standard for home
and business computers. Introduced in 1985, the GUI-based OS has been released
in many versions since then. The user-friendly Windows 95 was largely
responsible for the rapid development of personal computing.

 Mac OS is the operating system for Apple's Macintosh line of PCs and
workstations.

 Unix is a multiuser operating system designed for flexibility and adaptability.

Originally developed in the 1970s, Unix was one of the first operating systems to
be written in the C language.

 Linux is a Unix-like operating system that was designed to provide PC users a free
or low-cost alternative. Linux has a reputation as an efficient and fast-performing
system.

Mobile operating system. Mobile operating systems are designed to

accommodate the unique needs of mobile computing and communication-centric
devices, such as smartphones and tablets. Mobile devices typically offer limited
computing resources compared to traditional PCs, and the OS must be scaled back in
size and complexity in order to minimize its own resource use, while ensuring
adequate resources for one or more applications running on the device. Mobile
operating systems tend to emphasize efficient performance, user responsiveness and
close attention to data handling tasks, such as supporting media streaming. Apple
iOS and Google Android are examples of mobile operating systems.

Embedded operating system. Not all computing devices are general

purpose. A huge assortment of dedicated devices -- including home digital assistants,
automated teller machines (ATMs), airplane systems, and retail point of sale (POS)
terminals and internet of things (IoT) devices -- includes computers that require an
operating system. The principal difference is that the associated computing device
only does one major thing, so the OS is highly stripped down and dedicated to both
performance and resilience. The OS should run quickly, not crash, and handle all
errors gracefully in order to continue operating in all circumstances. In most cases, the
OS is provided on a chip that is incorporated into the actual device. A medical device
used in a patient's life support equipment, for example, will employ an embedded
OS that must run reliably in order to keep the patient alive. Embedded Linux is one
example of an embedded OS.

Evolution of Operating System

 The first computer, Z1, was made in 1936 – 1938. Unfortunately, this computer
ran without an operating system.
 Twenty years later, the first-ever operating system was made in 1956.
 In the 1960s, bell labs started working on building UNIX, the first multitasking
operating system.
 In 1977 the apple series came into existence. Apple Dos 3.3 was the first disk
operating system.
 In 1981, Microsoft built the first operating system called DOS by purchasing 86 –
DOS software from a Seattle company.
 The most famous Microsoft windows came into existence in 1985 when MS-DOS
was paired with GUI, a graphics environment.

Types of operating system

1. Single User operating system
2. Batch operating system
3. Multiprogramming operating system
 4. Multiprocessor operating system
5. Multiuser operating system
6. Multitasking operating system
7. Multithreading operating system
8. Real Time operating system
9. Time Sharing operating system
10.Network operating system
11.Distributed operating system

1. Single User operating system:- A single-user operating system is a type of

operating system developed and intended for use on a computer or similar machine
that will only have a single user at any given time. This type of OS is typically used
on devices like wireless phones and two-way messaging devices.

The operating system is responsible for handling many different tasks and is typically
one of the most important programs used on a computer. It manages memory usage
and other resources, hardware connectivity and the proper execution of other
applications. A single task operating system can only run one program or application
at a time. So it is not as useful for a computer or other device intended to run multiple
programs at once.

This is where a multitasking single-user operating system is used instead. A

multitasking OS can run multiple applications and programs at once. This is often
used on computers where someone may want to navigate the internet, run a graphics
editing program, play music through a media playing program, and type in notes in a
simple word processing program all at the same time. A single task OS could not do
this, but the multitasking systems can handle all these processes.

Even though this type of operating system can connect to other computers through a
network, it is still only being used by a single user. As long as the computer only has
one monitor, keyboard and other input devices, then it is a single-user system.

Types of Single-User Operating System

Single user operating system can be classified into two parts, such as:

1. Single-User Single-Tasking operating system

In the Single-User Single-Tasking operating system, only one user is permitted for
performing a single task at a time. Some functions such as printing a document and
downloading images and videos are performed in one given frame. This operating
system is designed especially for wireless phones as well as two-way messaging
devices. For example, MS-DOS, Palm OS, etc. It has the following advantages:

o This operating system occupies less space in memory.

o It is cost-effective.

2. Single-User Multi-Tasking operating system

Single-User Multi-Tasking operating system is developed especially for one user, but
this single user can perform multiple tasks simultaneously. For example, you can
write any text while surfing the internet, downloading images, watching movies, etc.,
on Windows, Linux, Mac O/S. It has the following advantages:

o Time-saving.
o High productivity in less time frame.
o Less memory is used for performing multiple tasks.

Features of Single User Operating System

Single user operating system provides the following features to the user, such as:

o It does not use the scheduling process for I/O.

o It uses less scheduling for the users.
o It is only dedicated to single-use.
o It is not intended for several tasks at the same given time.
o It does not use MMU.

Functions of a Single User Operating System

Description and exemplification are the main functions of a single user operating
system. Below are some more functions of single-user OS, such as:
1. Interpreting users commands: It takes the instructions from the user and
passes them on to the rest of the operating system. This is the part of the OS
that the user interacts with to give instructions to the computer. It can be
command-driven, menu-driven or a GUI, which may use a WIMP system.
2. File management: It controls the organization of backing storage. It uses part
of the disc as a file catalogue, which holds details of where data is stored on the
disc. Files are organized into a hierarchical filing system storing files in
separate directories and subdirectories.
3. Memory management: It controls where programs and data are placed in the
main memory. Many OS's allow more than one program to be in memory at the
same time. Memory management ensures that any program does not overwrite
any other program (including the OS itself).
4. Input/output management: It communicates between the computer system
and the input and output devices. It handles the transfer of data between
peripherals and the CPU.
 5. Resource Allocation: The OS allocates resources to other programs such as
applications. For example:
o Scheduler to share processor, e.g. batch, foreground or background,
timesharing.
o Memory management - e.g. Virtual memory paging, swapping memory
contents to hard disc.
o Ensures drivers are given access to hardware devices.
o Mechanisms for accounting; limit enforcement - e.g. no. of pages
printed, file space per user etc.
6. Managing Processes: It controls processes and handles interruptions. The
kernel manages processes (when a program runs, it starts a process, which may
start further processes) and handles interrupts.

Examples of Single User Operating System

There are some operating system examples like DOS, Windows 3x, Windows 95, 97,
98. Also, in mobile phones, Symbian OS is single-user OS.

These systems are also known are single application OS as one application is
concentrated at a time. These systems require fewer resources and can do processing
in a queue. The recurring tasks are performed well in these systems, such as making
payroll or employees' salaries.

Advantages of Single User Operating System

Single-user operating is that in which one user works on one interface. In these
systems, no other operating system is interrupting the processing. Single-user
operating systems work on processing that requires fewer resources. Below are some
more important advantages of single-user OS, Such as:

o Supports one user at a time: In these systems, one user is only active at a
time. So there will be no other user interfering with the applications. And in
these systems, all computer resources are used by user requests.
o Easy to maintain: These systems use fewer resources, and their complexity is
less, making them easy to maintain and debug. Higher resources are needed in
a multi-user operating system, and resources are used most of the time.
 o Less chance to damage: These systems include fewer requests to hardware
and software at a time, so they have less chance to damage. These systems do
not make higher load time also.
o Concentrate on one task: In a modern operating system, there are running
multiple tasks at a time. Like many applications and tasks are running
simultaneously, but in single-user OS, only one task runs at a time. So these
systems sometimes give less output result at a time.

Disadvantages of Single User Operating System

Single user operating system also has some disadvantages, such as:

o Tasks take longer to complete: As you know, many tasks are waiting for the
CPU if no multiple tasks run at a time. So these systems respond to processes at
a higher time. This will make the system slow, and response time is higher.
o Idle time is higher: If only one task is running and this task doesn't require
memory or I/O use, these devices remain idle. But other tasks need those
devices. So only one task is run at a time, then other tasks have to wait till the
first task is finished. So CPU, memory and disk I/O are not used properly.

Difference between Single User and Multi-User OS

The difference between single-user operating systems and multi-user operating
systems are given below:

Terms Single User Operating System Multi-User Operating System

Definition A Single-User Operating System is A Multi-User Operating System is a

a system in which only one user system that allows more than one user to
can access the computer system at access a computer system at one time.
a time.

Bootloader The bootloader loads all the The bootloader distributes the resources
resources of the CPU in the profile of the CPU based on the priority of the
of a single superuser. users.
Super User A superuser gets all the powers of Superuser does not exist for a multi-user
maintaining the system and making operating system as each entity has
changes to ensure the system runs control over their working.
smoothly.

Complexity Single-User Operating System is The Multi-User Operating systems are

simple and easy to design. complicated as they have to apply
complex techniques to share the
resources among various users.

Performance Only one task at one time gets Schedules different tasks for
performed. performance at any rate.

Example MS-DOS, Windows 95, Windows Mainframes, IBM AS400, Linux & Unix
NT, Windows 2000, Personal Distributed OS, etc.
Computers, etc.

2. Batch Operating System: - In the beginning, computers were extremely large

machines that ran from a console. In general, tape drivers or card readers were used
for input, and tape drives, punch cards, and line printers were used for output. Users
had no direct interface with the system, and job execution was done in a batch system.
These systems are known as batched operating systems, and users have to prepare a
job separately to execute it.

There were no developed operating systems, complex computer architecture, or

secondary memory devices in the 1950s and 1960s. Instead, large mainframe
computers were used to process data, with punched cards or magnetic tapes serving as
input and output. The primary problem at the time was a lack of hard disks.

In the early 1950s, General Motors Research Laboratories (GMRL) introduced the
first Single-Stream batch processing systems. It only executed one job at a time, and
data was sent in batches or groups. The batch operating system eliminates the setup
time issue.

Batch processing was very popular in the 1970s. The jobs were executed in batches.
People used to have a single computer known as a mainframe. Users using batch
operating systems do not interact directly with the computer. Each user prepares their
job using an offline device like a punch card and submitting it to the computer
operator. Jobs with similar requirements are grouped and executed as a group to speed
up processing. Once the programmers have left their programs with the operator, they
sort the programs with similar needs into batches.

The batch operating system grouped jobs that perform similar functions. These job
groups are treated as a batch and executed simultaneously. A computer system with
this operating system performs the following batch processing activities:

1. A job is a single unit that consists of a preset sequence of commands, data, and
programs.
2. Processing takes place in the order in which they are received, i.e., first come,
first serve.
3. These jobs are stored in memory and executed without the need for manual
information.
4. When a job is successfully run, the operating system releases its memory.

Types of Batch Operating System

There are mainly two types of the batch operating system. These are as follows:

1. Simple Batched System

2. Multi-programmed batched system

Simple Batched System

The user did not directly interact with the computer system for job execution in a
simple batch operating system. However, the user was required to prepare a job that
included the program, control information, and data on the nature of the job on control
cards. The job was then submitted to the computer operator, who was usually in the
form of a punch card. The program's output included results and registers and memory
dumps in the event of a program error. The output appeared after some time that could
take days, hours, and minutes.

Its main role was to transfer control from one job to another. Jobs with similar
requirements were pooled together and processed through the processor to improve
processing speed. The operators were used in the program to create batches with
similar needs. The computer runs the batches one by one when they became available.
This system typically reads a sequence of jobs, each with its control cads and
predefined job tasks.

Multi-programmed batched system

Spooling deals with many jobs that have already been read and are waiting to run on
disk. A disk containing a pool of jobs allows the operating system to choose which job
to run next to maximize CPU utilization. Jobs that come on magnetic tape or cards
directly cannot be run in a different order. Jobs run sequentially because they are
executed in a first-come, first-served manner. When various jobs are stored on a direct
access device, job scheduling becomes possible like a disk. Multi-programming is an
important feature of job scheduling. For overlapped I/O, spooling and offline
operations have their limitations. Generally, a single user could not maintain all of the
input/output devices, and CPU buys at all times.

In the multi-programmed batched system, jobs are grouped so that the CPU only
executes one job at a time to improve CPU utilization. The operating system
maintains various jobs in memory at a time. The operating system selects one job and
begins executing it in memory. Finally, the job must wait for a task to complete, such
as mounting a tape on an I/O operation. In a multiprogramming system, do not sit idle
because the operating system switches to another task. When a job is in the wait state,
and the current job is completed, the CPU is returned.

Why are Batch Operating Systems used?

Batch operating systems load less stress on the CPU and include minimal user
interaction, and that is why you can still use them nowadays. Another benefit of batch
operating systems is that huge repetitive jobs may be done without interacting with
the computer to notify the system that you need to perform after you finish that job.
Characteristics of Batch Operating System
There are various characteristics of the Batch Operating System. Some of them are as
follows:

1. In this case, the CPU executes the jobs in the same sequence that they are sent
to it by the operator, which implies that the task sent to the CPU first will be
executed first. It's also known as the 'first come, first serve'
2. The word job refers to the command or instruction that the user and the
program should perform.
3. A batch operating system runs a set of user-supplied instructions composed of
distinct instructions and programs with several similarities.
4. When a task is successfully executed, the OS releases the memory space held
by that job.
5. The user does not interface directly with the operating system in a batch
operating system; rather, all instructions are sent to the operator.
6. The operator evaluates the user's instructions and creates a set of instructions
having similar properties.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Batch Operating System

There are various advantages and disadvantages of the Batch Operating System. Some
of them are as follows:

Advantages
There are various advantages of the Batch Operating System. Some of them are as
follows:

1. It isn't easy to forecast how long it will take to complete a job; only batch
system processors know how long it will take to finish the job in line.
2. This system can easily manage large jobs again and again.
3. The batch process can be divided into several stages to increase processing
speed.
 4. When a process is finished, the next job from the job spool is run without any
user interaction.
5. CPU utilization gets improved.

Disadvantages
There are various disadvantages of the Batch Operating System. Some of them are as
follows:

1. When a job fails once, it must be scheduled to be completed, and it may take a
long time to complete the task.
2. Computer operators must have full knowledge of batch systems.
3. The batch system is quite difficult to debug.
4. The computer system and the user have no direct interaction.
5. If a job enters an infinite loop, other jobs must wait for an unknown period of
time.

3. Multiprogramming Operating System:- In multi-programming system, when one

program is waiting for I/O transfer; there is another program ready to utilize
the CPU. So it is possible for several jobs to share the time of the CPU. But it is
important to note that multi-programming is not defined to be the execution of jobs at
the same instance of time. Rather it does mean that there are a number of jobs
available to the CPU (placed in main memory) and a portion of one is executed then
a segment of another and so on. A simple process of multi-programming is shown in
figure
As shown in fig, at the particular situation, job’ A’ is not utilizing the CPU time
because it is busy in I/ 0 operations. Hence the CPU becomes busy to execute the job
‘B’. Another job C is waiting for the CPU for getting its execution time. So in this
state the CPU will never be idle and utilizes maximum of its time.

A program in execution is called a “Process”, “Job” or a “Task”. The concurrent

execution of programs improves the utilization of system resources and enhances the
system throughput as compared to batch and serial processing. In this system, when a
process requests some I/O to allocate; meanwhile the CPU time is assigned to
another ready process. So, here when a process is switched to an I/O operation, the
CPU is not set idle.
Multi-programming is a common approach to resource management. The essential
components of a single-user operating system include a command processor, an
input/ output control system, a file system, and a transient area. A multi-
programming operating system builds on this base, subdividing the transient area to
hold several independent programs and adding resource management routines to the
operating system’s basic functions.
Advantages

There are various advantages of the multiprogramming operating system. Some of the
advantages are as follows:

1. It provides less response time.

2. It may help to run various jobs in a single application simultaneously.
3. It helps to optimize the total job throughput of the computer.
 4. Various users may use the multiprogramming system at once.
5. Short-time jobs are done quickly in comparison to long-time jobs.
6. It may help to improve turnaround time for short-time tasks.
7. It helps in improving CPU utilization and never gets idle.
8. The resources are utilized smartly.

Disadvantages
There are various disadvantages of the multiprogramming operating system. Some of
the disadvantages are as follows:

1. It is highly complicated and sophisticated.

2. The CPU scheduling is required.
3. Memory management is needed in the operating system because all types of tasks
are stored in the main memory.
4. The harder task is to handle all processes and tasks.
5. If it has a large number of jobs, then long-term jobs will require a long wait.

Examples of Multiprogramming Operating System

There are various examples of multiprogramming operating systems, including

download apps, transfer data, MS-Excel, Google Chrome, Firefox browser, and many
more apps. Other examples are Windows O/S, UNIX O/S, Microcomputers such as
XENIX, MP/M, and ESQview.

Multiprocessor Operating System: - In operating systems, to improve

the performance of more than one CPU can be used within one computer system
called Multiprocessor operating system.

Multiple CPUs are interconnected so that a job can be divided among them for faster
execution. When a job finishes, results from all CPUs are collected and compiled to
give the final output. Jobs needed to share main memory and they may also share
other system resources among themselves. Multiple CPUs can also be used to run
multiple jobs simultaneously.
For Example: UNIX Operating system is one of the most widely used
multiprocessing systems.

To employ a multiprocessing operating system effectively, the computer system

must have the following things:

o A motherboard is capable of handling multiple processors in a multiprocessing

operating system.
o Processors are also capable of being used in a multiprocessing system.

Advantages of multiprocessing operating system are:

o Increased reliability: Due to the multiprocessing system, processing tasks can
be distributed among several processors. This increases reliability as if one
processor fails; the task can be given to another processor for completion.
o Increased throughout: As several processors increase, more work can be done
in less
o The economy of Scale: As multiprocessors systems share peripherals,
secondary storage devices, and power supplies, they are relatively cheaper than
single-processor systems.

Disadvantages of Multiprocessing operating System

 o Operating system of multiprocessing is more complex and sophisticated as it
takes care of multiple CPUs at the same time.

Types of multiprocessing systems

o Symmetrical multiprocessing operating system
o Asymmetric multiprocessing operating system

Symmetrical multiprocessing operating system:

In a Symmetrical multiprocessing system, each processor executes the same copy of
the operating system, takes its own decisions, and cooperates with other processes to
smooth the entire functioning of the system. The CPU scheduling policies are very
simple. Any new job submitted by a user can be assigned to any processor that is least
burdened. It also results in a system in which all processors are equally burdened at
any time.

The symmetric multiprocessing operating system is also known as a "shared every-

thing" system, because the processors share memory and the Input output bus or data
path. In this system processors do not usually exceed more than 16.

Characteristics of Symmetrical multiprocessing operating

system:
 o In this system, any processor can run any job or process.
o In this, any processor initiates an Input and Output operation.

Advantages of Symmetrical multiprocessing operating system:

o These systems are fault-tolerant. Failure of a few processors does not bring the
entire system to a halt.

Disadvantages of Symmetrical multiprocessing operating

system:
o It is very difficult to balance the workload among processors rationally.
o Specialized synchronization schemes are necessary for managing multiple
processors.

Asymmetric multiprocessing operating system

In an asymmetric multiprocessing system, there is a master slave relationship between
the processors.

In the above figure, the asymmetric processing system shows that CPU n1 acts as a
supervisor whose function controls other following processors.

In this type of system, each processor is assigned a specific task, and there is a
designated master processor that controls the activities of other processors.
For example, we have a math co-processor that can handle mathematical jobs better
than the main CPU. Similarly, we have an MMX processor that is built to handle
multimedia-related jobs. Similarly, we have a graphics processor to handle the
graphics-related job better than the main processor. When a user submits a new job,
the OS has to decide which processor can perform it better, and then that processor is
assigned that newly arrived job. This processor acts as the master and controls the
system. All other processors look for masters for instructions or have predefined tasks.
It is the responsibility of the master to allocate work to other processors.

Advantages of Asymmetric multiprocessing operating system:

There are multiple advantages to multiprocessor systems. Some of these are −
More reliable Systems
In a multiprocessor system, even if one processor fails, the system will not halt. This
ability to continue working despite hardware failure is known as graceful degradation.
For example: If there are 5 processors in a multiprocessor system and one of them
fails, then also 4 processors are still working. So the system only becomes slower and
does not ground to a halt.
Enhanced Throughput
If multiple processors are working in tandem, then the throughput of the system
increases i.e. number of processes getting executed per unit of time increase. If there
are N processors then the throughput increases by an amount just under N.
More Economic Systems
Multiprocessor systems are cheaper than single processor systems in the long run
because they share the data storage, peripheral devices, power supplies etc. If there are
multiple processes that share data, it is better to schedule them on multiprocessor
systems with shared data than have different computer systems with multiple copies
of the data.

Disadvantages of Multiprocessor Systems

There are some disadvantages as well to multiprocessor systems. Some of these are:
Increased Expense
Even though multiprocessor systems are cheaper in the long run than using multiple
computer systems, still they are quite expensive. It is much cheaper to buy a simple
single processor system than a multiprocessor system.
Complicated Operating System Required
There are multiple processors in a multiprocessor system that share peripherals,
memory etc. So, it is much more complicated to schedule processes and impart
resources to processes than in single processor systems. Hence, a more complex and
complicated operating system is required in multiprocessor systems.
Large Main Memory Required
All the processors in the multiprocessor system share the memory. So a much larger
pool of memory is required as compared to single processor systems.

Multiuser operating system A Multi-user operating system is a computer operating

system which allows multiple users to access the single system with one operating
system on it. It is generally used on large mainframe computers.
Example: Linux, Unix, Windows 2000, Ubuntu, Mac OS etc.,
In the multi-user operating system, different users connected at different terminals and
we can access, these users through the network as shown in the diagram.
Features of the Multi-user Operating System
• Multi-tasking- Using multi-user operating system we can perform multiple tasks at
a time, i.e. we can run more than one program at a time.
Example: we can edit a word document while browsing the internet.
Resource sharing- we can share different peripherals like printers, hard drives or we
can share a file or data. For this, each user is given a small time slice of CPU time.
• Background processing- It means that when commands are not processed firstly,
then they are executed in the background while another programs are interacting with
the system in the real time.

Types of Multi-user Operating System

A multi-user operating system is of 3 types which are as follows:
1. Distributed Systems: in this, different computers are managed in such a way so
that they can appear as a single computer. So, a sort of network is formed through
which they can communicate with each other.
2. Time-sliced Systems: in this, a short period is assigned to each task, i.e. each user
is given a time slice of the CPU time. As we know these time slices are tiny, so it
appears to the users that they all are using the mainframe computer at the same time.
3. Multiprocessor Systems: in this, the operating system utilises more than one
processor.
Example: Linux, Unix, Windows XP

Components of Multi-User Operating System

There are various components of a multi-user operating system. Some of them are as
follows:

Memory

The physical memory present inside the system is where storage occurs. It is also
known as Random Access Memory (RAM). The system may rectify the data that is
present in the main memory. So, every executed program should be copied from
physical storage like a hard disk. Main memory is determined as an important part of
OS because it specifies how many programs may be executed simultaneously.

Kernel

A multi-user operating system makes use of the Kernel component, which is built in a
low-level language. This component is embedded in the computer system's main
memory and may interact directly with the system's H/W.
Processor

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) of the computer is sometimes known as the
computer's brain. In large machines, the CPU would necessitate more ICS. On smaller
computers, the CPU is mapped in a single chip known as a microprocessor.

User Interface

The user interface is the way of interaction between users and all software and
hardware processes. It enables the users to interact with the computer system in a
simple manner.

Device Handler

Each input and output device needs its device handler. The device handler's primary
goal is to provide all requests from the whole device request queue pool. The device
handler operates in continuous cycle mode, first discarding the I/O request block from
the queue side.

Spooler

Spooler stands for 'Simultaneous Peripheral Output on Line'. The Spooler runs all
computer processes and outputs the results at the same time. Spooling is used by a
variety of output devices, including printers.

Characteristics of Multi-User Operating System

Resource Sharing

Several devices, like printers, fax machines, plotters, and hard drives, can be shared in
a multi-user operating system. Users can share their own documents using this
functionality. All users are given a small slice of CPU time under this system.

Multi-Tasking

Multi-user operating systems may execute several tasks simultaneously, and several
programs may also execute at the same time.
Background Processing

Background processing is a term that refers to when commands are not processed but
rather executed "in the background". Usually, other programs interact with the system
in real-time.

Time-Sharing

A strategy used by multi-user operating systems to operate on several user requests at

the same time by switching between jobs at very short periods of time.

System

The operating system must handle a computer's combination of hardware and

software resources.

Invisibility

Various functions of the multi-user operating system are hidden from users. It is due
to factors such as the OS being instinctive or happening at the lower end, such as disk
formatting, etc.

Examples of Multi-User Operating System

There are various examples of multi-user operating systems. Some of them are as
follows:

Unix

A highly dependable open system architecture for small and medium-scale business
computing systems. Because it is based on Open System Architecture, tech giants
including AIX, Solaris, and even Mac OS have their own version of Unix. For
example, the Hospitality industry, Healthcare, etc.

Multiple Virtual Storage

IBM develops an operating system for use on mainframe systems. It's commonly
utilized in enterprise computing, where high-intensity I/O is required. For example,
Banking, Insurance, Aviation business, etc.
Shared Computing

A multi-user OS is a software that operates the servers that support most webmail
apps. A typical webmail application may require the utilization of hundreds of
computers. Each one runs a multi-user operating system capable of supporting various
users at the same time. Because these systems have millions, if not billions, of users
who constantly log on to check their messages, they require operating systems that
can handle a high number of users at once.

Advantages

There are various advantages of a multi-user operating system. Some of the

advantages are as follows:

1. A multi-user operating system can be used in the printing process to allow

multiple users to access the same printer, which a normal operating system may
not do.
2. On a single computer system, several users can access the same copy of a
document. For instance, if a PPT file is kept on one computer, other users can
see it on other systems.
3. Multi-user operating systems are very useful in offices and libraries because
they can efficiently handle printing jobs.
4. If one computer fails in its own network system, the entire system does not
come to a halt.
5. Airlines use multi-user operating systems for some of their functions.
6. The ticket reservation system uses a multi-user operating system.
7. Each user can access the same document on their own computer.

Disadvantages of Multi-User Operating System

There are various disadvantages of a multi-user operating system. Some of the
disadvantages are as follows:

1. Virus attacks occur simultaneously on all of them as the computers are shared.
As a result, if one machine is affected, the others will be as well.
 2. If a virus hits one computer, it spreads to the entire network system
simultaneously, and finally, all computer systems fail.
3. All computer information is shared publicly, and your personal information is
accessible to everyone on the network.
4. Multiple accounts on a single computer may not be suitable for all users. Thus,
it is better to have multiple PCs for each user.

Multitasking operating system Multitasking term used in a modern

computer system. Multitasking is a logical extension of a multiprogramming system
that supports multiple programs to run concurrently. In a multitasking operating
system, more than one task is executed at the same time. In this technique, multiple
tasks, also known as processes, share common processing resources such as a CPU.

Types of Multitasking Operating System:

There are two types of multitasking operating system

Cooperative Multitasking:
Windows and Mac OS used cooperative multitasking. A Windows program would do
some small unit of work in response to a message and then relinquish the CPU to the
operating system until the program got another message. That worked well, as long as
all programs were written with consideration for other programs and had no bugs.
Preemptive Multitasking:

Desktop operating systems use preemptive multitasking. Unix used this form of
multitasking from the beginning. Windows starting using preemptive multitasking with
Windows NT and Windows 95. Macintosh gained preemptive multitasking with OS X.
This type of operating system programs to tell them it’s time to give another program
a turn with the CPU.
Multitasking Operating System Benefits:

In Multitasking Operating System, memory, hard drive, and virtual memory are better
managed. Processor time is also well used as the wait time is less.

Suppose any user is downloading any file from the internet. Now he can do other tasks
on the computer without waiting for the file to download completely.

One process cannot change data of another process in the main memory. Each process
can only use his own space allocated.

If any program generates errors then other programs running on the computer are not
affected by it. For example, if Google chrome crashes then your data in MS Word is
not affected.
CMT can handle multiple users at a time. Every user can run their own programs
independently of other users.
Advantages
Various advantages of multitasking are as follows:

Manage Several Users

This operating system is more suited to supporting multiple users simultaneously, and
multiple apps can run smoothly without interfering with system performance.

Virtual Memory

The greatest virtual memory system is found in multitasking operating systems.

Because of virtual memory, any program does not require a long wait time to
complete its tasks; if this problem arises, those programs are moved to virtual
memory.

Good Reliability

Multitasking operating systems give more flexibility to several users, and they are
happier as a result. On which each user can execute single or multiple programs
simultaneously.

Secured Memory

The multitasking operating systems have well-defined memory management. Due to

this operating system does not allow any types of permissions for undesirable
programs to waste memory.

Time Shareable

All tasks are allotted a specified amount of time so that they do not have to wait for
the CPU.

Background Processing

A multitasking operating system provides a better environment for background

processes to run. These background programs are not visible to most users, but they
help other programs like firewalls, antivirus software, and others run well.
Optimize the computer resources

A multitasking operating system may manage various computer resources like I/O
devices, RAM, hard disk, CPU, and others.

Use Several Programs

Users can run many programs simultaneously, like an internet browser, games, MS
Excel, PowerPoint, and other utilities.

Disadvantages
Various disadvantages of multitasking are as follows:

Processor Boundation

The system may run programs slowly because of the poor speed of their processors,
and their reaction time might rise when processing many programs. To solve this
problem, more processing power is required.

Memory Boundation

The computer's performance may get slow performance due to the multiple programs
run at the same time because the main memory gets overloaded while loading
multiple programs. Because the CPU is unable to provide different times for each
program, reaction time increases. The primary cause of this issue is that it makes use
of low-capacity RAM. As a result, the RAM capacity can be raised to provide a
solution.

CPU Heat Up

The multiple processors are busier at the same time to complete any task in a
multitasking environment, so the CPU generates more heat.

Multithreading operating system

What is Thread?
A thread is a flow of execution through the process code, with its own program
counter that keeps track of which instruction to execute next, system registers which
hold its current working variables, and a stack which contains the execution history.
A thread shares with its peer threads few information like code segment, data
segment and open files. When one thread alters a code segment memory item, all
other threads see that.
A thread is also called a lightweight process. Threads provide a way to improve
application performance through parallelism. Threads represent a software approach
to improving performance of operating system by reducing the overhead thread is
equivalent to a classical process.
Each thread belongs to exactly one process and no thread can exist outside a process.
Each thread represents a separate flow of control. Threads have been successfully
used in implementing network servers and web server. They also provide a suitable
foundation for parallel execution of applications on shared memory multiprocessors.
The following figure shows the working of a single-threaded and a multithreaded
process.

Difference between Process and Thread

SR.No Process Thread
.
1 Process is heavy weight or resource Thread is light weight, taking lesser
intensive. resources than a process.
2 Process switching needs interaction Thread switching does not need to
with operating system. interact with operating system.
3 In multiple processing All threads can share same set of open
environments, each process files, child processes.
executes the same code but has its
own memory and file resources.
4 If one process is blocked, then no While one thread is blocked and waiting,
other process can execute until the a second thread in the same task can run.
first process is unblocked.
5 Multiple processes without using Multiple threaded processes use fewer
threads use more resources. resources.
6 In multiple processes each process One thread can read, write or change
operates independently of the another thread's data.
others.

Advantages of Thread
 Threads minimize the context switching time.
 Use of threads provides concurrency within a process.
 Efficient communication.
 It is more economical to create and context switch threads.
 Threads allow utilization of multiprocessor architectures to a greater scale and
efficiency.
Types of Thread
Threads are implemented in following two ways −
 User Level Threads − User managed threads.
 Kernel Level Threads − Operating System managed threads acting on kernel,
an operating system core.

User Level Threads

In this case, the thread management kernel is not aware of the existence of threads.
The thread library contains code for creating and destroying threads, for passing
message and data between threads, for scheduling thread execution and for saving
and restoring thread contexts. The application starts with a single thread.
Advantages
 Thread switching does not require Kernel mode privileges.
 User level thread can run on any operating system.
 Scheduling can be application specific in the user level thread.
 User level threads are fast to create and manage.
Disadvantages
 In a typical operating system, most system calls are blocking.
 Multithreaded application cannot take advantage of multiprocessing.
Kernel Level Threads
In this case, thread management is done by the Kernel. There is no thread
management code in the application area. Kernel threads are supported directly by
the operating system. Any application can be programmed to be multithreaded. All of
the threads within an application are supported within a single process.
The Kernel maintains context information for the process as a whole and for
individuals threads within the process. Scheduling by the Kernel is done on a thread
basis. The Kernel performs thread creation, scheduling and management in Kernel
space. Kernel threads are generally slower to create and manage than the user
threads.

Advantages
 Kernel can simultaneously schedule multiple threads from the same process on
multiple processes.
 If one thread in a process is blocked, the Kernel can schedule another thread of
the same process.
 Kernel routines themselves can be multithreaded.
Disadvantages
 Kernel threads are generally slower to create and manage than the user threads.
 Transfer of control from one thread to another within the same process requires
a mode switch to the Kernel.
Multithreading Models
Some operating system provide a combined user level thread and Kernel level thread
facility. Solaris is a good example of this combined approach. In a combined system,
multiple threads within the same application can run in parallel on multiple
processors and a blocking system call need not block the entire process.
Multithreading models are three types

 Many to many relationship.

 Many to one relationship.
 One to one relationship.
Many to Many Model
The many-to-many model multiplexes any number of user threads onto an equal or
smaller number of kernel threads.
The following diagram shows the many-to-many threading model where 6 user level
threads are multiplexing with 6 kernel level threads. In this model, developers can
create as many user threads as necessary and the corresponding Kernel threads can
run in parallel on a multiprocessor machine. This model provides the best accuracy
on concurrency and when a thread performs a blocking system call, the kernel can
schedule another thread for execution.

Many to One Model

Many-to-one model maps many user level threads to one Kernel-level thread. Thread
management is done in user space by the thread library. When thread makes a
blocking system call, the entire process will be blocked. Only one thread can access
the Kernel at a time, so multiple threads are unable to run in parallel on
multiprocessors.
If the user-level thread libraries are implemented in the operating system in such a
way that the system does not support them, then the Kernel threads use the many-to-
one relationship modes.
One to One Model
There is one-to-one relationship of user-level thread to the kernel-level thread. This
model provides more concurrency than the many-to-one model. It also allows
another thread to run when a thread makes a blocking system call. It supports
multiple threads to execute in parallel on microprocessors.
Disadvantage of this model is that creating user thread requires the corresponding
Kernel thread. OS/2, windows NT and windows 2000 use one to one relationship
model.
Difference between User-Level & Kernel-Level Thread
S.N. User-Level Threads Kernel-Level Thread

1 User-level threads are faster to create Kernel-level threads are slower

and manage. to create and manage.

2 Implementation is by a thread library at Operating system supports

the user level. creation of Kernel threads.

3 User-level thread is generic and can run Kernel-level thread is specific

on any operating system. to the operating system.
4 Multi-threaded applications cannot take Kernel routines themselves can
advantage of multiprocessing. be multithreaded.

Real Time operating system

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a special-purpose operating system used in
computers that has strict time constraints for any job to be performed. It is employed
mostly in those systems in which the results of the computations are used to influence
a process while it is executing. Whenever an event external to the computer occurs, it
is communicated to the computer with the help of some sensor used to monitor the
event. The sensor produces the signal that is interpreted by the operating system as an
interrupt. On receiving an interrupt, the operating system invokes a specific process or
a set of processes to serve the interrupt.

This process is completely uninterrupted unless a higher priority interrupt occurs

during its execution. Therefore, there must be a strict hierarchy of priority among the
interrupts. The interrupt with the highest priority must be allowed to initiate the
process , while lower priority interrupts should be kept in a buffer that will be handled
later. Interrupt management is important in such an operating system.

Real-time operating systems employ special-purpose operating systems because

conventional operating systems do not provide such performance.
The various examples of Real-time operating systems are:
o MTS
o Lynx
o QNX
o VxWorks etc.

Applications of Real-time operating system (RTOS):

RTOS is used in real-time applications that must work within specific deadlines.
Following are the common areas of applications of Real-time operating systems are
given below.

o Real-time running structures are used inside the Radar gadget.

o Real-time running structures are utilized in Missile guidance.
o Real-time running structures are utilized in on line inventory trading.
o Real-time running structures are used inside the cell phone switching gadget.
o Real-time running structures are utilized by Air site visitors to manipulate
structures.
o Real-time running structures are used in Medical Imaging Systems.
o Real-time running structures are used inside the Fuel injection gadget.
o Real-time running structures are used inside the Traffic manipulate gadget.
o Real-time running structures are utilized in Autopilot travel simulators.

Types of Real-time operating system

Following are the three types of RTOS systems are:
Hard Real-Time operating system:
In Hard RTOS, all critical tasks must be completed within the specified time duration,
i.e., within the given deadline. Not meeting the deadline would result in critical
failures such as damage to equipment or even loss of human life.

For Example,

Let's take an example of airbags provided by carmakers along with a handle in the
driver's seat. When the driver applies brakes at a particular instance, the airbags grow
and prevent the driver's head from hitting the handle. Had there been some delay even
of milliseconds, then it would have resulted in an accident.

Similarly, consider an on-stock trading software. If someone wants to sell a particular

share, the system must ensure that command is performed within a given critical time.
Otherwise, if the market falls abruptly, it may cause a huge loss to the trader.

Soft Real-Time operating system:

Soft RTOS accepts a few delays via the means of the Operating system. In this kind of
RTOS, there may be a closing date assigned for a particular job, but a delay for a
small amount of time is acceptable. So, cut off dates are treated softly via means of
this kind of RTOS. This type of system is used in Online Transaction systems and
Livestock price quotation Systems.

Firm Real-Time operating system:

In Firm RTOS additionally want to observe the deadlines. However, lacking a closing
date might not have a massive effect, however may want to purposely undesired
effects, like a massive discount within the fine of a product.

For Example, this system is used in various forms of Multimedia applications.

Advantages of Real-time operating system:

The benefits of real-time operating system are as follows-:

o Easy to layout, develop and execute real-time applications under the real-time
operating system.
o The real-time working structures are extra compact, so those structures require
much less memory space.
o In a Real-time operating system, the maximum utilization of devices and
systems.
o Focus on running applications and less importance to applications that are in
the queue.
o Since the size of programs is small, RTOS can also be embedded systems like
in transport and others.
o These types of systems are error-free.
o Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.

Disadvantages of Real-time operating system:

The disadvantages of real-time operating systems are as follows-

o Real-time operating systems have complicated layout principles and are very
costly to develop.
o Real-time operating systems are very complex and can consume critical CPU
cycles.
Difference between in GPOS and RTOS
Here are important differences between GPOS and RTOS:

SR. No. General-Purpose Operating Real-Time Operating System

System (GPOS) (RTOS)

1 It used for desktop PC and laptop. It is only applied to the embedded

application.

2 Process-based Scheduling. Time-based scheduling used like

round-robin scheduling.

3 Interrupt latency is not considered Interrupt lag is minimal, which is

as important as in RTOS. measured in a few microseconds.

4 No priority inversion mechanism is The priority inversion mechanism

present in the system. is current. So it cannot modify by

the system.

5 Kernel’s operation may or may not Kernel’s operation can be

be preempted. preempted.

6 Priority inversion remain unnoticed No predictability guarantees

Applications of Real Time Operating System

Real-time systems are used in:
  Airlines reservation system.
 Air traffic control system.
 Systems that provide immediate updating.
 Used in any system that provides up to date and minute information on stock
prices.
 Defence application systems like RADAR.
 Networked Multimedia Systems
 Command Control Systems
 Internet Telephony
 Anti-lock Brake Systems
 Heart Pacemaker

Time sharing operating system

A time sharing system allows many users to share the computer resources
simultaneously. In other words, time sharing refers to the allocation
of computer resources in time slots to several programs simultaneously. For example
a mainframe computer that has many users logged on to it. Each user uses the
resources of the mainframe -i.e. memory, CPU etc. The users feel that they are
exclusive user of the CPU, even though this is not possible with one CPU i.e. shared
among different users.
The time sharing systems were developed to provide an interactive use of the
computer system. A time shared system uses CPU scheduling and multi-
programming to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared computer. It
allows many users to share the computer resources simultaneously. As the system
switches rapidly from one user to the other, a short time slot is given to each user for
their executions.

The time sharing system provides the direct access to a large number of users where
CPU time is divided among all the users on scheduled basis. The OS allocates a set
of time to each user. When this time is expired, it passes control to the next user on
the system. The time allowed is extremely small and the users are given the
impression that they each have their own CPU and they are the sole owner of the
CPU. This short period of time during that a user gets attention of the CPU; is known
as a time slice or a quantum.
The concept of time sharing system is shown in figure.
In above figure the user 5 is active but user 1, user 2, user 3, and user 4 are in waiting
state whereas user 6 is in ready status.

As soon as the time slice of user 5 is completed, the control moves on to the next
ready user i.e. user 6. In this state user 2, user 3, user 4, and user 5 are in waiting
state and user 1 is in ready state. The process continues in the same way and so on.
The time-shared systems are more complex than the multi-programming systems. In
time-shared systems multiple processes are managed simultaneously which requires
an adequate management of main memory so that the processes can be swapped in or
swapped out within a short time.
Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals,
to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is
a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among
multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing
Systems is that in case of multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to
maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to
minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches
occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example,
in a transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst
or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a
time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time is in few
seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each
user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily
as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.
Network operating system
Unlike operating systems, such as Windows, that are designed for single users to
control one computer, network operating systems (NOS) coordinate the activities of
multiple computers across a network. The network operating system acts as a director
to keep the network running smoothly.

Network Operating System is the software that allows multiple computers to

communicate, share files and hardware devices with one another. Some popular
network operating systems are Novell Netware, Windows NT/2000, Linux, Sun
Solaris, UNIX, and IBM OS/2.

Did you Know? The first network operating system was Novell NetWare, released
in 1983. After Netware, other network operating systems were released, including
Banyan VINES and Microsoft Windows NT. Some examples of other network
operating systems include Windows 2000, Microsoft Windows XP, Sun Solaris,
and Linux.

A common example of network operating system is a collection of personal

computers along with a common printer, server and file server for archival storage, all
tied together by a local network.
Features of Network Operating System
 It allows multiple computers to connect so that they can share data, files and hardware
devices.
 Provide basic operating system features such as support for processors, protocols,
automatic hardware detection and support multi-processing of applications.
 Provide security features such as authentication, login restrictions, and access control.
 Provide name and directory services.
 Provide file, print, web services and back-up services.
 Support Internetworking such as routing and WAN ports.
 User management and support for logon and logoff, remote access; system
management, administration, and auditing tools with graphical interfaces.
 It has clustering capabilities.
 It also provides basic network administration utilities like access to the user.
 It also provides priority to the printing jobs which are in the queue in the network.
 It detects the new hardware whenever it is added to the system.

Types of Network Operating Systems

There are two basic types of network operating systems, the peer-to-peer NOS and
the client/server NOS:

1. Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share network resources

saved in a common, accessible network location. In this architecture, all devices are
treated equally in terms of functionality. Peer-to-peer usually works best for small to
medium LANs and is cheaper to set up.
2. Client/server network operating systems provide users with access to resources
through a server. In this architecture, all functions and applications are unified under
one file server that can be used to execute individual client actions regardless of
physical location. The client/server tends to be most expensive to implement and
requires a large amount of technical maintenance. An advantage to the client/server
model is that the network is controlled centrally, makes changes or additions to
technology easier to incorporate.
 Network Operating System Diagram

Advantages of Network Operating System:

 Highly stable centralized servers

 Security concerns are handled through servers
 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the system
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems

Disadvantages of Network Operating System:

 Servers are costly

 User has to depend on a central location for most operations
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly

Network Operating System Software

The following links include some of the more popular peer-to-peer and client/server
network operating systems.

1. Macintosh OS X
2. Microsoft Windows Server
3. UNIX
4. Linux

Distributed Operating System

Distributed Operating System is a model where distributed applications are
running on multiple computers linked by communications. A distributed operating
system is an extension of the network operating system that supports higher levels of
communication and integration of the machines on the network.
This system looks to its users like an ordinary centralized operating system but runs
on multiple, independent central processing units (CPUs).

A distributed operating system (DOS) is an essential type of operating system.

Distributed systems use many central processors to serve multiple real-time
applications and users. As a result, data processing jobs are distributed between the
processors.

It connects multiple computers via a single communication channel. Furthermore,

each of these systems has its own processor and memory. Additionally,
these CPUs communicate via high-speed buses or telephone lines. Individual systems
that communicate via a single channel are regarded as a single entity. They're also
known as loosely coupled systems.

This operating system

consists of numerous computers, nodes, and sites joined together via LAN/WAN
lines. It enables the distribution of full systems on a couple of center processors, and it
supports many real-time products and different users. Distributed operating systems
can share their computing resources and I/O files while providing users with virtual
machine abstraction.
These systems are referred as loosely coupled systems where each processor has its
own local memory and processors communicate with one another through various
communication lines, such as high speed buses or telephone lines. By loosely
coupled systems, we mean that such computers possess no hardware connections at
the CPU – memory bus level, but are connected by external interfaces that run under
the control of software.

The Distributed OS involves a collection of autonomous computer systems, capable

of communicating and cooperating with each other through a LAN / WAN. A
Distributed Os provides a virtual machine abstraction to its users and wide sharing of
resources like as computational capacity, I/O and files etc.
The structure shown in fig contains a set of individual computer systems and
workstations connected via communication systems, but by this structure we cannot
say it is a distributed system because it is the software, not the hardware, that
determines whether a system is distributed or not.
The users of a true distributed system should not know, on which machine their
programs are running and where their files are stored. LOCUS and MICROS are the
best examples of distributed operating systems.
Using LOCUS operating system it was possible to access local and distant files in
uniform manner. This feature enabled a user to log on any node of the network and to
utilize the resources in a network without the reference of his/her location. MICROS
provided sharing of resources in an automatic manner. The jobs were assigned to
different nodes of the whole system to balance the load on different nodes.
Below given are some of the examples of distributed operating systems:

l. IRIX operating system; is the implementation of UNIX System V, Release 3 for

Silicon Graphics multiprocessor workstations.
2.DYNIX operating system running on Sequent Symmetry multiprocessor
computers.
3.AIX operating system for IBM RS/6000 computers.
4.Solaris operating system for SUN multiprocessor workstations.
5.Mach/OS is a multi-threading and multitasking UNIX compatible operating
system;
6.OSF/1 operating system developed by Open Foundation Software: UNIX
compatible.
Types of Distributed Operating System
There are various types of Distributed Operating systems. Some of them are as
follows:

11M
225
History of Java

1. Client-Server Systems
2. Peer-to-Peer Systems
3. Middleware
4. Three-tier
5. N-tier

Client-Server System
This type of system requires the client to request a resource, after which the server
gives the requested resource. When a client connects to a server, the server may serve
multiple clients at the same time.

Client-Server Systems are also referred to as "Tightly Coupled Operating Systems".

This system is primarily intended for multiprocessors and homogenous
multicomputer. Client-Server Systems function as a centralized server since they
approve all requests issued by client systems.

Server systems can be divided into two parts:

1. Computer Server System

This system allows the interface, and the client then sends its own requests to be
executed as an action. After completing the activity, it sends a back response and
transfers the result to the client.

2. File Server System

It provides a file system interface for clients, allowing them to execute actions like file
creation, updating, deletion, and more.
Peer-to-Peer System
The nodes play an important role in this system. The task is evenly distributed among
the nodes. Additionally, these nodes can share data and resources as needed. Once
again, they require a network to connect.

The Peer-to-Peer System is known as a "Loosely Couple System". This concept is

used in computer network applications since they contain a large number of
processors that do not share memory or clocks. Each processor has its own local
memory, and they interact with one another via a variety of communication methods
like telephone lines or high-speed buses.

Middleware
Middleware enables the interoperability of all applications running on different
operating systems. Those programs are capable of transferring all data to one other by
using these services.

Three-tier
The information about the client is saved in the intermediate tier rather than in the
client, which simplifies development. This type of architecture is most commonly
used in online applications.

N-tier
When a server or application has to transmit requests to other enterprise services on
the network, n-tier systems are used.

Features of Distributed Operating System

There are various features of the distributed operating system. Some of them are as
follows:

Openness

It means that the system's services are freely displayed through interfaces.
Furthermore, these interfaces only give the service syntax. For example, the type of
function, its return type, parameters, and so on. Interface Definition Languages are
used to create these interfaces (IDL).
Scalability

It refers to the fact that the system's efficiency should not vary as new nodes are added
to the system. Furthermore, the performance of a system with 100 nodes should be the
same as that of a system with 1000 nodes.

Resource Sharing

Its most essential feature is that it allows users to share resources. They can also share
resources in a secure and controlled manner. Printers, files, data, storage, web pages,
etc., are examples of shared resources.

Flexibility

A DOS's flexibility is enhanced by modular qualities and delivers a more advanced

range of high-level services. The kernel/ microkernel's quality and completeness
simplify the implementation of such services.

Transparency

It is the most important feature of the distributed operating system. The primary
purpose of a distributed operating system is to hide the fact that resources are shared.
Transparency also implies that the user should be unaware that the resources he is
accessing are shared. Furthermore, the system should be a separate independent unit
for the user.

Heterogeneity

The components of distributed systems may differ and vary in operating systems,
networks, programming languages, computer hardware, and implementations by
different developers.

Fault Tolerance

Fault tolerance is that process in which user may continue their work if the software
or hardware fails.

Examples of Distributed Operating System

There are various examples of the distributed operating system. Some of them are as
follows:
Solaris

It is designed for the SUN multiprocessor workstations

OSF/1

It's compatible with Unix and was designed by the Open Foundation Software
Company.

Micros

The MICROS operating system ensures a balanced data load while allocating jobs to
all nodes in the system.

DYNIX

It is developed for the Symmetry multiprocessor computers.

Locus

It may be accessed local and remote files at the same time without any location
hindrance.

Mach

It allows the multithreading and multitasking features.

Applications of Distributed Operating System

There are various applications of the distributed operating system. Some of them are
as follows:

Network Applications

DOS is used by many network applications, including the Web, peer-to-peer

networks, multiplayer web-based games, and virtual communities.

Telecommunication Networks

DOS is useful in phones and cellular networks. A DOS can be found in networks like
the Internet, wireless sensor networks, and routing algorithms.

Parallel Computation
DOS is the basis of systematic computing, which includes cluster computing and grid
computing, and a variety of volunteer computing projects.

Real-Time Process Control

The real-time process control system operates with a deadline, and such examples
include aircraft control systems.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Distributed Operating

System
There are various advantages and disadvantages of the distributed operating system.
Some of them are as follows:

Advantages
There are various advantages of the distributed operating system. Some of them are as
follow:

1. It may share all resources (CPU, disk, network interface, nodes, computers, and
so on) from one site to another, increasing data availability across the entire
system.
2. It reduces the probability of data corruption because all data is replicated across
all sites; if one site fails, the user can access data from another operational site.
3. The entire system operates independently of one another, and as a result, if one
site crashes, the entire system does not halt.
4. It increases the speed of data exchange from one site to another site.
5. It is an open system since it may be accessed from both local and remote
locations.
6. It helps in the reduction of data processing time.
7. Most distributed systems are made up of several nodes that interact to make
them fault-tolerant. If a single machine fails, the system remains operational.

Disadvantages
There are various disadvantages of the distributed operating system. Some of them are
as follows:

1. The system must decide which jobs must be executed when they must be
executed, and where they must be executed. A scheduler has limitations, which
can lead to underutilized hardware and unpredictable runtimes.
2. It is hard to implement adequate security in DOS since the nodes and
connections must be secured.
3. The database connected to a DOS is relatively complicated and hard to manage
in contrast to a single-user system.
4. The underlying software is extremely complex and is not understood very well
compared to other systems.
5. The more widely distributed a system is, the more communication latency can
be expected. As a result, teams and developers must choose between
availability, consistency, and latency.
6. These systems aren't widely available because they're thought to be too
expensive.
7. Gathering, processing, presenting, and monitoring hardware use metrics for big
clusters can be a real issue.

A mobile operating system (OS) is software that allows smartphones, tablet

PCs (personal computers) and other devices to run applications and programs.
A mobile OS typically starts up when a device powers on, presenting a screen with
icons or tiles that present information and provide application access. Mobile
operating systems also manage cellular and wireless network connectivity, as well as
phone access.
Types of mobile operating systems
There are numerous mobile device operating systems available today, and two of the
most widely adopted are the iPhone's OS, Apple iOS, and Google's open source
OS, Google Android. These two mobile OSes take different approaches to the mobile
operating system.
Apple distributes the only devices that natively support iOS, and it takes a "walled
garden" approach, in which Apple regulates all mobile apps and services that can run
on the iOS devices. Apple developed iOS to run on its own XNU kernel. Apple has
also released several device-specific mobile operating systems such as watchOS for
the Apple Watch and iPadOS for the iPad tablets.

Google takes a different approach with Android, which is open source. This means
that mobile device OEMs (original equipment manufacturers) can customize the
Android source code and customize it to fit their devices. Android runs on the Linux
kernel.

There are other mobile operating systems available, but their adoption rates are well
below those of iOS and Android. These other operating systems include KaiOS,
Sailfish OS and Huawei's Harmony OS.

KaiOS, based on the discontinued Mozilla Firefox OS, runs mostly on dumb phones --
also known as feature phones. These mobile devices have very limited computing
power, but the latest version of KaiOS can bring more comprehensive feature sets to
these devices such as an app store and the Google Assistant.

Sailfish OS is based on multiple open source projects and runs mostly on smartphones
and tablet computers from Jolla, which developed the operating system, and Sony
mobile devices. Sailfish OS and KaiOS both run on the Linux kernel.

Huawei's Harmony OS, initially released in August 2019, can also run on IoT devices.
Huawei's devices typically run Android operating system, but Harmony OS may
replace Android on these devices in the future. Harmony OS runs on a microkernel
that Huawei developed.

There are numerous mobile operating systems that are no longer commonly
supported. The BlackBerry 10 operating system, which succeeded BlackBerry OS in
2013, has extended support available but for a small install base. Nokia's Symbian
operating system received its last update in 2013 and is no longer supported.

LG webOS -- formerly Palm webOS and HP webOS -- transitioned from a

smartphone and tablet operating system to a smart TV operating system after LG
acquired the OS from Hewlett-Packard in 2013. The Microsoft's Windows Phone
operating system was discontinued by Microsoft in 2017. Windows 8 and Windows
8.1 function as both traditional desktop operating systems and mobile operating
systems, but mainstream support for these OSes is no longer available for Windows
mobile devices or desktops.

Features of mobile operating systems

Mobile operating systems deliver various features to users, and the distinguishing
feature that mobile operating systems offer is the ability to connect to the internet via
the smartphone's built-in modem and a wireless service provider such as Verizon or
AT&T. This is a major difference between mobile operating systems and most
desktop operating systems, which rely on a Wi-Fi network or Ethernet connection to
access the internet.

Many mobile OSes offer a native web browser application, which allows users to
search the internet and visit webpages. Mobile operating systems also offer
application stores, which allow users to download and interface with mobile
applications. Several mobile operating systems also have native GPS (global
positioning system) applications that allow users to search for locations, follow step-
by-step directions and, in some cases, share location with different devices. The GPS
feature, of course, relies on the mobile device's hardware and can't run without that
support.

While some native applications come with mobile operating systems such as iOS and
Android, the mobile app stores open up new possibilities for users. In some cases, the
applications add new features and improved user interface (UI) for websites that are
accessible via a web browser, but other applications bring new functionality to the
mobile devices.

Other common mobile operating system features include native email applications
that allow users to link their work and personal email accounts, a calendar application
that users can keep track of tasks, meetings and events, and a contacts library to
organize and search for contact information.

Most mobile operating systems -- other than Android -- are tied to specific hardware
with little flexibility. Users can jailbreak or root devices, however, which allows them
to install another mobile OS or unlock restricted applications.

Android Operating System: Pros and Cons

Advantages of the Android operating system
o 1. Open source
o 2. Greater freedom
o 3. Diversity and versatility
o 4. Multitasking system
o 5. Greater interaction
o 6. Community
Disadvantages of the Android operating system
o 1. Battery life
o 2. Complexity
o 3. Poor quality of some applications
o 4. Vulnerability
o 5. Lack of update support

Operating System - Services

Following are a few common services provided by an operating
system −

 Program execution
 I/O operations
 File System manipulation
 Communication
 Error Detection
 Resource Allocation
 Protection
Program execution
Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user
programs to system programs like printer spooler, name servers, file
server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a process.

A process includes the complete execution context (code to

execute, data to manipulate, registers, OS resources in use).
Following are the major activities of an operating system with
respect to program management −

 Loads a program into memory.

 Executes the program.
 Handles program's execution.
 Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
 Provides a mechanism for process communication.
 Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.

I/O Operation
An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding
driver software. Drivers hide the peculiarities of specific hardware
devices from the users.

An Operating System manages the communication between user

and device drivers.

 I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or

any specific I/O device.
 Operating system provides the access to the required I/O
device when required.

File system manipulation

A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can
store files on the disk (secondary storage), for long-term storage
purpose. Examples of storage media include magnetic tape,
magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these
media has its own properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate
and data access methods.
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy
navigation and usage. These directories may contain files and other
directions. Following are the major activities of an operating system
with respect to file management −

 Program needs to read a file or write a file.

 The operating system gives the permission to the program for
operation on file.
 Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to
create/delete files.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to
create/delete directories.
 Operating System provides an interface to create the backup
of file system.

Communication
In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors
that do not share memory, peripheral devices, or a clock, the
operating system manages communications between all the
processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another
through communication lines in the network.

The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems

of contention and security. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to communication −

 Two processes often require data to be transferred between

them
 Both the processes can be on one computer or on different
computers, but are connected through a computer network.
 Communication may be implemented by two methods, either
by Shared Memory or by Message Passing.

Error handling
Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU,
in I/O devices or in the memory hardware. Following are the major
activities of an operating system with respect to error handling −
  The OS constantly checks for possible errors.
 The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and
consistent computing.

Resource Management
In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such
as main memory, CPU cycles and files storage are to be allocated to
each user or job. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to resource management −

 The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

 CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of
CPU.

Protection
Considering a computer system having multiple users and
concurrent execution of multiple processes, the various processes
must be protected from each other's activities.

Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of

programs, processes, or users to the resources defined by a
computer system. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to protection −

 The OS ensures that all access to system resources is

controlled.
 The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from
invalid access attempts.
 The OS provides authentication features for each user by
means of passwords.

SYSTEM CALLS IN OPERATING SYSTEM

The interface between a process and an operating system is provided by

system calls. In general, system calls are available as assembly language
instructions. They are also included in the manuals used by
the assembly level programmers. System calls are usually made when a
process in user mode requires access to a resource. Then it requests the kernel
to provide the resource via a system call.

A figure representing the execution of the system call is given as follows −

As can be seen from this diagram, the processes execute normally in the user
mode until a system call interrupts this. Then the system call is executed on a
priority basis in the kernel mode. After the execution of the system call, the
control returns to the user mode and execution of user processes can be
resumed.

In general, system calls are required in the following situations −

 If a file system requires the creation or deletion of files. Reading and

writing from files also require a system call.
 Creation and management of new processes.
 Network connections also require system calls. This includes sending and
receiving packets.
 Access to a hardware devices such as a printer, scanner etc. requires a
system call.

Types of System Calls

There are mainly five types of system calls. These are explained in detail as
follows −

Process Control

These system calls deal with processes such as process creation, process
termination etc.

File Management

These system calls are responsible for file manipulation such as creating a file,
reading a file, writing into a file etc.

Device Management

These system calls are responsible for device manipulation such as reading from
device buffers, writing into device buffers etc.

Information Maintenance

These system calls handle information and its transfer between the operating
system and the user program.

Communication

These system calls are useful for interprocess communication. They also deal
with creating and deleting a communication connection.

Some of the examples of all the above types of system calls in Windows and
Unix are given as follows −

Types of System Windows Linux

Calls
Process Control CreateProcess() fork()
ExitProcess() exit()
WaitForSingleObject() wait()
Types of System Windows Linux
Calls
File Management CreateFile() open()
ReadFile() read()
WriteFile() write()
CloseHandle() close()
Device SetConsoleMode() ioctl()
Management ReadConsole() read()
WriteConsole() write()
Information GetCurrentProcessID() getpid()
Maintenance SetTimer() alarm()
Sleep() sleep()
Communication CreatePipe() pipe()
CreateFileMapping() shmget()
MapViewOfFile() mmap()

There are many different system calls as shown above. Details of some of those
system calls are as follows −

open()
The open() system call is used to provide access to a file in a file system. This
system call allocates resources to the file and provides a handle that the
process uses to refer to the file. A file can be opened by multiple processes at
the same time or be restricted to one process. It all depends on the file
organisation and file system.

read()
The read() system call is used to access data from a file that is stored in the file
system. The file to read can be identified by its file descriptor and it should be
opened using open() before it can be read. In general, the read() system calls
takes three arguments i.e. the file descriptor, buffer which stores read data and
number of bytes to be read from the file.
write()
The write() system calls writes the data from a user buffer into a device such as
a file. This system call is one of the ways to output data from a program. In
general, the write system calls takes three arguments i.e. file descriptor, pointer
to the buffer where data is stored and number of bytes to write from the buffer.

close()
The close() system call is used to terminate access to a file system. Using this
system call means that the file is no longer required by the program and so the
buffers are flushed, the file metadata is updated and the file resources are de-
allocated.

OPERATING SYSTEM STRUCTURE

operating systems have complex structures. It is easier to create an operating
system in pieces, much as we break down larger issues into smaller, more
manageable subproblems. Every segment is also a part of the operating system.
Operating system structure can be thought of as the strategy for connecting and
incorporating various operating system components within the kernel. Operating
systems are implemented using many types of structures

SIMPLE STRUCTURE
It is the most straightforward operating system structure, but it lacks definition
and is only appropriate for usage with tiny and restricted systems. Since the
interfaces and degrees of functionality in this structure are clearly defined,
programs are able to access I/O routines, which may result in unauthorized
access to I/O procedures.

This organizational structure is used by the MS-DOS operating system:

o There are four layers that make up the MS-DOS operating system, and
each has its own set of features.
 o These layers include ROM BIOS device drivers, MS-DOS device drivers,
application programs, and system programs.
o The MS-DOS operating system benefits from layering because each
level can be defined independently and, when necessary, can interact
with one another.
o If the system is built in layers, it will be simpler to design, manage, and
update. Because of this, simple structures can be used to build
constrained systems that are less complex.
o When a user program fails, the operating system as whole crashes.
o Because MS-DOS systems have a low level of abstraction, programs
and I/O procedures are visible to end users, giving them the potential
for unwanted access.

The following figure illustrates layering in simple structure:

Advantages of Simple Structure:

o Because there are only a few interfaces and levels, it is simple to develop.
 o Because there are fewer layers between the hardware and the applications, it
offers superior performance.

Disadvantages of Simple Structure:

o The entire operating system breaks if just one user program malfunctions.
o Since the layers are interconnected, and in communication with one another,
there is no abstraction or data hiding.
o The operating system's operations are accessible to layers, which can result
in data tampering and system failure.

MONOLITHIC STRUCTURE
The monolithic operating system controls all aspects of the operating
system's operation, including file management, memory management,
device management, and operational operations.

The core of an operating system for computers is called the kernel (OS). All
other System components are provided with fundamental services by the
kernel. The operating system and the hardware use it as their main
interface. When an operating system is built into a single piece of hardware,
such as a keyboard or mouse, the kernel can directly access all of its
resources.

The monolithic operating system is often referred to as the monolithic kernel.

Multiple programming techniques such as batch processing and time-sharing
increase a processor's usability. Working on top of the operating system and
under complete command of all hardware, the monolithic kernel performs
the role of a virtual computer. This is an old operating system that was used
in banks to carry out simple tasks like batch processing and time-sharing,
which allows numerous users at different terminals to access the Operating
System.

The following diagram represents the monolithic structure:

Advantages of Monolithic Structure:

o Because layering is unnecessary and the kernel alone is responsible for

managing all operations, it is easy to design and execute.
o Due to the fact that functions like memory management, file management,
process scheduling, etc., are implemented in the same address area, the
monolithic kernel runs rather quickly when compared to other systems.
Utilizing the same address speeds up and reduces the time required for
address allocation for new processes.

Disadvantages of Monolithic Structure:

 o The monolithic kernel's services are interconnected in address space and
have an impact on one another, so if any of them malfunctions, the entire
system does as well.
o It is not adaptable. Therefore, launching a new service is difficult.

LAYERED STRUCTURE
The OS is separated into layers or levels in this kind of arrangement. Layer 0
(the lowest layer) contains the hardware, and layer 1 (the highest layer)
contains the user interface (layer N). These layers are organized
hierarchically, with the top-level layers making use of the capabilities of the
lower-level ones.

The functionalities of each layer are separated in this method, and

abstraction is also an option. Because layered structures are hierarchical,
debugging is simpler, therefore all lower-level layers are debugged before
the upper layer is examined. As a result, the present layer alone has to be
reviewed since all the lower layers have already been examined.

The image below shows how OS is organized into layers:

Advantages of Layered Structure:

o Work duties are separated since each layer has its own functionality, and
there is some amount of abstraction.
o Debugging is simpler because the lower layers are examined first, followed
by the top layers.

Disadvantages of Layered Structure:

o Performance is compromised in layered structures due to layering.

o Construction of the layers requires careful design because upper layers only
make use of lower layers' capabilities.

MICRO-KERNEL STRUCTURE
The operating system is created using a micro-kernel framework that strips
the kernel of any unnecessary parts. Systems and user applications are used
to implement these optional kernel components. So, Micro-Kernels is the
name given to these systems that have been developed.

Each Micro-Kernel is created separately and is kept apart from the others. As
a result, the system is now more trustworthy and secure. If one Micro-Kernel
malfunctions, the remaining operating system is unaffected and continues to
function normally.

The image below shows Micro-Kernel Operating System Structure:

Advantages of Micro-Kernel Structure:

o It enables portability of the operating system across platforms.

o Due to the isolation of each Micro-Kernel, it is reliable and secure.
o The reduced size of Micro-Kernels allows for successful testing.
o The remaining operating system remains unaffected and keeps
running properly even if a component or Micro-Kernel fails.

Disadvantages of Micro-Kernel Structure:

o The performance of the system is decreased by increased inter-module

communication.
o The construction of a system is complicated.

VIRTUAL MACHINES (VMs)

The hardware of our personal computer, including the CPU, disc drives, RAM,
and NIC (Network Interface Card), is abstracted by a virtual machine into a
variety of various execution contexts based on our needs, giving us the
impression that each execution environment is a separate computer. A
virtual box is an example of it.

Using CPU scheduling and virtual memory techniques, an operating system

allows us to execute multiple processes simultaneously while giving the
impression that each one is using a separate processor and virtual memory.
System calls and a file system are examples of extra functionalities that a
process can have that the hardware is unable to give. Instead of offering
these extra features, the virtual machine method just offers an interface that
is similar to that of the most fundamental hardware. A virtual duplicate of the
computer system underneath is made available to each process.

We can develop a virtual machine for a variety of reasons, all of which are
fundamentally connected to the capacity to share the same underlying
hardware while concurrently supporting various execution environments, i.e.,
various operating systems.

Disk systems are the fundamental problem with the virtual machine
technique. If the actual machine only has three-disc drives but needs to host
seven virtual machines, let's imagine that. It is obvious that it is impossible
to assign a disc drive to every virtual machine because the program that
creates virtual machines would require a sizable amount of disc space in
order to offer virtual memory and spooling. The provision of virtual discs is
the solution.

The result is that users get their own virtual machines. They can then use
any of the operating systems or software programs that are installed on the
machine below. Virtual machine software is concerned with programming
numerous virtual machines simultaneously into a physical machine; it is not
required to take into account any user-support software. With this
configuration, it may be possible to break the challenge of building an
interactive system for several users into two manageable chunks.

Advantages of Virtual Machines:

o Due to total isolation between each virtual machine and every other
virtual machine, there are no issues with security.
o A virtual machine may offer an architecture for the instruction set that
is different from that of actual computers.
o Simple availability, accessibility, and recovery convenience.

Disadvantages of Virtual Machines:

o Depending on the workload, operating numerous virtual machines

simultaneously on a host computer may have an adverse effect on one
of them.
o When it comes to hardware access, virtual computers are less effective
than physical ones.