Unit-1

Digital electronics is a field of electronics involving the study of digital

signals and the engineering of devices that use or produce them. This is in
contrast to analog electronics and analog signals.
Digital electronic circuits are usually made from large assemblies of logic gates,
often packaged in integrated circuits. Complex devices may have simple
electronic representations of Boolean logic functions.
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as
an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat
piece (or "chip") of semiconductor material, usually silicon. Large numbers of
miniaturized transistors and other electronic components are integrated together
on the chip.

Number System
In a digital system, the system can understand only the optional number
system. In these systems, digits symbols are used to represent different values,
depending on the index from which it settled in the number system.
In simple terms, for representing the information, we use the number system in
the digital system.

The digit value in the number system is calculated using:

 The digit
 The index, where the digit is present in the number.
 Finally, the base numbers, the total number of digits available in the
number system.
For example: - When the number system represents a digit from 0 - 9, the
base of the number will be 10.

Types of Number System

In the digital computer, there are various types of number systems used for
representing information.
 Binary Number System
 Decimal Number System
 Hexadecimal Number System
 Octal Number System

Number Base Conversion

In our previous section, we learned different types of number systems
such as binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal. In this part, we will learn
how we can change a number from one number system to another
number system.
As, we have four types of number systems so each one can be converted
into the remaining three systems. There are the following conversions
possible in Number System
 Binary to other Number Systems.
  Decimal to other Number Systems.
 Octal to other Number Systems.
 Hexadecimal to other Number Systems.

Binary to Decimal Conversion

Example (10110.001)2
We multiplied each bit of (10110.001)2 with its respective positional weight, and
last we add the products of all the bits with its weight.
(10110.001)2=(1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+
(0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2=(1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+
(0×1⁄2)+(0×1⁄4)+(1×1⁄8)
(10110.001)2=16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2=(22.125 )10

Binary to Octal Conversion

Example 1: (111110101011.0011)2
1. Firstly, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.
111 110 101 011.001 1
On the right side of the binary point, the last pair has only one bit. To make it a
complete pair of three bits, we added two zeros on the extreme side.
111 110 101 011.001 100
2. Then, we wrote the octal digits, which correspond to each pair.
(111110101011.0011)2= (7653.14)8

Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

Example 1: (10110101011.0011)2 = (5AB.3)16

1. Firstly, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.
0101 1010 1011. 0011
On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has three bits. To make it a
complete pair of four bits, add one zero on the extreme side.
0101 1010 1011.0011
2. Then, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.
(011110101011.0011)2= (7AB.3)16

Decimal to Binary Conversion

Example 1: (152.25)10

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/2 76 0 (LSB)

76/2 38 0

38/2 19 0

19/2 9 1

9/2 4 1

4/2 2 0

2/2 1 0

(152)10= (10011000)2
Step 2:
Now, perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 2.
(0.25)10= (.01)2

Decimal to Octal Conversion

Example 1: (152.25)10
Step 1:
Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.
Operation Quotient Remainder

152/8 19 0

19/8 2 3

2/8 0 2

(152)10= (230)8

Operation Result carry

0.25×8 0 2

(0.25)10= (2)

So, the octal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.2

Decimal to hexadecimal conversion

Example 1: (152.25)10

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/16 9 8

9/16 0 9

Operation Result carry

0.25×16 0 4
(0.25)10= (4)16

So, the hexadecimal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.4.

Octal to Decimal Conversion

Example 1: (152.25)8

(152.25)8=(1×82)+(5×81)+(2×80)+(2×8-1)+(5×8-2)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+(2×1⁄8)+(5×1⁄64)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+0.25+0.078125
(152.25)8=106.328125

So, the decimal number of the octal number 152.25 is 106.328125

Octal to Binary Conversion

Example 1: (152.25)8
We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.
(152.25)8= (001101010.010101)2
So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Octal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting octal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform,
which are as follows:
In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of number 25.
Next, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If
there will be one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the
required number of zeros on extreme sides and write the hexadecimal digits
corresponding to each pair.
Example 1: (152.25)8
Step 1:
We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.
(152.25)8= (001101010.010101)2
So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2
Step 2:
1. Now, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.
0 0110 1010.0101 01
On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has only one digit, and on the
right side, the last pair has only two-digit. To make them complete pairs of four
bits, add zeros on extreme sides.
0000 0110 1010.0101 0100
2. Now, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.
(0000 0110 1010.0101 0100)2= (6A.54)16

Hexa-decimal to Decimal Conversion

Example 1: (152A.25)16
Step 1:
We multiply each digit of 152A.25 with its respective positional weight, and last
we add the products of all the bits with its weight.
(152A.25)16=(1×163)+(5×162)+(2×161)+(A×160)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=(1×4096)+(5×256)+(2×16)+(10×1)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=4096+1280+32+10+(2×1⁄16)+(5×1⁄256)
(152A.25)16=5418+0.125+0.125
(152A.25)16=5418.14453125

So, the decimal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25

is 5418.14453125

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to binary is the reverse process of binary

to hexadecimal. We write the four bits binary code of each hexadecimal number
digit.

Example 1: (152A.25)16
We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, A, 2, and 5.
(152A.25)16= (0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2
So, the binary number of the hexadecimal number 152.25
is (1010100101010.00100101)2

Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion

Example 1: (152A.25)16
Step 1:
We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, A, and 5.
(152A.25)16= (0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2
So, the binary number of hexadecimal number 152A.25
is (0011010101010.010101)2
Step 2:
3. Then, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.
001 010 100 101 010.001 001 010
4. Then, we write the octal digit, which corresponds to each pair.
(001010100101010.001001010)2= (12452.112)8
So, the octal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 12452.112

Gray Code
Book Definition (M. Morris Mano)

Gray Code Table

Ex:- Binary 100101=(1 then 1+0 then 0+0 then 0+1 then 1+0 then
0+1) = Gray Code(110111)

Decimal Binary Gray

Number Number Code

0 0000 0000

1 0001 0001

2 0010 0011

3 0011 0010

4 0100 0110

5 0101 0111

6 0110 0101

7 0111 0100

8 1000 1100

9 1001 1101

10 1010 1111

11 1011 1110

12 1100 1010
13 1101 1011

14 1110 1001

15 1111 1000

Excess-3 Code

The excess-3 code is also treated as XS-3 code. The excess-3 code is a non-
weighted and self-complementary BCD code used to represent the decimal
numbers.
We can find the excess-3 code of the given binary number by using the following
steps:
 We find the decimal number of the given binary number.
 Then we add 3 in each digit of the decimal number.
 Now, we find the binary code of each digit of the newly generated decimal
number.
We can also add 0011 in each 4-bit BCD code of the decimal number for getting
excess-3 code.

Decimal BCD Excess-3

Digit Code Code

0 0000 0011

1 0001 0100

2 0010 0101

3 0011 0110

4 0100 0111

5 0101 1000

6 0110 1001

7 0111 1010

8 1000 1011

9 1001 1100
Example 2: Decimal number 81.61
1. We find the BCD code of each digit of the decimal number.

Digit BCD

8 1000

1 0001

6 0110

1 0001

2) Then, we add 0011 in both of the BCD code.

Decimal BCD Excess-3

8 1000+0011 1011

1 0001+0011 0100

6 0110+0011 1001

(3) So, the excess-3 code of the decimal number 81.61 is 1011
0100.1001 0100

Signed Numbers
The signed numbers are represented in three ways. The signed bit makes two
possible representations of zero (positive (0) and negative (1)), which is an
ambiguous representation.
 Sign-Magnitude form
 In this form, a binary number has a bit for a sign symbol. If this bit is set
to 1, the number will be negative else the number will be positive if it is
set to 0. Apart from this sign-bit, the n-1 bits represent the magnitude of
the number.
 1's Complement
by inverting each bit of a number, we can obtain the 1's complement of a
number. The negative numbers can be represented in the form of 1's
complement. In this form, the binary number also has an extra bit for sign
representation as a sign-magnitude form.
 2's Complement
by inverting each bit of a number and adding plus 1 to its least significant
bit, we can obtain the 2's complement of a number. The negative
numbers can also be represented in the form of 2's complement. In this
 form, the binary number also has an extra bit for sign representation as a
sign-magnitude form.
1's complement
In number representation techniques, the binary number system is the most
used representation technique in digital electronics. The complement is used for
representing the negative decimal number in binary form. Different types of
complement are possible of the binary number, but 1's and 2's complements are
mostly used for binary numbers. We can find the 1's complement of the binary
number by simply inverting the given number.
Example 1: 11010.1101=00101.0010
2's complement
Just like 1's complement, 2's complement is also used to represent the signed
binary numbers. For finding 2's complement of the binary number, we will first
find the 1's complement of the binary number and then add 1 to the least
significant bit of it.
For example. If we want to calculate the 2's complement of the number
1011001, then firstly, we find the 1's complement of the number that is
0100110 and add 1 to the LSB. So, by adding 1 to the LSB, the number will be
(0100110) +1=0100111.

9's Complement
The 9's complement is used to find the subtraction of the decimal numbers. The
9's complement of a number is calculated by subtracting each digit of the
number by 9. For example, suppose we have a number 1423, and we want to
find the 9's complement of the number. For this, we subtract each digit of the
number 1423 by 9. So, the 9's complement of the number 1423 is 9999-1423=
8576.

10's Complement
The 10's complement is also used to find the subtraction of the decimal
numbers. The 10's complement of a number is calculated by subtracting each
digit by 9 and then adding 1 to the result. Simply, by adding 1 to its 9's
complement we can get its 10's complement value. For example, suppose we
have a number 1423, and we want to find the 10's complement of the number.
For this, we find the 9's complement of the number 1423 that is 9999-1423=
8576, and now we will add 1 to the result. So the 10's complement of the
number 1423 is 8576+1=8577.

Addition and Subtraction using 1's complement

Example: 1101 and -1001

First, find the 1's complement of the negative number 1001. So, for finding 1's
complement, change all 0 to 1 and all 1 to 0. The 1's complement of the number
1001 is 0110.
Now, add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0110;
1101+0110=1 0011
By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. We add this end
around carry to the LSB of 0011.
0011+1=0100

Addition and Subtraction using 2's complement

Example: 1101 and -1001

First, find the 2's complement of the negative number 1001. So, for finding 2's
complement, change all 0 to 1 and all 1 to 0 or find the 1's complement of the
number 1001. The 1's complement of the number 1001 is 0110, and add 1 to
the LSB of the result 0110. So the 2's complement of number 1001 is
0110+1=0111
Add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0111;
1101+0111=1 0100
By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. We discard the end-
around carry. So, the addition of both numbers is 0100.

Logic Gates

Logic gates play an important role in circuit design and digital systems. It is a
building block of a digital system and an electronic circuit that always have only
one output. These gates can have one input or more than one input, but most of
the gates have two inputs. On the basis of the relationship between the input
and the output, these gates are named as AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate, etc.

AND Gate

This gate works in the same way as the logical operator "and". The AND gate is
a circuit that performs the AND operation of the inputs. This gate has a
minimum of 2 input values and an output value.
Example:- Y=A AND B AND C AND D……N
Y=A.B.C.D……N
Y=ABCD……N
NAND Gate

The NAND gate is the combination of AND gate and NOT gate. This gate gives
the same result as a NOT-AND operation. This gate can have two or more than
two input values and only one output value.

Logic Design
Truth Table

NOR Gate

The NOR gate is the combination of an OR gate and NOT gate. This gate gives
the same result as the NOT-OR operation. This gate can have two or more than
two input values and only one output value.

Logic Design

Truth Table

XOR Gate

The XOR gate is also known as the Ex-OR gate. The XOR gate is used in half and
full adder and subtractor. The exclusive-OR gate is sometimes called as EX-OR
and X-OR gate. This gate can have two or more than two input values and only
one output value.
Logic Design

Truth Table

XNOR Gate

The XNOR gate is also known as the Ex-NOR gate. The XNOR gate is used in half
and full adder and subtractor. The exclusive-NOR gate is sometimes called as
EX-NOR and X-NOR gate. This gate can have two or more than two input values
and only one output value.

Logic Design

Truth Table
Boolean algebra

The logical symbol 0 and 1 are used for representing the digital input or output.
The symbols "1" and "0" can also be used for a permanently open and closed
digital circuit. The digital circuit can be made up of several logic gates. To
perform the logical operation with minimum logic gates, a set of rules were
invented, known as the Laws of Boolean Algebra. These rules are used to
reduce the number of logic gates for performing logic operations.

The Boolean algebra is mainly used for simplifying and analyzing the complex
Boolean expression. It is also known as Binary algebra because we only use
binary numbers in this. George Boole developed the binary algebra in 1854.

Rules in Boolean algebra

1. Only two values (1 for high and 0 for low) are possible for the variable
used in Boolean algebra.
2. The over bar (-) is used for representing the complement variable. So, the
complement of variable C is represented as.
3. The plus (+) operator is used to represent the ORing of the variables.
4. The dot (.) operator is used to represent the ANDing of the variables.

Properties of Boolean algebra

These are the following properties of Boolean algebra:

Annulment Law

When the variable is AND with 0, it will give the result 0, and when the variable
is OR with 1, it will give the result 1, i.e.,

B.0 = 0

B+1 = 1

Identity Law

When the variable is AND with 1 and OR with 0, the variable remains the same,
i.e.,

B.1 = B

B+0 = B
Idempotent Law

When the variable is AND and OR with itself, the variable remains same or
unchanged, i.e.,

B.B = B

B+B = B

Complement Law

When the variable is AND and OR with its complement, it will give the result 0
and 1 respectively.

B.B' = 0

B+B' = 1

Double Negation Law

This law states that, when the variable comes with two negations, the symbol
gets removed and the original variable is obtained.

((A)')' = A

Commutative Law

This law states that no matter in which order we use the variables. It means that
the order of variables doesn't matter in this law.

A.B = B.A

A+B = B+A

Associative Law

This law states that the operation can be performed in any order when the
variables priority is of same as '*' and '/'.

(A.B).C = A. (B.C)

(A+B)+C = A+ (B+C)

Distributive Law

This law allows us to open up of brackets. Simply, we can open the brackets in
the Boolean expressions.

A+ (B.C) = (A+B). (A+C

A. (B+C) = (A.B)+(A.C)

Absorption Law

This law allows us for absorbing the similar variables.

B+ (B.A) = B

B. (B+A) = B

De Morgan Law

The operation of an OR and AND logic circuit will remain same if we invert all the
inputs, change operators from AND to OR and OR to AND, and invert the output.

(A.B)' = A'+B'

(A+B)' = A'.B'

Boolean Functions

The binary variables and logic operations are used in Boolean algebra. The
algebraic expression is known as Boolean Expression, is used to describe
the Boolean Function. The Boolean expression consists of the constant value 1
and 0, logical operation symbols, and binary variables.

Example 1: F=xy'z+p

We defined the Boolean function F=xy'z+p in terms of four binary variables x,

y, z, and p. This function will be equal to 1 when x=1, y=0, z=1 or z=1.

Example 2:

The output Y is represented on the left side of the equation. So,

Apart from the algebraic expression, the Boolean function can also be described
in terms of the truth table. We can represent a function using multiple algebraic
expressions. They are their logically equivalents. But for every function, we have
only one unique truth table.

In truth table representation, we represent all the possible combinations of

inputs and their result. We can convert the switching equations into truth tables.
Example: F (A, B, C, D) =A+BC'+D

The output will be high when A=1 or BC'=1 or D=1 or all are set to 1. The truth
table of the above example is given below. The 2n is the number of rows in the
truth table. The n defines the number of input variables. So the possible input
combinations are 23=8.

Methods of simplifying the Boolean function

There are two methods which are used for simplifying Boolean function. These
functions are as follows:

Karnaugh-map or K-map

De-Morgan's law is very helpful for manipulating logical expressions. The

logic gates can also realize the logical expression. The k-map method is used to
reduce the logic gates for a minimum possible value required for the realization
of a logical expression. The K-map method will be done in two different ways,
which we will discuss later in the Simplification of Boolean
expression section.

NAND gates realization

Apart from the K-map, we can also use the NAND gate for simplifying the
Boolean functions. Let's see an example:

Example 1: F (A, B, C, D) =A' C'+ABCD'+B' C' D+BCD'+A'B'

Laws and Rules of Boolean algebra

In simplification of the Boolean expression, the laws and rules of the Boolean
algebra play an important role. Before understanding these laws and rules of
Boolean algebra, understand the Boolean operations addition and multiplication
concept.

Boolean Addition

The addition operation of Boolean algebra is similar to the OR operation. In

digital circuits, the OR operation is used to calculate the sum term, without using
AND operation. A + B, A + B', A + B + C', and A' + B + + D' are some of the
examples of 'sum term'. The value of the sum term is true when one or more
than one literals are true and false when all the literals are false.

Boolean Multiplication

The multiplication operation of Boolean algebra is similar to the AND operation.

In digital circuits, the AND operation calculates the product, without using OR
operation. AB, AB, ABC, and ABCD are some of the examples of the product
term. The value of the product term is true when all the literals are true and
false when any one of the literal is false.

Laws of Boolean algebra

There are the following laws of Boolean algebra:

Commutative Law

This law states that no matter in which order we use the variables. It means that
the order of variables doesn't matter. In Boolean algebra, the OR and the
addition operations are similar. In the below diagram, the OR gate display that
the order of the input variables does not matter at all.

For two variables, the commutative law of addition is written as:

A+B = B+A

For two variables, the commutative law of multiplication is written as:

A.B = B.A

Associative Law

This law states that the operation can be performed in any order when the
variables priority is same. As '*' and '/' have same priority. In the below
diagram, the associative law is applied to the 2-input OR gate.

For three variables, the associative law of addition is written as:

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
For three variables, the associative law of multiplication is written as:

A (BC) = (AB)C

According to this law, no matter in what order the variables are grouped when
ANDing more than two variables. In the below diagram, the associative law is
applied to 2-input AND gate.

Distributive Law:

According to this law, if we perform the OR operation of two or more variables

and then perform the AND operation of the result with a single variable, then the
result will be similar to performing the AND operation of that single variable with
each two or more variable and then perform the OR operation of that product.
This law explains the process of factoring.

For three variables, the distributive law is written as:

A (B + C) = AB + AC
Rules of Boolean algebra

There are the following rules of Boolean algebra, which are mostly used in
manipulating and simplifying Boolean expressions. These rules plays an
important role in simplifying boolean expressions.

1. A+0=A 7. A.A=A

2. A+1=1 8. A.A'=0

3. A.0=0 9. A''=A

4. A.1=A 10. A+AB=A

5. A+A=A 11. A+A'B=A+B

6. A+A'=1 12. (A+B)(A+C)=A+BC

Rule 1: A + 0 = A

Let's suppose; we have an input variable A whose value is either 0 or 1. When

we perform OR operation with 0, the result will be the same as the input
variable. So, if the variable value is 1, then the result will be 1, and if the
variable value is 0, then the result will be 0. Diagrammatically, this rule can be
defined as:
Rule 2: (A + 1) = 1

Let's suppose; we have an input variable A whose value is either 0 or 1. When

we perform OR operation with 1, the result will always be 1. So, if the variable
value is either 1 or 0, then the result will always be 1. Diagrammatically, this
rule can be defined as:

Rule 3: (A.0) = 0

Let's suppose; we have an input variable A whose value is either 0 or 1. When

we perform the AND operation with 0, the result will always be 0. This rule
states that an input variable ANDed with 0 is equal to 0 always.
Diagrammatically, this rule can be defined as:

Rule 4: (A.1) = A

Let's suppose; we have an input variable A whose value is either 0 or 1. When

we perform the AND operation with 1, the result will always be equal to the
input variable. This rule states that an input variable ANDed with 1 is equal to
the input variable always. Diagrammatically, this rule can be defined as:
Rule 5: (A + A) = A

Let's suppose; we have an input variable A whose value is either 0 or 1. When

we perform the OR operation with the same variable, the result will always be
equal to the input variable. This rule states an input variable ORed with itself is
equal to the input variable always. Diagrammatically, this rule can be defined as:

Rule 6: (A + A') = 1

Let's suppose; we have an input variable A whose value is either 0 or 1. When

we perform the OR operation with the complement of that variable, the result
will always be equal to 1. This rule states that a variable ORed with its
complement is equal to 1 always. Diagrammatically, this rule can be defined as:

ADVERTISEMENT
Rule 7: (A.A) = A

Let's suppose; we have an input variable A whose value is either 0 or 1. When

we perform the AND operation with the same variable, the result will always be
equal to that variable only. This rule states that a variable ANDed with itself is
equal to the input variable always. Diagrammatically, this rule can be defined as:

Rule 8: (A.A') = 0

Let's suppose; we have an input variable A whose value is either 0 or 1. When

we perform the AND operation with the complement of that variable, the result
will always be equal to 0. This rule states that a variable ANDed with its
complement is equal to 0 always. Diagrammatically, this rule can be defined as:

Rule 9: A = (A')'

This rule states that if we perform the double complement of the variable, the
result will be the same as the original variable. So, when we perform the
complement of variable A, then the result will be A'. Further if we again perform
the complement of A', we will get A, that is the original variable.

Rule 10: (A + AB) = A

We can prove this rule by using the rule 2, rule 4, and the distributive law as:
A + AB = A (1 + B) Factoring (distributive law)
A + AB = A.1 Rule 2: (1 + B)= 1
A + AB = A Rule 4: A .1 = A

Rule 11: A + AB = A + B

We can prove this rule by using the above rules as:

A + AB = (A+AB)+AB Rule 10: A = A + AB

A+AB= (AA+AB)+AB Rule 7: A = AA
A+AB=AA+AB +AA +AB Rule 8: adding AA = 0
A+AB= (A + A)(A + B) Factoring
A+AB= 1.(A + B) Rule 6: A + A = 1
A+AB=A + B Rule 4: drop the 1

Rule 12: (A + B) (A + C) = A + BC

We can prove this rule by using the above rules as:

(A + B)(A + C)= AA + AC + AB + BC Distributive law
(A + B)(A + C)= A + AC + AB + BC Rule 7: AA = A
(A + B)(A + C)= A( 1 + C)+ AB + BC Rule 2: 1 + C = 1
(A + B)(A + C)= A.1 + AB + BC Factoring (distributive law)
(A + B)(A + C)= A(1 + B)+ BC Rule 2: 1 + B = 1
(A + B)(A + C)= A.1 + BC Rule 4: A .1 = A
(A + B)(A + C)= A + BC

Minterm and Maxterm

There are two ways in which we can put the Boolean function. These ways are
the minterm canonical form and maxterm canonical form.

Literal

A Literal signifies the Boolean variables including their complements. Such as B

is a boolean variable and its complements are ~B or B', which are the literals.

Minterm

The product of all literals, either with complement or without complement, is

known as minterm.

Example

The minterm for the Boolean variables A and B is:

1. A.B
2. A.~B
3. ~A.B

The complement variables ~A and ~B can also be written as A' and B'
respectively. Thus, we can write the minterm as:

1. A.B'
2. A'.B

Minterm from values

Using variable values, we can write the minterms as:

1. If the variable value is 1, we will take the variable without its

complement.
2. If the variable value is 0, take its complement.

Example

Let's assume that we have three Boolean variables A, B, and C having values

A=1
B=0
C=0

Now, we will take the complement of the variables B and C because these values
are 0 and will take A without complement. So, the minterm will be:

Minterm=A.B'C'

Let's take another example in which we have two variables B and C having the
value

B = 0
C=1

Minterm=B'C

Shorthand notation for minterm

We know that, when Boolean variables are in the form of minterm, the variables
will appear in the product. There are the following steps for getting the
shorthand notation for minterm.
 o In the first step, we will write the term consisting of all the variables
o Next, we will write 0 in place of all the complement variables such as ~A
or A'.
o We will write 1 in place of all the non-complement variables such as A or
b.
o Now, we will find the decimal number of the binary formed from the above
steps.
o In the end, we will write the decimal number as a subscript of
letter m(minterm). Let's take some example to understand the theory of
shorthand notation

Example 1: Minterm = AB'

o First, we will write the minterm:

Minterm = AB'
o Now, we will write 0 in place of complement variable B'.
Minterm = A0
o We will write 1 in place of non-complement variable A.
Minterm = 10
o The binary number of the minterm AB' is 10. The decimal point number of
(10)2 is 2. So, the shorthand notation of AB' is
Minterm = m2

Example 2: Minterm = AB'C'

o First, we will write the minterm:

Minterm = AB'C'
o Now, we will write 0 in place of complement variables B' and C'.
Minterm = A00
o We will write 1 in place of non-complement variable A.
Minterm = 100
o The binary number of the minterm AB'C' is 100. The decimal point number
of (100)2 is 4. So, the shorthand notation of AB'C' is
Minterm = m4
 Maxterm

The sum of all literals, either with complement or without complement, is known
as maxterm.

Example:

The maxterm for the Boolean variables A and B will be:

1. A+B
2. A+~B
3. ~A+B

We know that the complement variables ~A and ~B can be written as A' and B'
respectively. So, the above maxterm can be written as

1. A+B'
2. A'+B

Maxterm from values

Using the given variable values, we can write the maxterm as:

1. If the variable value is 1, then we will take the variable without a

complement.
2. If the variable value is 0, take the complement of the variable.

Example

Let's assume that we have three Boolean variables A, B., and C having values

A=1
B=0
C=0

Now, we will take the complement of the variables B and C because these values
are 0 and will take A without complement. So, the maxterm will be:

Maxterm=A+B'+C'

Let's take another example in which we have two variables B and C having the
value
B=0
C=1

Maxterm=B'+C

Shorthand notation for maxterm

We know that, when Boolean variables are in the form of maxterm, the variables
will appear in sum. The steps for the maxterm are same as minterm:

o In the first step, we will write the term consisting of all the variables
o Next, we will write 0 in place of all the complement variables such as ~A
or A'.
o We will write 1 in place of all the non-complement variables such as A or
b.
o Now, we will find the decimal number of the binary formed from the above
steps.
o In the end, we will write the decimal number as a subscript of letter Here,
M denotes maxterm.

Let's take some example to understand the theory of shorthand notation

Example 1: Maxterm = A+B'

o First, we will write the minterm:

Maxterm = A+B'
o Now, we will write 0 in place of complement variable B'.
o We will write 1 in place of non-complement variable A.
o The binary number of the maxterm A+B' is 10. The decimal point number
of (10)2 is 2. So, the shorthand notation of A+B' is
Maxterm = M2

Example 2: Maxterm = A+B'+C'

o First, we will write the maxterm:

Maxterm = A+B'+C'
o Now, we will write 0 in place of complement variables B' and C'.
o We will write 1 in place of non-complement variable A.
 o The binary number of the maxterm A+B'+C' is 100. The decimal point
number of (100)2 is 4. So, the maxterm of A+B'+C' is m4.

Sum of product (SOP)

A canonical sum of products is a Boolean expression that entirely consists of

minterms. The Boolean function F is defined on two variables X and Y. The X and
Y are the inputs of the Boolean function F whose output is true when any one of
the inputs is set to true. The truth table for Boolean expression F is as follows:

Inputs Output

X Y F

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

In our previous section, we learned about how we can form the minterm from
the variable's value. Now, a column will be added for the minterm in the above
table. The complement of the variables is taken whose value is 0, and the
variables whose value is 1 will remain the same.

Inputs Output Minterm

X Y F M

0 0 0 X'Y'

0 1 1 X'Y

1 0 1 XY'
1 1 1 XY

Now, we will add all the minterms for which the output is true to find the desired
canonical SOP (Sum of Product) expression.

F=X' Y+XY'+XY

Converting Sum of Products (SOP) to shorthand notation

The process of converting SOP form to shorthand notation is the same as the
process of finding shorthand notation for minterms. There are the following
steps to find the shorthand notation of the given SOP expression.

o Write the given SOP expression.

o Find the shorthand notation of all the minterms.
o Replace the minterms with their shorthand notations in the given
expression.

Example: F = X'Y+XY'+XY

1. Firstly, we write the SOP expression:

F = X'Y+XY'+XY

2. Now, we find the shorthand notations of the minterms X'Y, XY', and XY.

X'Y = (01)2 = m1
XY' = (10)2 = m2
XY = (11)2 = m3

3. In the end, we replace all the minterms with their shorthand notations:

F=m1+m2+m3

Converting shorthand notation to SOP expression

The process of converting shorthand notation to SOP is the reverse process of

converting SOP expression to shorthand notation. Let's see an example to
understand this conversion.
Example:

Let us assume that we have a boolean function F, which defined on two variables
X and Y. The minterms for the function F are expressed as shorthand notation is
as follows:

F=∑(1,2,3)

Now, from this expression, we will find the SOP expression. The Boolean function
F has two input variables X and y and the output of F=1 for m1, m2, and m3,
i.e., 1st, 2nd, and 3rd combinations. So,

F=∑(1,2,3)
F= m1 + m2 + m3
F= 01 + 10 + 11

Now, we replace zeros with either X' or Y' and ones with either X or Y. Simply,
the complement variable is used when the variable value is 1 otherwise the non-
complement variable is used.

F = ∑(1,2,3)
F=01+10+11
F= A'B + AB' + AB

Product of Sum (POS)

A canonical product of sum is a boolean expression that entirely consists of

maxterms. The Boolean function F is defined on two variables X and Y. The X
and Y are the inputs of the boolean function F whose output is true when only
one of the inputs is set to true. The truth table for Boolean expression F is as
follows:

Inputs Output

X Y F

0 0 0

0 1 1
1 0 1

1 1 0

In our minterm and maxterm section, we learned about how we can form the
maxterm from the variable's value. A column will be added for the maxterm in
the above table. The complement of the variables is taken whose value is 0, and
the variables whose value is 1 will remain the same.

Inputs Output Minterm

X Y F M

0 0 0 X'+Y'

0 1 1 X'+Y

1 0 1 X+Y'

1 1 1 X+Y

Now, we will multiply all the minterms for which the output is false to find the
desired canonical POS (Product of sum) expression.

F=(X'+Y').(X+Y)

Converting Product of Sum (POS) to shorthand notation

The process of converting POS form to shorthand notation is the same as the
process of finding shorthand notation for maxterms. There are the following
steps used to find the shorthand notation of the given POS expression.

o Write the given POS expression.

o Find the shorthand notation of all the maxterms.
o Replace the minterms with their shorthand notations in the given
expression.

Example: F = (X'+Y'). (X+Y)

1. Firstly, we will write the POS expression:

F = (X'+Y').(X+Y)

2. Now, we will find the shorthand notations of the maxterms X'+Y' and X+Y.

X'+Y' = (00)2 = M0
X+Y = (11)2 = M3

3. In the end, we will replace all the minterms with their shorthand notations:

F=M0.M3

Converting shorthand notation to POS expression

The process of converting shorthand notation to POS is the reverse process of

converting POS expression to shorthand notation. Let's see an example to
understand this conversion.

Example:

Let us assume that we have a boolean function F, defined on two variables X and
Y. The maxterms for the function F are expressed as shorthand notation is as
follows:

F=∏ (1,2,3)

Now, from this expression, we find the POS expression. The Boolean function F
has two input variables X and Y and the output of F=0 for M1, M2, and M3, i.e.,
1st, 2nd, and 3rd combinations. So,

F=∏ (1,2,3)
F= M1.M2.M3
F= 01.10.11

Next, we replace zeros with either X or Y and ones with either X' or Y'. Simply, if
the value of the variable is 1, then we take the complement of that variable, and
if the value of the variable is 0, then we take the variable "as is".

F = ∑ (1,2,3)
F=01.10.11
F=(A+B').( A'+B).( A'+B')
Conversion between Canonical Forms

In our previous section, we learned about SOP(sum of product) and POS(product

of sum) expressions and calculated POS and SOP forms for different Boolean
functions. In this section, we will learn about how we can represent the POS
form in the SOP form and SOP form in the POS form.

For converting the canonical expressions, we have to change the symbols ∏, ∑.

These symbols are changed when we list out the index numbers of the
equations. From the original form of the equation, these indices numbers are
excluded. The SOP and POS forms of the boolean function are duals to each
other.

There are the following steps using which we can easily convert the canonical
forms of the equations:

1. Change the operational symbols used in the equation, such as ∑, ∏.

2. Use the Duality's De-Morgan's principal to write the indexes of the terms
that are not presented in the given form of an equation or the index
numbers of the Boolean function.

Conversion of POS to SOP form

For getting the SOP form from the POS form, we have to change the symbol ∏
to ∑. After that, we write the numeric indexes of missing variables of the given
Boolean function.

There are the following steps to convert the POS function F = Π x, y, z (2, 3, 5)
= x y' z' + x y' z + x y z' into SOP form:

1. In the first step, we change the operational sign to Σ.

2. Next, we find the missing indexes of the terms, 000, 110, 001, 100, and
111.
3. Finally, we write the product form of the noted terms.

000 = x' * y' * z'

001 = x' * y' * z

100 = x * y' * z'

110 = x * y* z'

111 = x * y * z
So the SOP form is:

F = Σ x, y, z (0, 1, 4, 6, 7) = (x' * y' * z') + (x' * y' * z) + (x * y' * z') + (x * y*

z') + (x * y * z)

Conversion of SOP form to POS form

For getting the POS form of the given SOP form expression, we will change the
symbol ∏ to ∑. After that, we will write the numeric indexes of the variables
which are missing in the boolean function.

There are the following steps used to convert the SOP function F = ∑ x, y, z (0,
2, 3, 5, 7) = x' y' z' + z y' z' + x y' z + xyz' + xyz into POS:

o In the first step, we change the operational sign to ∏.

o We find the missing indexes of the terms, 001, 110, and 100.
o We write the sum form of the noted terms.

001 = (x + y + z)

100 = (x + y' + z')

110 = (x + y' + z')

So, the POS form is:

F = Π x, y, z (1, 4, 6) = (x + y + z) * (x + y' + z') * (x + y' + z')

Conversion of SOP form to standard SOP form or Canonical SOP form

For getting the standard SOP form of the given non-standard SOP form, we will
add all the variables in each product term which do not have all the variables. By
using the Boolean algebraic law, (x + x' = 0) and by following the below steps
we can easily convert the normal SOP function into standard SOP form.

o Multiply each non-standard product term by the sum of its missing

variable and its complement.
o Repeat step 1, until all resulting product terms contain all variables
o For each missing variable in the function, the number of product terms
doubles.
Example:

Convert the non standard SOP function F = AB + A C + B C

Sol:

F=AB+AC+BC
= A B (C + C') + A (B + B') C + (A + A') B C
= A B C + A B C' + A B C + A B' C + A B C + A' B C
= A B C + A B C' + A B' C + A' B C

So, the standard SOP form of non-standard form is F = A B C + A B C' + A B' C

+ A' B C

Conversion of POS form to standard POS form or Canonical POS form

For getting the standard POS form of the given non-standard POS form, we will
add all the variables in each product term that do not have all the variables. By
using the Boolean algebraic law (x * x' = 0) and by following the below steps,
we can easily convert the normal POS function into a standard POS form.

o By adding each non-standard sum term to the product of its missing

variable and its complement, which results in 2 sum terms
o Applying Boolean algebraic law, x + y z = (x + y) * (x + z)
o By repeating step 1, until all resulting sum terms contain all variables

By these three steps, we can convert the POS function into a standard POS
function.

Example:

F = (p' + q + r) * (q' + r + s') * (p + q' + r' + s)

1. Term (p' + q + r)

As we can see that the variable s or s' is missing in this term. So we add s*s' =
1 in this term.

(p' + q + r + s*s') = (p' + q + r + s) * (p' + q + r + s')

2. Term (q' + r + s')

Similarly, we add p*p' = 1 in this term for getting the term containing all the
variables.
(q' + r + s' + p*p') = (p + q' + r + s') * (p' + q' + r + s')

3. Term (q' + r + s')

Now, there is no need to add anything because all the variables are contained in
this term.

So, the standard POS form equation of the function is

F = (p' + q + r + s)* (p' + q + r + s')* (p + q' + r + s')* (p' + q' + r + s') * (p

+ q' + r' + s)

Karnaugh Map(K-Map) method

The K-map is a systematic way of simplifying Boolean expressions. With the

help of the K-map method, we can find the simplest POS and SOP expression,
which is known as the minimum expression. The K-map provides a cookbook for
simplification.

Just like the truth table, a K-map contains all the possible values of input
variables and their corresponding output values. However, in K-map, the values
are stored in cells of the array. In each cell, a binary value of each input variable
is stored.

The K-map method is used for expressions containing 2, 3, 4, and 5 variables.

For a higher number of variables, there is another method used for simplification
called the Quine-McClusky method. In K-map, the number of cells is similar to
the total number of variable input combinations. For example, if the number of
variables is three, the number of cells is 23=8, and if the number of variables is
four, the number of cells is 2 4. The K-map takes the SOP and POS forms. The K-
map grid is filled using 0's and 1's. The K-map is solved by making groups.
There are the following steps used to solve the expressions using K-map:

1. First, we find the K-map as per the number of variables.

2. Find the maxterm and minterm in the given expression.
3. Fill cells of K-map for SOP with 1 respective to the minterms.
4. Fill cells of the block for POS with 0 respective to the maxterm.
5. Next, we create rectangular groups that contain total terms in the power
of two like 2, 4, 8, … and try to cover as many elements as we can in one
group.
6. With the help of these groups, we find the product terms and sum them
up for the SOP form.

2 Variable K-map
There is a total of 4 variables in a 2-variable K-map. There are two variables in
the 2-variable K-map. The following figure shows the structure of the 2-variable
K-map:

o In the above figure, there is only one possibility of grouping four adjacent
minterms.
o The possible combinations of grouping 2 adjacent minterms are {(m 0,
m1), (m2, m3), (m0, m2) and (m1, m3)}.

3-variable K-map

The 3-variable K-map is represented as an array of eight cells. In this case, we

used A, B, and C for the variable. We can use any letter for the names of the
variables. The binary values of variables A and B are along the left side, and the
values of C are across the top. The value of the given cell is the binary values of
A and B at left side in the same row combined with the value of C at the top in
the same column. For example, the cell in the upper left corner has a binary
value of 000, and the cell in the lower right corner has a binary value of 101.
The 4-Variable Karnaugh Map

The 4-variable K-map is represented as an array of 16 cells. Binary values of A

and B are along the left side, and the values of C and D are across the top. The
value of the given cell is the binary values of A and B at left side in the same row
combined with the binary values of C and D at the top in the same column. For
example, the cell in the upper right corner has a binary value of 0010, and the
cell in the lower right corner has a binary value of 1010

5-variable K-map

With the help of the 32- cell K-map, the boolean expression with 5 variables can
be simplified. For constructing a 5-variable K-map, we use two 4-variable K-
maps. The cell adjacencies within each of the 4- variable maps for the 5-variable
map are similar to the 4- variable map.
A K-map for five variables (PQRST) can be constructed using two 4-variable
maps. Each map contains 16 cells with all combinations of variables Q, R, S, and
T. One map is for P = 0, and the other is for P = 1).

Simplification of boolean expressions using Karnaugh Map

As we know that K-map takes both SOP and POS forms. So, there are two
possible solutions for K-map, i.e., minterm and maxterm solution. Let's start and
learn about how we can find the minterm and maxterm solution of K-map.

Minterm Solution of K Map

There are the following steps to find the minterm solution or K-map:

Step 1:

Firstly, we define the given expression in its canonical form.

Step 2:

Next, we create the K-map by entering 1 to each product-term into the K-map
cell and fill the remaining cells with zeros.

Step 3:

Next, we form the groups by considering each one in the K-map.

Notice that each group should have the largest number of 'ones'. A group cannot
contain an empty cell or cell that contains 0.

In a group, there is a total of 2n number of ones. Here, n=0, 1, 2, …n.

ADVERTISEMENT

Example: 20=1, 21=2, 22=4, 23=8, or 24=16.

We group the number of ones in the decreasing order. First, we have to try to
make the group of eight, then for four, after that two and lastly for 1.
In horizontally or vertically manner, the groups of ones are formed in shape of
rectangle and square. We cannot perform the diagonal grouping in K-map.

The elements in one group can also be used in different groups only when the
size of the group is increased.

The elements located at the edges of the table are considered to be adjacent.
So, we can group these elements.
We can consider the 'don't care condition' only when they aid in increasing the
group-size. Otherwise, 'don't care' elements are discarded.

Step 4:

In the next step, we find the boolean expression for each group. By looking at
the common variables in cell-labeling, we define the groups in terms of input
variables. In the below example, there is a total of two groups, i.e., group 1 and
group 2, with two and one number of 'ones'.

In the first group, the ones are present in the row for which the value of A is 0.
Thus, they contain the complement of variable A. Remaining two 'ones' are
present in adjacent columns. In these columns, only B term in common is the
product term corresponding to the group as A'B. Just like group 1, in group 2,
the one's are present in a row for which the value of A is 1. So, the
corresponding variables of this column are B'C'. The overall product term of this
group is AB'C'.
Step 5:

ADVERTISEMENT

Lastly, we find the boolean expression for the Output. To find the simplified
boolean expression in the SOP form, we combine the product-terms of all
individual groups. So the simplified expression of the above k-map is as follows:

A'+AB'C'

Let's take some examples of 2-variable, 3-variable, 4-variable, and 5-variable K-

map examples.

Example 1: Y=A'B' + A'B+AB

Simplified expression: Y=A'+B

Example 2: Y=A'B'C'+A' BC'+AB' C'+AB' C+ABC'+ABC

Simplified expression: Y=A+C'

Example 3: Y=A'B'C' D'+A' B' CD'+A' BCD'+A' BCD+AB' C'

D'+ABCD'+ABCD

Simplified expression: Y=BD+B'D'

Maxterm Solution of K-Map

ADVERTISEMENT

To find the simplified maxterm solution using K-map is the same as to find for
the minterm solution. There are some minor changes in the maxterm solution,
which are as follows:
 1. We will populate the K-map by entering the value of 0 to each sum-term
into the K-map cell and fill the remaining cells with one's.
2. We will make the groups of 'zeros' not for 'ones'.
3. Now, we will define the boolean expressions for each group as sum-terms.
4. At last, to find the simplified boolean expression in the POS form, we will
combine the sum-terms of all individual groups.

Let's take some example of 2-variable, 3-variable, 4-variable and 5-variable K-

map examples

Example 1: Y= (A'+B')+(A'+B)+(A+B)

Simplified expression: A'B

Example 2: Y= (A + B + C') + (A + B' + C') + (A' + B' + C) + (A' + B' +

C')
Simplified expression: Y= (A + C') .(A' + B')

Example 3: F(A,B,C,D)=π(3,5,7,8,10,11,12,13)

Simplified expression: Y= (A + C') .(A' + B')

De-Morgan's Theorem

A famous mathematician DeMorgan invented the two most important theorems

of boolean algebra. The DeMorgan's theorems are used for mathematical
verification of the equivalency of the NOR and negative-AND gates and the
negative-OR and NAND gates. These theorems play an important role in solving
various boolean algebra expressions. In the below table, the logical operation for
each combination of the input variable is defined.

Input variables Output Condition

A B AND NAND OR NOR

0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 0

1 1 1 0 1 0

The rules of De-Morgan's theorem are produced from the Boolean expressions
for OR, AND, and NOT using two input variables x and y. The first theorem of
Demorgan's says that if we perform the AND operation of two input variables
and then perform the NOT operation of the result, the result will be the same as
the OR operation of the complement of that variable. The second theorem of
DeMorgan says that if we perform the OR operation of two input variables and
then perform the NOT operation of the result, the result will be the same as the
AND operation of the complement of that variable.

De-Morgan's First Theorem

According to the first theorem, the complement result of the AND operation is
equal to the OR operation of the complement of that variable. Thus, it is
equivalent to the NAND function and is a negative-OR function proving that
(A.B)' = A'+B' and we can show this using the following table.

Inputs Output For Each Term

A B A.B (A.B)' A' B' A'A+B'

0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 0 0 0 0
De-Morgan's Second Theorem

According to the second theorem, the complement result of the OR operation is

equal to the AND operation of the complement of that variable. Thus, it is the
equivalent of the NOR function and is a negative-AND function proving that
(A+B)' = A'.B' and we can show this using the following truth table.

Inputs Output For Each Term

A B A+B (A+B)' A' B' A'.B'

0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Let's take some examples in which we take some expressions and apply
DeMorgan's theorems.

Example 1: (A.B.C)'

(A.B.C)'=A'+B'+C'

Example 2: (A+B+C)'

(A+B+C)'=A'.B'.C

Example 3: ((A+BC')'+D(E+F')')'

For applying the DeMorgan's theorem on this expression, we have to follow the
following expressions:

1) In complete expression, first, we find those terms on which we can apply the
DeMorgan's theorem and treat each term as a single variable.

So,

2) Next, we apply DeMorgan's first theorem. So,

3) Next, we use rule number 9, i.e., (A=(A')') for canceling the double bars.

4) Next, we apply DeMorgan's second theorem. So,

5) Again apply rule number 9 to cancel the double bar

Now, this expression has no term in which we can apply any rule or theorem.
So, this is the final expression.

Example 3: (AB'.(A + C))'+ A'B.(A + B + C’)’

Don't Care Condition

The "Don't care" condition says that we can use the blank cells of a K-map to
make a group of the variables. To make a group of cells, we can use the "don't
care" cells as either 0 or 1, and if required, we can also ignore that cell. We
mainly use the "don't care" cell to make a large group of cells.

The cross (×) symbol is used to represent the "don't care" cell in K-map. This
cross symbol represents an invalid combination. The "don't care" in excess-3
code are 0000, 0001, 0010, 1101, 1110, and 1111 because they are invalid
combinations. Apart from this, the 4-bit BCD to Excess-3 code, the "don't care"
are 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, and 1111.
We can change the standard SOP function into a POS expression by making the
"don't care" terms the same as they are. The missing minterms of the POS form
are written as maxterms of the POS form. In the same way, we can change the
standard POS function into an SOP expression by making the "don't care" terms
the same as they are. The missing maxterms of the SOP form are written as
minterm of the SOP form.

Example 1: Minimize f = m(1,5,6,12,13,14) + d(4) in SOP minimal form

Solution:

The k-map of the given function in the SOP form is as follows:

So, the minimized SOP form of the function is:

f = BC' + BD' + A'C'D

Example 2: Minimize F(A,B,C,D) = m(0,1,2,3,4,5) +
d(10,11,12,13,14,15) in SOP minimal form

Solution:

The POS form of the given function is:

F(A,B,C,D) = M(6,7,8,9) + d(10,11,12,13,14,15)

The POS K-map for the given expression is:

So, the minimized POS form of the function is:

F = A'(B' + C')

Example-3:
Minimize the following function in SOP minimal form using K-Maps: F(A,
B, C, D) = m(1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15) + d(3, 5, 12)

Explanation:

The SOP K-map for the given expression is:

Therefore,

f = AC'D' + A'D + A'C + AB

Significance of "Don't Care" Conditions:

Don't Care conditions has the following significance with respect to the digital
circuit design:

Simplification:

These conditions denote the set of inputs that never occurs for given digital
circuits. Therefore, to simplify the boolean output expressions, the 'don't care'
are used.

Reduced Power Consumption:

The switching of the state is reduced when we group the terms long with "don't
care". This reduces the required memory space resulting in lower power
consumption.

Lesser number of gates:

For reducing the number of gates that are used to implement the given
expression, simplification places an important role. So, the 'don't care' makes
the logic design more economical.
Prevention of Hazards:

In the digital system, the 'don't care' place an important role in hazards
prevention.

States in Code Converters:

These also play an important role in code conversion. For example- In the design
of a 4-bit BCD-to-XS-3 code converter, the input combinations 1010, 1011,
1100, 1101, 1110, and 1111 are don't cares.