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OPERATING SYSTEM

General introduction
An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources
and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is a vital
component of the system software in a computer system. This course will take you through step
by step approach while learning Operating System concepts.

I- Operating System functions

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware.
An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management,
memory management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating
System, VMS, OS/400, IOS, z/OS, etc.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

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II- Applications of Operating System

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs

 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized

access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service
and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other software and users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.

Prerequisites

Before you start proceeding with this course, we are making an assumption that you are already
aware of basic computer concepts like what is keyboard, mouse, monitor, input, output, primary
memory and secondary memory etc. If you are not well aware of these concepts, then we will
suggest to read some notes on Computer Fundamentals.

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CHAPTER 1: HISTORY OF OPERATING

SYSTEMS

1- The First Generation (1940's to early 1950's)

When electronic computers were first introduced in the 1940's they were created without any
operating systems. All programming was done in absolute machine language, often by wiring
up plug boards to control the machine's basic functions. During this generation computers were
generally used to solve simple math calculations, operating systems were not necessarily
needed.

2- The Second Generation (1955-1965)

The first operating system was introduced in the early 1950's, it was called GMOS (General
Motors OS) and was created by General Motors for IBM's machine the 701. Operating systems
in the 1950's were called single-stream batch processing systems because the data was
submitted in groups. These new machines were called mainframes, and they were used by
professional operators in large computer rooms. Since there was such as high price tag on these
machines, only government agencies or large corporations were able to afford them.

3- The Third Generation (1965-1980)

By the late 1960's operating systems designers were able to develop the system of
multiprogramming in which a computer program will be able to perform multiple jobs at the
same time. The introduction of multiprogramming was a major part in the development of
operating systems because it allowed a CPU to be busy nearly 100 percent of the time that it

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was in operation. Another major development during the third generation was the phenomenal
growth of minicomputers, starting with the DEC PDP-1 in 1961 (Digital equipment
corporation). The PDP-1 had only 4K of 18-bit words, but at $120,000 per machine (less than
5 percent of the price of a 7094), it sold like hotcakes. These microcomputers help create a
whole new industry and the development of more (personal data processor) PDP's. These PDP's
helped lead to the creation of personal computers which are created in the fourth generation.

4- The Fourth Generation (1980-Present Day)

The fourth generation of operating systems saw the creation of personal computing. Although
these computers were very similar to the minicomputers developed in the third generation,
personal computers cost a very small fraction of what minicomputers cost. A personal computer
was so affordable that it made it possible for a single individual could be able to own one for
personal use while minicomputers where still at such a high price that only corporations could
afford to have them. One of the major factors in the creation of personal computing was the
birth of Microsoft and the Windows operating system. The windows Operating System was
created in 1975 when Paul Allen and Bill Gates had a vision to take personal computing to the
next level. They introduced the MS-DOS in 1981 although it was effective it created much
difficulty for people who tried to understand its cryptic commands. Windows went on to
become the largest operating system used in techonology today. Along with Microsoft, Apple

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is the other major operating system created in the 1980's. Steve Jobs, co founder of Apple,
created the Apple Macintosh which was a huge success due to the fact that it was so user
friendly. Windows development throughout the later years were influenced by the Macintosh
and it created a strong competition between the two companies. Today all of our electronic
devices run off of operating systems, from our computers and smartphones, to ATM machines
and motor vehicles. And as technology advances, so do operating systems.

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CHAPTER 2: OPERATING SYSTEM -

OVERVIEW

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware.
An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management,
memory management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating
System, VMS, OS/400, IOS, z/OS, etc.

1. Definition

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management

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 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

2. Memory Management

Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main

memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.

Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program
to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following
activities for memory management −

 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part
are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how
much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

3. Processor Management

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when
and for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System
does the following activities for processor management −

 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task
is known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

4. Device Management

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An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the
following activities for device management −

 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.

5- File Management

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions.

An Operating System does the following activities for file management −

 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often
known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

6- Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −

 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents

unauthorized access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service
and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.

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CHAPTER 3: TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving
with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of operating systems
which are most commonly used.

I- Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The
programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs
with similar requirements into batches.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle (spend time doing nothing), because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices
is slower than the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.

II- Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension
of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously
is termed as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is
that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use,
whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst (break, split) or quantum

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of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When
the user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.

The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a
small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have
been modified to time-sharing systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability (fiabilité, precision).

 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.

III- Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and
multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or
distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These
processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at
another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.

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IV- Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose
of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple
computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other
networks.

Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.

The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.

V- Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by
the system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as the
response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online
processing.

Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated
application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints,
otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

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There are two types of real-time operating systems.

VI- Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems,
secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual
memory is almost never found.

VII- Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard
real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

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CHAPTER 4: Operating-System Structure

1. Simple Structure

In MS-DOS, applications may bypass (countourner) the operating system.

 Operating systems such as MS-DOS and the original UNIX did not have well-defined
structures.
 There was no CPU Execution Mode (user and kernel), and so errors in applications
could cause the whole system to crash.

2. Monolithic Approach

 Functionality of the OS is invoked with simple function calls within the kernel, which
is one large program.
 Device drivers are loaded into the running kernel and become part of the kernel.

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A monolithic kernel, such as Linux and other Unix systems.

3. Layered Approach

This approach breaks up the operating system into different layers.

 This allows implementers to change the inner workings, and increases modularity.
 As long as the external interface of the routines don’t change, developers have more
freedom to change the inner workings of the routines.
 With the layered approach, the bottom layer is the hardware, while the highest layer is
the user interface.
o The main advantage is simplicity of construction and debugging.
o The main difficulty is defining the various layers.
o The main disadvantage is that the OS tends to be less efficient than other
implementations.

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The Microsoft Windows NT Operating System. The lowest level is a monolithic kernel, but
many OS components are at a higher level, but still part of the OS.

4. Microkernels

This structures the operating system by removing all nonessential portions of the kernel and
implementing them as system and user level programs.

 Generally they provide minimal process and memory management, and a communications
facility.
 Communication between components of the OS is provided by message passing.

The benefits of the microkernel are as follows:

 Extending the operating system becomes much easier.

 Any changes to the kernel tend to be fewer, since the kernel is smaller.
 The microkernel also provides more security and reliability.

Main disadvantage is poor performance due to increased system overhead from message
passing.

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A Microkernel architecture.

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Chapter 5: Operating System - Processes

1. Process

A process is basically a program in execution. The execution of a process must progress in a

sequential fashion.

A process is defined as an entity which represents the basic unit of work to be implemented in the
system.

To put it in simple terms, we write our computer programs in a text file and when we execute
this program, it becomes a process which performs all the tasks mentioned in the program.

When a program is loaded into the memory and it becomes a process, it can be divided into four
sections ─ stack, heap, text and data. The following image shows a simplified layout of a
process inside main memory −

S.N. Component & Description

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Stack
1
The process Stack contains the temporary data such as method/function parameters,
return address and local variables.
Heap
2
This is dynamically allocated memory to a process during its run time.

Text
3
This includes the current activity represented by the value of Program Counter and the
contents of the processor's registers.

Data
4
This section contains the global and static variables.

2. Program

A program is a piece of code which may be a single line or millions of lines. A computer
program is usually written by a computer programmer in a programming language. For
example, here is a simple program written in C programming language −

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello, World! \n");
return 0;
}

A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when executed
by a computer. When we compare a program with a process, we can conclude that a process is
a dynamic instance of a computer program.

A part of a computer program that performs a well-defined task is known as an algorithm. A

collection of computer programs, libraries and related data are referred to as a software.

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3. Process Life Cycle

When a process executes, it passes through different states. These stages may differ in different
operating systems, and the names of these states are also not standardized.

In general, a process can have one of the following five states at a time.

S.N. State & Description

Start
1
This is the initial state when a process is first started/created.

Ready

The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are waiting to have
2
the processor allocated to them by the operating system so that they can run. Process may
come into this state after Start state or while running it by but interrupted by the scheduler
to assign CPU to some other process.
Running
3
Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the process state
is set to running and the processor executes its instructions.
Waiting
4
Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as waiting for
user input, or waiting for a file to become available.
Terminated or Exit
5
Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the operating system, it is
moved to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from main memory.

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4. Process Control Block (PCB)

A Process Control Block is a data structure maintained by the Operating System for every
process. The PCB is identified by an integer process ID (PID). A PCB keeps all the information
needed to keep track of a process as listed below in the table −

S.N. Information & Description

Process State
1
The current state of the process i.e., whether it is ready, running, waiting, or whatever.
Process privileges
2
This is required to allow/disallow access to system resources.

Process ID
3
Unique identification for each of the process in the operating system.
Pointer
4
A pointer to parent process.
Program Counter
5
Program Counter is a pointer to the address of the next instruction to be executed for this
process.
CPU registers
6
Various CPU registers where process need to be stored for execution for running state.

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CPU Scheduling Information

7
Process priority and other scheduling information which is required to schedule the
process.
Memory management information
8
This includes the information of page table, memory limits, Segment table depending on
memory used by the operating system.
Accounting information
9
This includes the amount of CPU used for process execution, time limits, execution ID
etc.
IO status information
10
This includes a list of I/O devices allocated to the process.

The architecture of a PCB is completely dependent on Operating System and may contain
different information in different operating systems. Here is a simplified diagram of a PCB −

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The PCB is maintained for a process throughout its lifetime, and is deleted once the process
terminates.

CHAPTER 6: Operating System - Process

Scheduling

1. Definition

The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager that handles the removal of the
running process from the CPU and the selection of another process on the basis of a particular
strategy.

Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming operating systems. Such

operating systems allow more than one process to be loaded into the executable memory at a
time and the loaded process shares the CPU using time multiplexing.

2. Process Scheduling Queues

The OS maintains all PCBs in Process Scheduling Queues. The OS maintains a separate queue
for each of the process states and PCBs of all processes in the same execution state are placed
in the same queue. When the state of a process is changed, its PCB is unlinked from its current
queue and moved to its new state queue.

The Operating System maintains the following important process scheduling queues −

 Job queue − This queue keeps all the processes in the system.
 Ready queue − This queue keeps a set of all processes residing in main memory, ready
and waiting to execute. A new process is always put in this queue.
 Device queues − The processes which are blocked due to unavailability of an I/O device
constitute this queue.

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The OS can use different policies to manage each queue (FIFO, Round Robin, Priority, etc.).
The OS scheduler determines how to move processes between the ready and run queues which
can only have one entry per processor core on the system; in the above diagram, it has been
merged with the CPU.

3. Two-State Process Model

Two-state process model refers to running and non-running states which are described below −

S.N. State & Description

Running
1
When a new process is created, it enters into the system as in the running state.

Not Running

Processes that are not running are kept in queue, waiting for their turn to execute. Each

2 entry in the queue is a pointer to a particular process. Queue is implemented by using

linked list. Use of dispatcher is as follows. When a process is interrupted, that process is
transferred in the waiting queue. If the process has completed or aborted, the process is
discarded. In either case, the dispatcher then selects a process from the queue to execute.

4. Schedulers

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Schedulers are special system software which handle process scheduling in various ways. Their
main task is to select the jobs to be submitted into the system and to decide which process to
run. Schedulers are of three types −

 Long-Term Scheduler
 Short-Term Scheduler
 Medium-Term Scheduler

A. Long Term Scheduler

It is also called a job scheduler. A long-term scheduler determines which programs are
admitted to the system for processing. It selects processes from the queue and loads them into
memory for execution. Process loads into the memory for CPU scheduling.

The primary objective of the job scheduler is to provide a balanced mix of jobs, such as I/O
bound and processor bound. It also controls the degree of multiprogramming. If the degree of
multiprogramming is stable, then the average rate of process creation must be equal to the
average departure rate of processes leaving the system.

On some systems, the long-term scheduler may not be available or minimal. Time-sharing
operating systems have no long term scheduler. When a process changes the state from new to
ready, then there is use of long-term scheduler.

B. Short Term Scheduler

It is also called as CPU scheduler. Its main objective is to increase system performance in
accordance with the chosen set of criteria. It is the change of ready state to running state of the
process. CPU scheduler selects a process among the processes that are ready to execute and
allocates CPU to one of them.

Short-term schedulers, also known as dispatchers, make the decision of which process to
execute next. Short-term schedulers are faster than long-term schedulers.

C. Medium Term Scheduler

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Medium-term scheduling is a part of swapping. It removes the processes from the memory. It
reduces the degree of multiprogramming. The medium-term scheduler is in-charge of handling
the swapped out-processes.

A running process may become suspended if it makes an I/O request. A suspended processes
cannot make any progress towards completion. In this condition, to remove the process from
memory and make space for other processes, the suspended process is moved to the secondary
storage. This process is called swapping, and the process is said to be swapped out or rolled
out. Swapping may be necessary to improve the process mix.

5. Comparison among Scheduler

S.N. Long-Term Scheduler Short-Term Scheduler Medium-Term Scheduler

It is a process swapping
1 It is a job scheduler It is a CPU scheduler
scheduler.
Speed is lesser than short Speed is fastest among Speed is in between both short
2
term scheduler other two and long term scheduler.
It provides lesser control
It controls the degree of It reduces the degree of
3 over degree of
multiprogramming multiprogramming.
multiprogramming
It is almost absent or minimal It is also minimal in time It is a part of Time sharing
4
in time sharing system sharing system systems.
It selects processes from pool It can re-introduce the process
It selects those processes
5 and loads them into memory into memory and execution
which are ready to execute
for execution can be continued.

5. Context Switch

A context switch is the mechanism to store and restore the state or context of a CPU in Process
Control block so that a process execution can be resumed from the same point at a later time.
Using this technique, a context switcher enables multiple processes to share a single CPU.
Context switching is an essential part of a multitasking operating system features.

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When the scheduler switches the CPU from executing one process to execute another, the state
from the current running process is stored into the process control block. After this, the state
for the process to run next is loaded from its own PCB and used to set the PC, registers, etc. At
that point, the second process can start executing.

Context switches are computationally intensive since register and memory state must be saved
and restored. To avoid the amount of context switching time, some hardware systems employ
two or more sets of processor registers. When the process is switched, the following information
is stored for later use.

 Program Counter
 Scheduling information

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 Base and limit register value

 Currently used register
 Changed State
 I/O State information
 Accounting information

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CHAPTER 7: Operating System Scheduling

algorithms
A Process Scheduler schedules different processes to be assigned to the CPU based on particular
scheduling algorithms. There are six popular process scheduling algorithms which we are going
to discuss in this chapter

 First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

 Shortest-Job-Next (SJN) Scheduling
 Priority Scheduling
 Shortest Remaining Time
 Round Robin(RR) Scheduling
 Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling

These algorithms are either non-preemptive or preemptive. Non-preemptive algorithms are

designed so that once a process enters the running state, it cannot be preempted until it
completes its allotted time, whereas the preemptive scheduling is based on priority where a
scheduler may preempt a low priority running process anytime when a high priority process
enters into a ready state.

First Come First Serve (FCFS)

 Jobs are executed on first come, first serve basis.

 It is a non-preemptive, pre-emptive scheduling algorithm.
 Easy to understand and implement.
 Its implementation is based on FIFO queue.
 Poor in performance as average wait time is high.

Wait time of each process is as follows −

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Wait Time :
Service Time -
Arrival Time

Process
P0 0-0=0
P1 5-1=4
P2 8-2=6
P3 16 - 3 = 13

Average Wait Time: (0+4+6+13) / 4 = 5.75

Shortest Job Next (SJN)

 This is also known as shortest job first, or SJF

 This is a non-preemptive, pre-emptive scheduling algorithm.
 Best approach to minimize waiting time.
 Easy to implement in Batch systems where required CPU time is known in advance.
 Impossible to implement in interactive systems where required CPU time is not known.
 The processer should know in advance how much time process will take.

Given: Table of processes, and their Arrival time, Execution time

Process Arrival Time Execution Time Service Time

P0 0 5 0
P1 1 3 5

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P2 2 8 14
P3 3 6 8

Waiting time of each process is as follows −

Process Waiting Time

P0 0-0=0
P1 5-1=4
P2 14 - 2 = 12
P3 8-3=5

Average Wait Time: (0 + 4 + 12 + 5)/4 = 21 / 4 = 5.25

Priority Based Scheduling

 Priority scheduling is a non-preemptive algorithm and one of the most common

scheduling algorithms in batch systems.
 Each process is assigned a priority. Process with highest priority is to be executed first
and so on.
 Processes with same priority are executed on first come first served basis.
 Priority can be decided based on memory requirements, time requirements or any other
resource requirement.

Given: Table of processes, and their Arrival time, Execution time, and priority. Here we are
considering 1 is the lowest priority.

Process Arrival Time Execution Time Priority Service Time

P0 0 5 1 0
P1 1 3 2 11
P2 2 8 1 14
P3 3 6 3 5

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Waiting time of each process is as follows −

Process Waiting Time

P0 0-0=0
P1 11 - 1 = 10
P2 14 - 2 = 12
P3 5-3=2

Average Wait Time: (0 + 10 + 12 + 2)/4 = 24 / 4 = 6

Shortest Remaining Time

 Shortest remaining time (SRT) is the preemptive version of the SJN algorithm.
 The processor is allocated to the job closest to completion but it can be preempted by a
newer ready job with shorter time to completion.
 Impossible to implement in interactive systems where required CPU time is not known.
 It is often used in batch environments where short jobs need to give preference.

Round Robin Scheduling

 Round Robin is the preemptive process scheduling algorithm.

 Each process is provided a fix time to execute, it is called a quantum.
 Once a process is executed for a given time period, it is preempted and other process
executes for a given time period.
 Context switching is used to save states of preempted processes.

Wait time of each process is as follows −

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Process Wait Time : Service Time - Arrival Time

P0 (0 - 0) + (12 - 3) = 9
P1 (3 - 1) = 2
P2 (6 - 2) + (14 - 9) + (20 - 17) = 12
P3 (9 - 3) + (17 - 12) = 11

Average Wait Time: (9+2+12+11) / 4 = 8.5

Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling

Multiple-level queues are not an independent scheduling algorithm. They make use of other
existing algorithms to group and schedule jobs with common characteristics.

 Multiple queues are maintained for processes with common characteristics.

 Each queue can have its own scheduling algorithms.
 Priorities are assigned to each queue.

For example, CPU-bound jobs can be scheduled in one queue and all I/O-bound jobs in another
queue. The Process Scheduler then alternately selects jobs from each queue and assigns them
to the CPU based on the algorithm assigned to the queue.

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