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MODULE 1 – SPRINTING: AN
INTRODUCTORY JOURNEY
My Account > ALTIS Track & Field Education Series: Coaching the Short Sprints > Module 1 – Sprinting: An I… COMPLETE

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This module will explore:

-Sprinting through History: Changing Times & Perspectives

-Determinants of Sprinting: Technological & Historical Progression

-Sprinters: The People

-World Record Performances

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SPRINTING 101
Historically, the 100m sprint has been recognized as the gold ribbon event of Track & Field, deciding
the iconic title of “world’s fastest athlete”. Close cousins, the 60m and 200m are considered to be
premier events, carrying high stakes, high prizes, and a spectacle to match. The 100m sprint made its
first appearance in the Modern Olympics in Athens in 1896, where it was won by American – Thomas
Burke – who sealed the win with a time of 12.0 seconds. Since then, we have witnessed an evolution
of progress throughout the 1900s to the modern day. We will below start our journey into
understanding the genesis of the short sprint events – and their evolution, by briefly exploring how
they have morphed into the popular spectacle we see today.

Running can be considered both simple and difficult: simple because it is an instinctive, natural skill
performed at some time by all but the most unfortunate; difficult in its mechanical complexity. – Hay
(1970).

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SPRINTING: A JOURNEY THROUGH CHANGING

TIMES & PERSPECTIVES
Acknowledgements: Credits to PJ Vazel for his significant contributions to the contents of
this section.

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YEAR: 776 BC ONWARD – ANCIENT GREECE

In its earliest form, four running races were held during the Olympics:

The Stadion

Contested from 776 BC, The Stadion was a sprint race ranging from approximately 180m to 190m in
length (the Greeks didn’t harmonize the units, so the distance slightly varied from place to place). The
first documented Olympic Champion of this event was Koroibos of Elis. The Stadion remained the
only Olympic event for 13 games until others were introduced later, from 724 BC onward.

The Stadion of ancient Nemea, Greece. Credits: Robin Iversen Ronnlund.

The Diaulos

Held from 724 BC onward, the Diaulos race was a double Stadion involving the athletes running away
from then back towards the starting line, around a turning post. The distance ranged from around
175m to 190m, according to the venue.

The Dolichos

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Raced from 720 BC onward, the Dolichos was a long race – around 3000-5000m in length.

The Hoplitodromos

Contested from 520 BC onward, this race involved carrying a helmet, sword and shield, weighing a
total of about 50 pounds. The distance varied according to the track used, but ranged from 350m –
800m.

The great Leonidas of Rhodes won the Stadion, Diaulos, and Hoplitodromos in 4 consecutive Olympics
(164-152 BC). Not much is known about how athletes from this era trained, aside from that stated in
the Philostratus text. We can only imagine given the immense importance these races held, that the
Greeks developed a huge technical & theoretical knowledge on sprint training.

Runners circa 525 BC

YEAR: 1490
Excerpts from a collection of scientific notes and sketches by Leonardo da Vinci reveal interest at this
time was being directed to the basic kinematics of running:

“The faster a man runs, the more he leans forward towards the
point he runs to and throws more weight in front of his axis
than behind. A man who runs down hill throws the axis onto

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his heels, and one who runs up hill throws it into the points of
his feet; and a man running on level ground throws it first on
his heels and then on the points of his feet.”

Da Vinci (Paris Manuscript A)

YEAR: 1757
As reported in The London Chronicle (5-8 March 1757) the first known timing of a sprint race occurred
in a 100 yard match between two tradesmen. The sprint was won in 11 seconds.

YEAR: 1896
On April 6, 1896, the first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens, Greece – with athletes from 14
countries participating. The men’s 100 meters race was the shortest race on the Athletics program at
these Games. 21 athletes were entered in the first round, divided into three heats of seven runners, but
six of them later withdrew. It was ultimately won by Thomas Burke of the US, in 12.0 seconds. Burke
was the only athlete who used the crouch start (putting his knee on soil), which caused confusion.
Eventually however, he was allowed to start from this position.

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1896: The lanes were separated by ropes, and each runner had their own unique style of starting.

YEAR: 1920
The Games of the VII Olympiad were held in Antwerp. During these Games, the Belgium city was
witness to a 100m victory claimed by Charley Paddock (USA) – in an equal Olympic Record time of
10.6 seconds. He was followed by Morris Kirksey of the USA, who took the silver in a time of 10.8
seconds.

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1920 Olympic Champion in the 100m – Charley Paddock

(USA).

YEAR: 1928
The Amsterdam Olympics saw Betty Robinson win the inaugural women’s Olympic 100m race at the
age of just 16. In what was her third ever 100m competition, the American equaled the World Record,
in a time of 12.2 seconds.

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Betty Robinson was the first woman to win an Olympic gold

medal in Track & Field, in the 100-meter race at the 1928
games. Credits: Library of Congress.

YEAR: 1936
Jesse Owens was the star of the Berlin Games in 1936, winning the 100m in a time of 10.3 seconds. In
the same Games, The women’s 100 meters final was won by American Helen Stephens, in a time of
11.5 seconds.

YEAR: 1948
The 1948 Games of the XIV Olympiad, were held in London, England. The final was won by American
Harrison Dillard, who clocked a time of 10.3 seconds, equaling the Olympic Record. The race was
recorded by a photo finish, marking the first time a photo finish camera and wind recording
equipment was used at an Olympic Games.

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Technology progressed in the 1948 Olympic Games.

YEAR: 1950 ONWARD

In the second half of the twentieth century, competition to become the World’s Fastest Man got
tougher: From 1977 onward, automatic timing was required for World Record ratification. As such,
records could now be attributed to hundredths of seconds. Consequently, Jim Hines, whose 9.95s
Olympic Record in Mexico City had given him a share of the World record at 9.9s, now became the
sole holder of the record.

At the same time, in the United States a drive toward wider use of international measurement meant
more sprinters were competing at 100m, and fewer at the imperial distances of 100 yds and 110 yds.

Aiding the evolution in speed was the transition from dirt tracks to synthetic surfaces, which offered
better traction and returned more energy to sprinters. Bob Hayes’ 10.0s in Tokyo 1964 (automatically
timed as 10.06s) was on a soft, chewed-up lane 1; four years later on a synthetic track in Mexico City,
benefiting from altitude as much as the improved footing, Jim Hines ran a time of 9.95s.

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The short sprints have seen significant evolution throughout the last century. For more on the evolution of
the 100m World Record check out this great graphic by the BBC.

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DETERMINANTS OF SPRINTING:
TECHNOLOGICAL & HISTORICAL PROGRESSION
As we have witnessed sprint performances evolve through the past century, we have likewise seen
an evolution in supporting technologies. Below we outline a summary of key technological
progressions which have aided the evolution of performance in the short sprints.

TIMING EVOLUTION
Thanks to an innovation by watchmaker James William Benson, the first electronic timing in a
competition between Oxford and Cambridge Universities occurred as early as 1874. However, for some
reason the timing failed and only the hand times were given in the results (see image below).
Electronic timing was also used by the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association during meets every
year from 1883 onward. However, it was not widely available in early 20th century athletic events.

Coordination of the timing to the starter’s gun became electronically automated in 1912, whereby
current standards are such that electronic integration must not add a delay of more than 1/1000th
(0.001) of a second to the total time. Prior to 1912, hand-timing via use of stopwatches was used to

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determine winning times, and shortly after, chronographs and photoelectric recording technology
became compulsory for timing accuracy.

In 1965, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) began accepting automatic
electronically timed records for up to the 400m event. Automatic timing to the hundredth of a second
became mandatory on January 1, 1977.

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The first electronic timing in a competition occurred as early as 1874, during a

match between Oxford and Cambridge Universities.

THE SPRINT START & STARTING BLOCKS

There are controversies about who was the first to use crouch start, with various claims abounding
from assorted coaches and athletes. However, it is known that crouch start was used in professional
dual races during the nineteenth century as a handicap. Is it very likely that some sprinters using that
handicap still won races, and actually felt better starting this way meaning it gained popularity.

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Credits: PJ Vazel ‘Pourquoi les sprinteurs partent accroupis?’

Meanwhile, although other variations existed (see above photo), the traditional starting position for
sprinting was a standing start. Records suggest however, that as early as 1884, athletes began to adopt
a crouched start position through choice rather than as a handicap. Following this change, the use of
divots dug into the ground to better support the feet in this position became common.

A patent for starting blocks was filed in 1927 and published in 1929. However, starting blocks were not
authorized by the IAAF until 1937. Ten years later – in 1948 – they were first used in the Olympic
Games in London. Today, starting blocks have become real technological tools, detecting athlete’s
reaction time to 1,000th of a second, based on the pressure exerted. According to IAAF rules (1991) a
reaction time of less than one-tenth of a second is considered a false start. However, it has since
been left to the discretion of the starter to choose the false start threshold – (usually 0.100 or 0.120s).

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Jesse Owens at start of record breaking 200 meter race during the Olympic games 1936 in Berlin, using
divots dug into the track for starting traction.

TRACK SURFACE
Since the 18th Olympiad held in Japan 1964 (the last venue to host an Olympics with a track made of
cinders) all running and approach surfaces have been made with synthetic materials. Percy Beard
pioneered the first synthetic hard surface track in the 1940s. Since then, synthetic track surfaces have
dramatically advanced to provide greater recoil for improved running times. The first US

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In the 1900s, improvements to track spikes accelerated. A German cobbler named Adolf Dassler began
experimenting with the spiked running shoes to see if he could improve them with lighter materials
and better spikes. Dassler’s company, first named Addas, became Adidas. His brother, Rudi, who
originally started with him, broke off and formed Puma.

In the late 1960s track spikes progressed with a material that would once again revolutionize both the
shoe and the sport. Plastic bottom plates were added to toe area where the spikes were screwed in,
and soon after, the leather material for the uppers transitioned to synthetic and mesh materials,
making the spikes even more lightweight.

Today’s sprint spikes are lightweight, with a minimal heel. The forefoot on most designs is angled
with an upward curvature in an attempt to manipulate the metatarsophalangeal joint (Krell &
Stefanyshyn, 2007).

It is commonly thought that stiffer spike plates (generally made of carbon fiber) are preferable,
providing a stiffer contact to the ground; Stefanyshyn & Fusco (2004) for example, determined that
increasing shoe stiffness increases sprint performance by modifying tension in the calf muscles.
However, coaches and athletes alike should also consider the merits versus drawbacks of using stiffer
spike plates.

Another study looked into the influence of midsole bending stiffness on joint energy and jump height
performance, and found that energy generation and absorption at each of the ankle, knee, and hip
joints was not influenced by the stiffness of the shoe midsole. The stiff shoes with the carbon fiber
plates did not increase the amount of energy stored and reused at the metatarsophalangeal joints;
however, they reduced the amount of energy lost at this joint during both running and jumping.
Vertical jump height however, was significantly higher (average, 1.7 cm for a group of 25 subjects)
while wearing the stiff shoes (Stefanyshyn & Nigg, 1999).

Stefanyshyn & Fusco, (2007) explored the relationship between shoe bending stiffness and sprint
performance. They found that while some athletes improved sprint performance times between
20-40m in a 40m sprint by using spikes with a stiffer plate (carbon fiber composition), others did not.
Again, caution should therefore be exercised and individual choice and mechanics should be
considered.

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The first track spikes made their appearance around 1850 and began to be sold commercially in the late
1800s.

EXTERNAL DETERMINANTS IN SPRINTING AND THEIR

IMPLICATIONS
In addition to technological determinants, there are a range of external and environmental
determinants with the potential to impact performance. Below, we explore some of the most common
and influential determinants, and share a range of ideas on how these factors influence performance.

WEATHER CONDITIONS

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Current IAAF World Records for the short sprints.

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HISTORICAL CHANGES IN SPRINTING

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Reading: Progression of the IAAF World Records

Reading: The Science of Speed: Determinants of Performance in the 100 m Sprint

Reading: A history of training theory and methods for elite runners through 1975

Reading: Usain Bolt and the Fastest Men in the World Since 1896 – on the Same Track

Reading: A Historical Progression of Sprinting Top Speed World Bests

Reading: PJ Vazel – A history of sprint training methods

Reading: PJ Vazel – Top Speed History

Reading: A brief history of running shoes

Reading: The design, construction and evaluation of sprint footwear to investigate increased sprint
shoe bending stiffness on sprint performance and dynamics

Reading: Morphologic and kinematic characteristics of elite sprinters

Reading: When sprinters wore baggy shorts

Reading: Energetics and mechanics of human running on surfaces of different stiffnesses

Reading: Track compliance does not affect sprinting performance

Reading: PJ Vazel ‘Pourquoi les sprinteurs partent accroupis?’ (French)

Reading: PJ Vazel ‘Pourquoi la piste de Daegu est-elle bleue?’ (French)

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• IOC (2018). A short history of the starting blocks

• The History of Track Spikes – Freelap

• Darren Stefanyshyn & Ciro Fusco (2004). Increased Shoe Bending Stiffness Increases Sprint
Performance, Athletics, Sports Biomechanics, 3:1, 55-66

• Jason B. Krell & Darren J. Stefanyshyn (2006). The relationship between extension of the
metatarsophalangeal joint and sprint time for 100 m Olympic athletes, Journal of Sports
Sciences, 24:2, 175-180

• Darren Stefanyshyn & Benno Nigg (1999). Influence of midsole bending stiffness on joint energy
and jump height performance

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