Overview: Module 2

English learners are generally grouped into the following six levels:

 Beginner
 Elementary
 Pre-intermediate
 Intermediate
 Upper intermediate
 Advanced

However, in some schools/institutions you may find different classifications.

The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) is widely accepted in
European countries, as well as increasingly on an international scale, and
aims to standardise language learning, teaching and assessment. There are
three general categories (A-Basic User, B-Independent User, C-Proficient User)
which are further broken down into two levels.

 Basic User

A1 – Breakthrough or Beginner
A2 – Waystage or Elementary

 Independent User

B1 – Threshold or Intermediate
B2 – Vantage or Upper Intermediate

 Proficient User

C1 – Effective Operational Proficiency or Advanced C2 –

Mastery or Proficiency Another method commonly used is grouping students
into classes named after the exams they are preparing for, particularly in the
case of the Cambridge ESOL examinations. These are:

 KET – Key English Test

 PET – Preliminary English Test
 FCE – First Certificate in English
 CAE – Certificate in Advanced English
 CPE – Certificate of Proficiency in English

There are additionally two Cambridge exams for young learners (ESOL YLE)
known as Starters, Movers and Flyers.

More about the CEFR

The CEFR is very important, so it’s crucial that we explore this further.

You may teach in a school where their approach and syllabus is fully built on
the CEFR classifications and terminology; thus, it’s paramount that you have a
solid grasp of it. It’s not difficult.
Background

Different terminology is used in EFL when describing a student’s

proficiency/competency in language as compared to mainstream English
classes in, for example, the USA or the UK.

 As you’ll already know, measuring a student’s proficiency in language

is not an exact science.
 No universal system of rating exists.
 The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR
or CEF) is, perhaps, our best guide. There are other guides.
 Many organisations adapt the CEFR levels to suit their particular levels.

Fortunately, nearly all good coursebooks will identify which level the materials
are intended for and schools will have similar class labelling to indicate what
level the students are studying. So, there’s no need to worry!

1. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

(CEFR; sometimes called the CEF): What is it?

The CEFR is a standard, international scale of levels for language learning. It

has 6 levels in ascending order from A1 to C2.

The CEFR gives you a detailed description of learner level by skill, in a

language-neutral format. Because it is language-neutral, it can actually be
used for any language in the world.

It is a useful reference document for school directors, syllabus designers,

teachers, teacher trainers and proficient learners.

Language testers and examination boards are increasingly using the CEFR as
their scale of levels, though some give each level their own name.

The table we will explore in a moment shows the 3 bands (A-C) with each of
those bands divided into two, giving us six main levels. It also describes
(provides descriptors) which represent what a student should be able to do at
each level.

You may have heard of other student level terminology in EFL, i.e. Beginner,
Intermediate and Advanced. Very loosely, you can see the CEFR levels as
similar to Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced – though the CEFR levels are
more precise than these terms (and calls them Basic, Independent, and
Proficient).

2. The CEFR’s approach: Communicative language competence

The CEFR’s approach is based on the notion of communicative language

competence– the increasing ability to communicate and operate effectively in
the target language

It will be useful for you if we expand a bit on the CEFR’s view of

communicative language competence.
Communicative language competence has a number of component parts:
it includes linguistic, socio-linguistic and pragmatic competences. Each of
these competences is made up of knowledge, aptitudes and skills.

Linguistic competence

Linguistic competence comprises the knowledge and skills related to:

 lexis (generally, words and phrases)

 phonology (generally, relationships among the speech sounds)
 syntax (generally, the arrangement of words and phrases to create
well-formed sentences in a language)
 and other features of language systems, considered independently of
the sociolinguistic impact of variations in use and of the pragmatic
functions of the utterances produced.

It concerns not only the range and quality of knowledge (for example, the
range and precision of lexical knowledge) but also involves cognitive
organisation and the way this knowledge is stored in memory (for example,
the question of how a lexical item fits into the networks of associations the
speaker has available) and the accessibility (for example, how an item can be
recalled, activated and its availability for use).

Socio-linguistic competence

Socio-linguistic competence refers to the knowledge and skills involved in

using language functionally in a social context.

Since language is a social phenomenon, its use requires sensitivity to social

norms and customs which affect to an important degree all linguistic
communication between representatives of different cultures, even if the
participants are frequently unaware of them.

These social norms affect, amongst other factors, rules of address, greetings
and politeness, the way in which relations between generations, sexes, people
of different social status, social groupings are expressed through special
language markers, linguistically codified rituals, differences in register, dialect
and accent, through vocal rhythms, for example.

Linguistic competence leads us to consider social and intercultural parameters

and the way in which they influence language use.

Pragmatic competence

Pragmatic competence involves the functional uses of linguistic resources

(carrying out language functions, speech acts) using scenarios or
predetermined scripts of interactional exchanges. It also involves mastery of
discourse, cohesion and coherence, the recognition of text types and genres,
using irony or parody. Even more than in the case of this factor than for
linguistic competence, the development of pragmatic skills is strongly
influenced by interactive experience and by the cultural environment.

Let’s have a look at these CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors at a Global
Level
You will find the Global Scale is a useful starting point. Study this well. It’s not
difficult. It’s an excellent guide, an aide-memoire, which will keep you on track
when you start on your TEFL journey.

CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors - Global Level

Level Descriptors Level

Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise
information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing
C
arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself
2
spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of
meaning even in the most complex situations.
Proficient
Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise User
implicit meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without
much obvious searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and C
effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, 1
well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of
organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.
Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and
abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of
specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that
B
makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain
2
for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects
and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and
disadvantages of various options. Independen
t User
Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters
regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most
situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is B
spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of 1
personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes &
ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.
Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas
of most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family
information, shopping, local geography, employment). Can communicate in
A
simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of
2
information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms
aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas
of immediate need. Basic User
Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic
phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce
him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal A
details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she 1
has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and
clearly and is prepared to help.

We can also use the ‘+’ to indicate the top half of a level. For example, ‘B1+’
means the top half of the B1 range. You will find this convention followed in
various course books.

3. Why do we need the CEFR?

Even among teachers of the same language in similar contexts there can be a
lot of variety in what is meant by terms like ‘beginner’, ‘intermediate’ or
‘advanced’. This variability increases significantly across different languages,
in different countries, with different age ranges of learners, etc. The CEFR
makes it easier for all of us to talk about language levels reliably and with
shared understanding.

4. What is it used for?

The CEFR is used for many different practical purposes:

 Developing syllabuses
 Creating texts/exams
 Marking exams
 Evaluating language learning needs
 Designing courses
 Developing learning materials
 Continuous assessment of others, or self-assessment
 Teacher training programmes

5. Is it just about levels?

The CEFR has been very significant in language learning and teaching
because its impact goes beyond merely describing learner levels. It has
underpinned a particular approach to language learning as the one most
commonly recommended or expected in language teaching today. This is the
Communicative Approach we explored earlier.

It not just about levels. The descriptions of levels in the CEFR are skills-based
and take the form of Can Do statements, as in the examples below. These
descriptions of ability focus on communicative purpose and make for a very
practical approach, which looks at what people can do – rather than on
specific linguistic knowledge.

The CEFR is particularly useful because it applies the same set of levels to all
the various sub-skills and areas of competence:

 the basic four skills (speaking, reading, writing and listening)

 communicative language (e.g. turn-taking, asking for clarification)
 types of interaction (e.g. obtaining goods and services, interviewing)
 and more linguistic skills (e.g. vocabulary range, phonological control)

It allows you link up skills in each of these areas with the student’s overall
level.

Examples of ‘can do’ statements from the CEFR

Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate

environment and matters in areas of immediate need. [A2, Global Scale]

Can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex

topics beyond his/her own field, though he/she may need to confirm
occasional details, especially if the accent is unfamiliar.[C1, Listening]

Can understand a wide range of long and complex texts, appreciating subtle
distinctions of style and implicit as well as explicit meaning. [C2, Reading]
Can write personal letters and notes asking for or conveying simple
information of immediate relevance, getting across the point he/she feels to
be important.[B1, Written interaction]

Can use stock phrases (e.g. “That’s a difficult question to answer”) to gain
time and keep the turn whilst formulating what to say. [B2, Turn taking]

You can view a list of Can Do statements

at https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMConte
nt?documentId=090000168045b15e

6. What’s in it for you? How can the CEFR be useful for teachers?

Understanding language levels better

The CEFR helps you to understand a standardised terminology for describing

language levels. National, local and school policies are increasingly being
described in CEFR levels – and so it’s important to understand what they
mean.

Seeing more clearly what learners need to work on

The CEFR describes what learners need to be able to do to reach the next
level. You will find it particularly useful in showing how different component
skills are described at each level. You have an idea of what a B2 student is
like, but what should they be able to do in terms of listening to
lectures/speeches, or writing correspondence, or spoken fluency? The CEFR
helps you see what is needed for different aspects of learning English.

Curriculum plan

If a teacher responsible for working out what is going to be taught in a class –

just her own or for the whole school – it is very helpful to use the CEFR as a
broad framework. Look carefully at the descriptors for the levels you need –
not just the Global Scale, but component scales as well where relevant.

What do you want your students to achieve in each course on their path to
the target level? This can be further elaborated by looking at the information
coming from English Profile, which we’ll come to in a moment. Of course,
most teachers do not need to create their own curriculum. By choosing a
course book that is aligned to the CEFR, you have a syllabus created by
experts – which you may then choose to adapt for your own circumstances.

7. Should you introduce your students to the CEFR?

Yes, it’s very useful for students to understand how mastery of a language
builds up from beginner to mastery. Of course, this needs to be suitable for
their level and age, and it is probably adults and teenagers that will find it
useful.

Scales – adapted to their language level – are really useful for self-
assessment, which can be very helpful in developing language skills.

8. English Profile
The English Profile Programme involves major research projects that are all
working towards a reliable, detailed description of the actual learner English
that is typical of each CEFR level.

Initially, the focus has been on vocabulary and grammar, and the English
Vocabulary Profile is now complete for all six levels, A1-C2. A separate
research team is developing a similar resource, the English Grammar Profile,
which describes the gradual mastery of grammar across the six CEFR levels.

Cambridge University Press has given teachers around the world access to
their research into vocabulary learning across the CEFR.

Go to the English Profile website – www.englishprofile.org and click on Free

Registration English Vocabulary Profile. This will allow you to find out which
words and phrases – and individual meanings of each word – are typically
mastered by learners at each CEFR level.

This is a really valuable tool to make decisions about what to teach students
as they progress. Cambridge University Press authors and editors make
extensive use of this research in developing their course materials. Use it
well!

In this module we’re going to look at an overview of the grammar

taught at each level as well as going over some key grammatical
terms and what they actually mean, and see how to teach the
different tenses.

Unit 1: Grammar at every

level
Needless to say, your teaching will change according to the level of the group
or individual, particularly in terms of grammar. Have a look at the following
table to get an idea at what is taught when.

Subject pronouns (I, you, he/she…)

Object pronouns (me, you, him/her…)
Verb ‘be’ – present tense (I am, you are…)
This, that, these, those
Basic prepositions (in, at, to…)
Beginner
Articles (a, an, the)
Singular/plural nouns
Possessive adjectives (my, your, his/hers…)
Possessive ‘s’
Likes and dislikes
Verb ‘be’ – present tense questions and negatives
Present simple (I walk, she walks…)
Present continuous (I’m walking, she’s walking…)
Adverbs of frequency (sometimes, often, never…)
Possessive pronouns (mine, yours…) Elementary
Past simple, regular and irregular (play> played, go>went)
Like + -ing (I like swimming)
Want, like and would like
Telling the time
Past simple, regular and irregular verbs
Past continuous (she was going, they were walking…)
So, because, but, although
Future forms: ‘going to’/present continuous for future
arrangements/‘will/won’t’
Pre-
Present perfect + ever, never, for and since
Intermediate
Comparatives (more/less…than, as….as)
Superlatives (the most/least….)
Modals of obligation (have to, don’t have to, must, mustn’t…)
‘Used to’
‘so/neither’ + auxiliaries (so do I, neither has he…)
Present perfect vs continuous
Past simple vs past continuous vs past perfect
Future forms: ‘going to’ vs present continuous vs ‘will/shall’
Usually vs used to
Reported speech (“I’m going to the park” > he said he was going to the
park)
Intermediate
Passives (the church was painted by Michelangelo)
Relative clauses (the girl who is sat over there…)
Modals of obligation and deduction (must, may, might, can’t…)
Can, could, be able to (ability)
First conditional and future time clauses (If I pass the exam, I’ll celebrate)
Second conditional ((If I was famous I’d give money to charity))
The...the… + comparatives (the more you learn the more you know…) Upper
Using adjectives as nouns (rich people are privileged > the rich are Intermediate
privileged)
Adjective order
Narrative tenses
Adverbs and adverbial phrases
Passive structures (it is said that…, he is believed to…)
Future perfect and continuous (the ice caps will have melted, we will be
using solar powered cars)
Reporting verbs (recommend, threaten, advise…)
Third conditional (if I had known, I would have come)
Past modals, ‘would rather’ and ‘had better’
Gerunds and infinitives
Used to, be used to, get used to
Structures after wish Quantifiers
Inversion for emphasis (little did he know that the dog had escaped)
Linkers (although, nonetheless, whilst…)
Mixed conditionals (If her eyesight was better she would have seen the
squirrel)
Cleft sentences (the reason why I’ve come is…, the thing that annoys
me most is…)
Compound nouns
‘So’ and ‘such’
Advanced
Gerunds and infinitives
Phrasal verbs (go up, go in, go out, go on, go for…)
Unreal uses of past tenses (it’s time we left, suppose we opened our own
shop…)
Uses of the verb ‘get’
Participle phrases (the horse, trotting up to the fence, hopes you have a
carrot)
Passive and active voice

Although this may look a bit overwhelming, you will never be left without
resources to work from and many teacher’s books even give a step-by-step
guide of how to teach all the grammar listed above. Today we’re going to look
together at an example from each level so that you have an idea of how to
teach appropriately at every stage.

Beginner Level
When teaching absolute beginners it is crucial to ‘grade’ your language as
much as possible because even some of the simplest sentences may confuse
your students. At this level you really need to be animated and reduce the
complexity of anything you say.

If, for example, you start your lesson with, “Okay guys, today we’re going to
cover subject pronouns” you will probably be greeted by a sea of blank stares.
Instead, it is essential to use visuals, for example, “Look (point to eyes) at the
board (point to board)” before clearly writing the title ‘subject pronouns’.

This is a technique called ‘modelling’ and is really necessary at this

level.

Basically, it means demonstrating exactly what you’re talking about by

pointing and using visuals. In case you’re unsure, subject pronouns are used
to replace the noun which is the subject of the sentence.

If we take the sentence “Mary is American”, we can replace the noun (Mary)
with ‘she’, a subject pronoun. The subject pronouns in English are:
  I – 1st person singular
 you – 2nd person singular
 he/she/it – 3rd person singular
 we – 1st person plural
 you – 2nd person plural
 they – 3rd person plural

Rather than simply writing this list on the board and getting your students to
copy it, you first need to demonstrate. Look at the example below of how to
present a lesson on subject pronouns…

 “I (point to yourself) am a teacher”. Write the word ‘I’ on the board,

then repeat the sentence, again pointing at yourself as you emphasis
the word ‘I’.
 “you (point to an individual student) have a red bag (e.g.)”. Write ‘you’
on the board underneath ‘I’ and repeat.
 Say both sentences together, always demonstrating as you speak, “I
am a teacher. You have a red bag”
 “he (point to a male student) is tall (indicate height with your hand)”.
 Continue with this pattern until you have demonstrated all the subject
pronouns.
 Get the students to repeat after you and drill pronunciation.
 At this point there are a variety of activities you could do from
matching activities to sentence completion but remember not to ignore
the visual aspect: any handout should include clear pictures that the
students can relate the pronouns to.
Match the following pronouns to the pictures.
you (plural)
they
I
you (singular)
she
we
he
Check answer

More about teaching absolute beginners

You’ll notice that we have introduced the word ‘absolute’. This is to

differentiate ‘true’ beginners (absolute beginners) from ‘false’ beginners,
which we’ll come to in a moment.

An absolute beginner has no knowledge of English.

Here is some further sound and practical advice for teaching

absolute beginners:

1. Keep it simple

Work hard at grading your language to these groups. Keep it simple and try
not to use complex structures or complex vocabulary, e.g. Most definitely, if I
were you….

You’ll need to speak slower but not too slow and deliberate such that it
sounds like you are talking to a baby, otherwise the learners may feel
patronised.

But don’t miss out simple but important words and structures. Don’t say Ah,
you to go to party tonight. Learners need to hear certain structures even if
you haven’t reached that learning point with them. Otherwise, they may think
that’s how English really is spoken.

And, if you are teaching adults at these levels, it’s important to utilise or
create material that is relevant to an adult. Avoid using books or materials
that are too childish.

2. Use the right approach

You’ll need to be ready to use a wider variety of materials and shorter

activities that involve them in communication – more drawing on the board,
more pictures and diagrams, more role plays, more ways for getting the
message across. Also, make good use of gestures and mime to help get the
message across.

3. Encourage interaction

Use pair or group activities that encourage interaction by providing learners

with situations in which they must negotiate language with partners or group
members to complete a task.

4. Make a personal connection

 Ensure you know the students’ names. If you have any difficulty with this,
draw up a seating plan with their names on it. When you’re away from your
desk, you can use some tricks of the trade:

1. You: Well done, Maria (whose name you have remembered). Who will I ask
now? You tell me, Maria. You can point to the person.
Maria: Juan (pointing to Juan)
You: Thank you, Maria. Juan (whose name you had forgotten), what is the
dog’s name?
2. You: The next student I will ask is a boy, he has a red shirt and he sits near
the window. Who is it?
They: Alejandro!(pointing to him)
You: That’s right. Well done! Alejandro (whose name you had forgotten), what
is the dog’s name?

5. Minimise your students’ cognitive burden

Cognitive, as you will know, is the fancy word for the mental action or process
of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and
the senses.

When teaching these groups of beginner students, it’s best not to write a lot
of information on the board and have students copy it down while you
continue to explain concepts. We can easily forget these students cannot
multi-task with their current language proficiency level and it is important to
break down tasks into smaller components.

Do one thing at a time.

6. Can they see and hear?

Make sure students can see and hear you. Some students may never have
had their eyesight or hearing checked. A student who appears resistant to
learning may simply have needs that have not been expressed.

7. Learn a bit of their language

Make an effort to learn some words or phrases in the students’ L1. They will
appreciate your effort to learn their language, and they will see you more as a
partner in the learning process rather than someone who has all the answers.

The students will enjoy helping you learn a few new words each day; by
learning bits of a totally new language you will have more empathy for your
students’ struggles to learn English.

8. Review constantly

Remember that with beginners you are your students’ textbook and study
guide as well as their teacher. Provide review sessions at the beginning of
every class so students will practise what they’ve learned and acquire the
language.

9. Be animated
Don’t be afraid to make sound effects, play music, do mimes and take walks
around the school neighbourhood to reinforce concepts. Sometimes the best
learning doesn’t even take place in the classroom, and it doesn’t have to be
serious to be effective.

We mentioned ‘false’ beginners above. Let’s explore what these are.

False beginners

It’s important that we make you aware of the phenomenon of false beginners.

By the time you are in action, you will have picked up this Very Important
Point from this course – beware of false beginners.

Note that at the beginner level, CEFR A1 Level, a distinction is often made
between teaching false beginners and absolute beginners.

False beginners are those students who have perhaps had a little English
learning, or who have picked up English more informally and inconsistently,
perhaps through travelling or from bi-lingual parents/carers.

False beginners may give the appearance of knowing some English, which
initially makes them easier to teach. However, their superficial knowledge can
present some teaching challenges, as these learners may have developed
early bad errors/habits.

Their classroom motivation may also be affected, as they may think that they
already know the material just because they recognise it. Look out for false
beginners.

Note that absolute beginners have a high intrinsic motivation from day 1, and
will catch up to the false beginner learner very quickly.

Elementary Level
At elementary level your students should already be able to grasp the
absolute basics but don’t get carried away thinking you can present a lesson
to them in the same way you would to an English native speaker!

Your students should hopefully be familiar with the subject pronouns and the
verb ‘be’ in positive sentences (I am, you are, he/she/it is…) but it’s always
useful to do a quick recap. At this stage you can also introduce whatever
vocabulary theme you are linking the lesson to e.g. nationalities (I am English,
you are Italian…) or feelings perhaps (she is happy, they are tired…).

 Write "+" on the board and a variety of sentences with the verb 'be'
using all the subject pronouns.
 Next to this list write " - " symbol and try to elicit from the class the
negative equivalent of each sentence, e.g:
- +
I am not English I am English
 You are Italian
You are not Italian He is Scottish
She is French
 At this stage you can show the negative contractions, highlighting the
fact that with every subject pronoun except ‘I’ there are two
possibilities (I’m not… compared to you’re not/you aren’t… etc.). Get
the class to practice writing a variety of sentences about themselves
and other students to then read aloud. Drill pronunciation.
 You can then introduce the question statements using a listening task
where the students must complete the gaps with the correct form of
the verb be for example:

Teacher gives this instruction: "Listen and complete the dialogue"

Man: ____ you Scottish?

Woman: No, I’m Irish! Where ___ you from?
Man: I’m from the USA.
Woman: ___ he from the USA too?
Man: Yes, we ___ both from California.

 Elicit correct answers on the board then write:

 + You are Scottish
 ? Are you Scottish?
 Ask, ‘What’s the difference?’ Highlight the inversion of subject and verb
using arrow symbols
 Again once the grammar point has been presented there are any
number of different task-based activities you can give to the class to
ensure they have understood and to practice.

Pre-intermediate Level
At pre-intermediate level we often introduce modal verbs of
permission and obligation.

Modal verbs are verbs such as can, must, may etc. which are always followed
by another verb but they tell us the function of that main verb.

For example, ‘you can run’ is very different in meaning from ‘you must run’.
Many pre-intermediate students will have heard a lot of these verbs before
but may not be completely sure of their meaning.

Especially because some of the modals of permission/obligation (must, may,

can, should, have to) have negatives (must not, may not, don’t have to etc.)
which aren’t exactly opposite in meaning.
There are numerous resources online and in EFL books which cover this topic
but an idea of how to present the lesson is shown below.

 Write the title ‘School Rules’ on the board and try to elicit as many as
possible from the students e.g. ‘you must switch off mobile phones in
class’, ‘you have to wear a school uniform’ etc.
 Go back through the rules and highlight all the modals of
permission/obligation. If there are any missing you can try to elicit
them by writing the first letter of each in hangman-style (e.g. m_ _ )
until all are on the board.
 Write a list of definitions on the board or have a handout prepared and
ask students to match the modals (positive and negative versions) up
with each definition.

Lets look at some modal verbs. Please note, as will all these question
types, you need to drag all the answers into the correct zones.

Drag and drop the modal verbs.

It is obligatory
It is possible
It is advisable
It is forbidden
It isn't necessary
It is inadvisable
must
may not
may
cannot
must not
should
can
have to
shouldn't
don't have to
Check answer
It’s then important to highlight that whilst certain modals have the exact
opposite meaning in the negative form (should/shouldn’t) others change
meaning in the negative (have to=obligation/don’t have to=possible but not
necessary NOT forbidden).
 After this you can ask students to imagine their ideal school and write
their own set of rules using a variety of the modals covered, bringing
together ideas from each individual/group to make a full set which
have a general consensus.

Intermediate Level
Relative clauses are used to give additional information about something
without starting a new sentence. They combine sentences in a way that is
natural and avoids repetition. Without relative clauses, speech and writing can
sound heavy and strange, for example:
Mark is talking to a girl. Do you know the girl?

Here we have two very short sentences, repeating the word ‘girl’. Instead we
could join the two together using the relative pronoun ‘who’

Do you know the girl who Mark is talking to?

There are five different relative pronouns (who, which, whom, that
and whose) and three relative adverbs (where, when, why) which can
be used to link sentences together.

A typical exercise used to present relative clauses is to give students a

number of sentences that they have to link together using an appropriate
relative clause. At intermediate level the essential ones are who, which, that,
where and when. Whom, whose and why can be taught at higher levels.

Upper-Intermediate level
At upper-intermediate level your students should be comfortable writing and
conversing in English but will most likely continue to make small mistakes
particularly with verb patterns.

An important feature of any upper-intermediate course should be the

distinction between gerunds and infinitives.

In sentences where more than one verb is used, the first verb determines the
form of the second.

Native English speakers do this automatically, without thinking, but for EFL
students it’s not so obvious. You would know instinctively, for example, that it
is incorrect to say ‘I enjoy listen music’. This is because the first verb ‘enjoy’ is
always followed by the gerund (the -ing form of the verb).

Likewise, the sentence ‘I’ve decided going to university’ doesn’t sound right
at all (although we do understand the meaning of the sentence). Here we
need the infinitive form of the verb (the verb in its original state) with
‘to’ : ‘I’ve decided to go to university’.

A good way to introduce upper-intermediate students to this topic is to first off

give them a variety of sentences and use their instinct to tick the correct verb
form. This is because at this level they will already have been exposed to a lot
of English and will feel satisfied to know that their subconsciouses have
absorbed some valuable information!

Look at the following exercise and choose the correct verb form.

1. I play dance music when I’m sad and want ______ better.


A. feeling

B. to feel


C. feel

Check answer
2. I can’t stand _______.


A. queuing


B. to queue


C. queue

Check answer
3. I can’t ________ tonight, I have to study.


A. coming out


B. to come out


C. come out

Check answer
As you can see, some verbs are followed by the gerund, some by the infinitive
with ‘to’ and some by the infinitive without ‘to’.

Unfortunately, there aren’t any set rules for learning which (apart from
knowing that modals, amongst others, are always followed by the infinitive
without to).

It’s a case of trying to memorise which verbs take which and practice,
practice, practice!
Advanced Level
As an example of advanced level content we’re going to look at active and
passive sentences. An active sentence is one which follows the usual formula
of subject + verb + object/complement:

 He built the stadium in 1998

A passive sentence, however, inverts this order, placing the object at the
beginning.

 The stadium was built (by him) in 1998

We use passive sentences to place emphasis on the object, rather than the
subject of the sentence, or when the subject is unknown or unimportant.

In passive sentences, we call the subject the ‘agent’ and stating the agent is
optional, as in the above example.

To form a passive sentence we always use the verb ‘be’ (in the same tense as
the verb from the active sentence) + past participle. If we look at the previous
example, the verb is ‘built’ which is the past simple form of the verb ‘build’.

Therefore, in the passive sentence, it is the verb ‘be’ which must change to
the past simple form ‘was’ + the past participle which in this case is ‘built’.

To recap how to form passive sentences with your class you could give them a
list of active sentences and ask them to re-write them in the passive.

Example Grammar Practice

Whilst most of your students should feel comfortable forming passive
sentences in a controlled exercise, they may still make mistakes in their
writing by using the passive form in an active sentence or vice versa.

It can therefore be useful to find a text which uses a variety of active or

passive sentences, erase all the verb forms and have students write the
correct active or passive verb in the blank spaces.

Look at the following example which you are free to use with your own
lessons.

Student instruction "Fill the gaps with the active or passive form of
the verbs in brackets"

Reuters 'News Agency

Martin Webb_________(work) for the Reuters News Agency for ten years. He
describes the company. "Reuters is one of the world's biggest news agencies.
It__________(supply) news and stock market price to media and financial
institutions all over the world__________ (start) by Paul Reuters in 1849 - with
pigeons.

Reuter________(be) born in 1816 in Germany. During the 1840's he

_________(employ) as a bank clerk in Berlin. German bankers _________(need)
to know the price on the Paris stock exchange, but the French telegraph
system only went as far as Belgium. From there the
information______________(send) to Germany by train. The
journey________(take) nine hours. The same information_______ carry by Paul
Reuter's pigeons in only two hours!"

"Reuters _________(change) a lot since those days. Over the past fifty years,
we _________(open) offices in many different countries and we
_______still_______(expand). Now, news and stock market
prices__________(send) all over the world within seconds."

*text taken from www.busyteacher.org

Again there are variety of resources available to teach the various grammar
points but the important thing to remember is how to teach appropriately at
each level!

Unit 2: Key grammatical terms

and their functions
Many novice EFL teachers are afraid of teaching grammar because, although
they can intuitively sense if a sentence is correct or incorrect, they often don’t
know how to explain why because they themselves are unfamiliar with all the
jargon.

If you struggle recognising your nouns from your pronouns, your adjectives
from your adverbs then you’re not alone. But grasping these key concepts is
essential to EFL teaching.

Here we’re going to focus on the nine parts of speech (adjectives, adverbs,
conjunctions, determiners, exclamations, nouns, prepositions, pronouns and
verbs) and look at them in a bit more detail than the typical “a verb is a doing
word” approach we all learned at school.

Part Of
A Few Subcategories Examples Function
Speech
comparative (taller) superlative to describe a noun, a pronoun
tall intelligent Adjective
(most intelligent)… or part of a sentence
frequency (sometimes), time
to describe a verb, adjective or
(yesterday), manner (angrily), quickly finally
another adverb by giving more
degree (completely), quantity sometimes Adverb
information about how, when
(few), attitude markers yesterday
something happens
(apparently)…
addition (and), condition (since), but to connect a clause, sentence or Conjunctions
contrast (yet), purpose (so that),
and
reason (because), result word
so
(therefore), time (before)..
articles (the), demonstrative
this
adjectives (that), possessive to clarify which noun is being
my Determiners
adjectives (his), quantifiers (both) referred to
both
…
ouch
to express strong feeling Exclamation
doubt (erm), pain (ouch)… wow
(informal, spoken language) s
oh no
abstract (hope), countable
milk
(people), uncountable (sugar), to name things, people, places,
parents Nouns
proper (Liverpool), collective concepts
beauty
(army)…
cause/effect (due to), contrast
at to link a noun/noun
(unlike), dependent (wait for),
until phrase/pronoun to another word Prepositions
movement (towards), place
throughout or phrase
(under), time (during)…
personal (subject pronouns he, I
object pronouns them…), him to replace/refer to a noun or
Pronouns
possessive (mine), reflexive ours noun phrase
(himself), relative… herself
walk
Transitive, intransitive… believe to show an action or state Verbs
try

Further grammatical terms

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

A transitive verb, used with a direct object, transmits action to an object and
may also have an indirect object, which indicates to or for whom the action is
done. In contrast, an intransitive verb never takes an object.
Transitive verbs

A transitive verb takes a direct object; that is, the verb transmits action to an
object.

He sent the letter. ( letter = direct object of sent)

She gave the lecture. ( lecture = direct object of gave)

In these sentences, something is being done to an object.

A transitive verb can also have an indirect object that precedes the direct
object. The indirect object tells to or for whom the action is done, although the
words to and for are not used. In the following examples, notice the difference
between the direct and indirect objects.

The direct object ( letter) receives the action ( sent). The indirect object
( Robert) is the person to whom the letter is sent.

He sent Robert the letter.

The direct object ( lecture) receives the action ( gave). The indirect object
( class) is the group to whom the lecture is given.

She gave her class the lecture.

Learn to recognise words that are direct and indirect objects of verbs. When
these words are pronouns, they must be in the objective case.

Intransitive verbs

An intransitive verb does not take an object.

She sleeps too much.

He complains frequently.

In these sentences, nothing receives the action of the verbs sleep and
complain.

Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.

She sings every day. (no object = intransitive)

She sings rock 'n' roll tunes. ( rock 'n' roll tunes receives the action of sings =
transitive)

Gerunds

Gerunds are words that are formed from verbs but act as nouns.

You can spot them because they will be verb+ing acting as a noun.
E.g. I love shopping!

The word ‘shop’ is a verb. Shopping is a verb with an –ing ending acting as a
noun.

It is the subject of this sentence.

Root words
Word ‘trees’ or ‘maps’ can also be useful for identifying different parts of
speech and helping students increase their vocabulary. You essentially start
with a ‘root’ word, then try to find as many different variations on that word
by adding prefixes (e.g. un-, mis-), suffixes (e.g. –ly, -ful) or by adapting
different parts of the word. Take a look at the example below using the root
word ‘believe’

Before clicking onto the next page, and using a pen and paper, see how many
words you can write down from the root ‘understand’.

Root words continued

You will hopefully have written some of the below:

Understanding
Understandable
Understandably
Misunderstand
Misunderstanding
Pre-understood

Unit 3: Sentence Structure

In this Unit, we will explore the main parts of a sentence – morpheme, word,
phrase, clause, subject and predicate. This will ensure you can discuss
sentences and the key elements of sentences in your class without having
any great hang-ups or difficulties with meaning.

If you were to look for a dictionary definition of a sentence, it could be

something like this:

A set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and

predicate, conveying a statement, question, exclamation or command and
consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.

Basically, a sentence is made up of different words to complete a purpose.

There are several purposes: one might be to make a statement or another
might be to ask a question.

Here’s what you need to know:

1. Sentence

A sentence is a set of words standing on their own as a unit of sense, its

conclusion marked by a full stop or equivalent (question mark; exclamation
mark).

In English, of course, sentences begin with a capital letter and include a verb.
There is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain in order to be
a sentence. The only pre-requisite is a main subject and a main verb.

For example, I exist is as much of a sentence as is The early bird catches the
worm.

2. Morpheme

A morpheme is the lowest unit of language that can convey meaning. You
cannot break a morpheme down into anything smaller that has meaning.
Many simple words are morphemes, e.g. boy, hut, talk.
Some words consist of two or more morphemes:

 child + ren
 talk + s
 blind +ness

ren, s and ness all convey some meaning, even though none of them is a
word in its own right. If we try to break them down any further, we just end up
with graphemes or phonemes:

r + e+ n

A grapheme is a term from linguistics meaning the smallest unit in writing

that can change meaning. This is a letter or group of letters representing a
single phoneme, e.g.

b ng ea

A phoneme is a distinctive speech sound. We express ourselves using words.

In writing, each word is made up of letters, and in speech a word is made up
of a series of phonemes. There are 44 phonemes in standard modern English,
fairly evenly divided between vowels and consonants. The phonemes in a
word do not correspond to the letters with which we write it.

For example, the word singing contains 7 letters but only 5 sounds : s-i-ng-i-
ng.

3. Word

A word is the smallest meaningful bit of sense in a sentence. Each of these

words has a different job to do. Here are four words:

roared, mighty, lion, the

Roared is a verb. Its job is to tell us what happens in a sentence.

Mighty is an adjective. Its job is to tell us more about a noun. We don’t have
to have an adjective in a group of words when we are trying to make a
sentence.

Lion is a noun. Its job here is to name things or people or places in a

sentence.

The is called a definite article. We use the definite article in front of a noun
when we believe the hearer/reader knows exactly what we are referring to or
because there is only one of this thing in that place or in those surroundings.
As you know, articles form part of a larger class of words known as
‘determiners’.

So, a definite article’s job is to tell us which particular noun we are talking
about. We don’t have to have a definite article in a group of words when we
are trying to make a sentence.

We put words together to make a phrase.

4. Phrase

A phrase is a short, single piece of information. It can be a word, or a small

group of words, that forms a meaningful unit within a sentence:

mighty lion

Two important types are the noun phrase and the verb phrase.

Noun phrase

The noun phrase can be a word or group of words based on a noun or pronoun
that can function in a sentence as a subject object or prepositional object; it
can be very simple or very complex. A noun phrase is built around a single
noun or pronoun; for example (bolded):

A pile of books lay on the table.

He was reading a book about the rise and fall of Napoleon.

Verb phrase

In grammar a verb phrase is a verb of more than one word. It includes one or
more helping (auxiliary) verbs and one main verb:

 can see (helping verb can + main verb see)

 would have sent (helping verbs would + have + past participle of main
verb send)
 may have been planning (helping verbs may + have + be + present
participle of main verb plan)

The main verb expresses the chief idea in the verb phrase. The other verbs
are there only to help it.

The main verb is always the last verb in the phrase. Often its form
changes as in the last two examples in
which send becomes sent and plan becomes planning.

We use phrases to make a clause.

5. Clauses

A clause is a larger word group that includes a little more information. It

consists of at least two phrases - one is a noun phrase known as the subject,
and the other is the verb.

A clause is kind of a mini-sentence: a set of words which makes a sense unit,

but it might not be concluded by a full stop. A sentence may consist of two or
more clauses, e.g. She left (1) because it was late (2) and she was tired (3);
this sentence contains three clauses.

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb. For

example:
The mighty lion / roared.

In this clause, the noun phrase is the mighty lion and the verb is roared.

A useful way to begin identifying clauses in sentences is to count main verbs.

For each main verb there will be a clause.

This all leads us to the sentence.

6. Subject

The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or
being something. You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the
verb.

For instance, in the sentence The computers in the Learning Centre must be
replaced, the verb is must be replaced. What must be replaced? The
computers. So the subject is computers.

A simple subject is the subject of a sentence stripped of modifiers.

Remember: Modifiers are any word or group of words that change or add to
the meaning of another word. The simple subject of the following sentence
is issue:

The really important issue of the debate, stripped of all other considerations,
is the morality of the nation.

Sometimes, though, a simple subject can be more than one word, even an
entire clause:

What he had already forgotten about computer repair could fill whole
volumes.

The simple subject is not computer repair, nor is it what he had forgotten, nor
is it he. Ask what it is that could fill whole volumes. Your answer should be
that the entire bolded clause is the simple subject, i.e. What he had already
forgotten about computer repair

7. Predicate

A predicate is the completer of a sentence. This is just a term used to label

the part of a sentence or clause which contains a verb and states something
about the subject.

So, the subject names the ‘do-er’ or ‘be-er’ of the sentence; the predicate
does the rest of the work. A simple predicate consists of only a verb, verb
string, or compound verb (all bolded):

The glacier melted.

The glacier has been melting.

The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.
More Examples

The part before the slash is the subject and the part after it is the predicate:

 People in glasshouses/shouldn’t throw stones.

 Sebastián and Alejandro/went on vacation.
 I/love eating cocido madrileño.

8. More about sentences and clauses

Now that you’ve grasped the terminology and usage, particularly ‘sentence’
and ‘clause’, we’re sure you’re ready to move on a bit further to types of
sentences and clauses.

If we put a capital letter at the beginning of the clause we've used, and a full
stop at the end, we have a sentence. From a linguistic point of view sentences
are the largest grammatical units.

They are also intuitively complete in two senses:

 first they may stand alone as informative units

 second and more importantly they include all required grammatical
elements

The mighty lion roared. (has a subject and verb and can stand alone as a
meaningful unit)

This is a simple sentence.

Simple sentences
A simple sentence consists of one clause that has a subject and a verb. A
simple sentence puts across one simple idea or thought. It’s a sense unit – a
complete unit of meaning.

Here are some examples of simple sentences:

 Carlos smiled. (Carlos is the subject; smiled is the verb)

 The dog barked. (The dog is the subject; barked is the verb)
 The boys are playing soccer. (The boys is the subject; are playing is the
verb)
 Will you help me? (you is the subject; will help is the verb)

There is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain in order to be

a sentence. Again the only pre-requisite is a main subject and a main verb.
For example, He phoned is as much of a sentence as is Atlético Madrid is one
of the best teams in Europe.

Note: A simple sentence is a complete unit of meaning which contains a

subject and a verb. It may have other words which help to make up the
meaning.
But look at this group of words:

Made in France.

This is correct English but it is not a sentence. It doesn’t have a subject. To

make it into a complete sentence with a subject and verb, we would need to
change it to something like:

My fridge was made in France.

So, that’s simple sentences done. But there are other types of sentences too.

Compound sentences
Another main type of sentence that speakers and writers use is called
a compound sentence. This is a sentence of two or more main clauses
joined by a coordinating conjunction (also called a connective).

Compound sentences contain two or more pieces of information and the

pieces are linked by connectives. Coordinating conjunctions are connectives
which link text together, such as:

 but
 and
 or

Two simple sentences can be joined together with a connective to make a

compound sentence. For example:

I do not like eating strawberries is a simple sentence.

I love eating carrots is also a simple sentence.

If we join them together we have a compound sentence:

I do not like eating strawberries but I love eating carrots.

Note: but is the connective

Here are other examples of compound sentences with the connectives written
in bold:

 The boys walked down the road and they met their friends at the bus
stop.
 The postman came to the door so the dog barked loudly.

One advantage of compound sentences is that a writer can build more variety
into her writing. However, one problem is that some writers can get carried
away and write long rambling sentences:
We went the park and we met some friends and then we went into town
which was not too far but I was quite tired when I got there so I sat down.

Writers and speakers need to take care with connectives. Two in a sentence is
usually adequate, and they don't need to be used in every sentence.

There is one other main sentence type – complex sentences.

Complex sentences
A complex sentence is used to put across more detailed ideas. A complex
sentence contains one main clause that can make sense on its own and one
or more minor or subordinate clauses that are linked to it. We’ll call these
minor clauses subordinate clauses from now on. It just sounds better.

When the noisy vehicle passed, the mighty lion roared.

The main clause is the mighty lion roared because it has a subject and a verb
and makes sense by itself.

The subordinate clause is when the noisy vehicle passed. Although it is a

clause with a subject and a verb, it doesn't make sense on its own. It needs to
be attached to a main clause for it to make sense.

We can add more subordinate clauses to make a more complex sentence. In

the following examples the main clause is in bold and the two subordinate
clauses are underlined.

When the vehicle passedthe mighty lion roaredbecause it was annoyed.

We can even split the main clause with a minor clause and still have a
complex sentence.

When the vehicle passed, the mighty lionwhich was annoyedroared.

Another example

In a complex sentence there is one main idea and one or more subordinate
ideas. We can take the main idea out of a complex sentence so that the idea
stands on its own. Let’s consider this sentence:

The alarm was raised as soon as the fire was spotted.

We can cut out the main idea (the main clause) and it will stand on its own
as a meaningful unit:

The alarm was raised (main idea/main clause because it is meaningful on its
own, has a subject and a verb)

What we are left with is:

as soon as the fire was spotted (even although it has a subject and verb, this
clause cannot stand on its own; it’s not a meaningful unit as it stands and is
therefore regarded as subordinate to the main clause, i.e. it is a subordinate
clause.

Note:

The main clause in the example above is also called an independent clause. It
contains both a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.

The subordinate clause in the example above is called a dependent clause. It

contains a subject and verb but cannot stand alone as a sentence. It’s
dependent on the main clause for it to make sense.

Unit 4: Tenses
Part of the difficulty of teaching tenses is not only that many of us take for
granted subtle distinctions (‘I went to Brazil in 2006’ vs ‘I’ve been to Brazil’).

It’s also the assumption that many of us have that other languages have
neatly corresponding tenses. This, unfortunately, is not the case.

Whilst there are obviously overlaps, especially with many of the

European languages, other cultures may have entirely different
concepts of the relationship between time and tense.

Rosemary Aitken suggests an approach known as CASSIAL (Choose, Analyse,

Sequence, Select, Identify context, Auxiliary materials, Learner error).

Although this acronym may seem a tad long-winded, her approach is

relatively self-explanatory: you need to think about the tense you’ve chosen
to teach (what’s its purpose? When do we use it? Are there any exceptions).

Make sure you have enough material to illustrate your point and pre-empt any
problems your students may have with grasping the nuances of that particular
tense.

A deeper understanding of tenses will develop as you become more and more
familiar with teaching them and the contrast between each but here we will
see an overview of the various English tenses for you to get to grips with.

Look back at the two example sentences given in the first paragraph of this
unit.

The first “I went to Brazil in 2006” is an example of a past simple sentence,

it’s the verb ‘go’ in its past form.
The second, “I’ve been to Brazil” is the present perfect tense. We form the
present perfect by using the have/has + the ‘past participle’ of the verb.

In this case the past participle of the verb ‘go’ is ‘been’. Don’t get confused
with the name ‘present perfect’ though, we’re still referring to the past. But if
we’re talking about the past in both cases, why do we need two different
tenses? Why can’t we say “I’ve been to Brazil in 2006”? This is where your
‘Analyse’ and ‘Identify context’ steps come in.

Present and Past Tenses

Now let’s look at the other English tenses in more detail...

Present

Present simple: routine/habitual actions or things which are generally true

 e.g. ‘I work every Saturday’, ‘cats chase mice’

Present continuous/ Present progressive: happening now or around now

 Form: am/is/are + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘John is working today’

Past

Past simple: completed, finished actions with a specific time reference

 Form: use the past tense of the verb

 e.g. ‘I wrote 10 letters yesterday’

Past continuous/ Past progressive: actions in progress at a particular time

in the past, actions interrupted in the past, two actions happening
simultaneously in the past

 Form: was/were + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘What were you doing at 10.00 last night?’, ‘I was writing letters’

Future Tense
Future

Present continuous: fixed future plans/arrangements with a specific time

reference

 Form: am/is/are + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘He’s seeing Jim on Sunday afternoon’

‘going to’ + infinitive verb: future intentions and predictions

 e.g. ‘She’s going to have a baby!’

‘will/won’t/shall’ + infinitive verb: predictions, instant decisions,

promises, suggestions and offers
  e.g. ‘I think it will rain tomorrow’, ‘I promise I’ll do my homework later’

Future Continuous/ Future Progressive: an action in progress at a

particular time in the future

 Form: will + be + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘In 2050 we will all be driving electric cars’

Perfect Aspect
Present Perfect (simple): general past experiences with no specific time
reference, past actions that have importance in the present, in expressions
with yet, since, for, already, just, actions which started in the past and
continue now (non-action verbs only)

 Form: have/has + past participle

 e.g. ‘I’ve worked here for 3 years’, ‘a car has crashed into a house’,
‘I’ve known her since I was at school’

Present Perfect Continuous: actions which started in the past and continue
now (action verbs), recent continuous actions

 Form: have/has + been + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘I’ve been learning English for 4 years’, ‘You’re all red, what have
you been doing?’ – ‘I’ve been sunbathing in the garden’

Past Perfect (simple): when we’re already talking about the past but want
to refer to an earlier past time

 Form: had + past participle

 e.g. ‘I couldn’t get in because I had forgotten my keys’

Past Perfect Continuous: an action in progress in the past leading up to

another past moment

 Form: had + been + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘He had been cleaning the car for an hour before he stopped
because of the rain’

Future Perfect (simple): an action that will have already happened before a
specific point in the future

 Form: will + have + past participle

 e.g. ‘I’ll have already left by the time you arrive’

Future Perfect Continuous: an action that will continue up until a certain

future point

 Form: will + have + been + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘I’ll have been working here for 10 years when I retire’
FULL Tense Table:
Introduction
You will already have a reasonably good grasp of tenses from the introductory
materials above. But it’s wise go a bit deeper into this.

So, we have provided you with a FULL Tense Table which you should always
keep by your side, just in case you are asked a question and your mind goes
blank for a moment. It happens to us all!

The table covers the 3 main verb structures for each tense:

 Positive: You like Edinburgh.

 Question: Do you like Edinburgh?
 Negative: You do not like Edinburgh.

This is useful when you decide to cover, say, the positive form and the
negative form one after the other. The table will keep you right.

Also, you may get an off-the-wall question from an advanced student: What’s
the difference between the two forms of the Future Continuous (Progressive)
Tense: will be or be going to?

Again, your mind may go blank for a moment, particularly when you’re deep
into another tense. You have your table to keep you right.

In this scenario, you could give the student a copy of the relevant pages for
her to read later and she can ask you questions later if she’s still not sure. Just
for interest, there’s little difference between the two forms!

In addition, the table has been constructed so that you can copy a page for a
specific tense and give this out to your class. This will save you time
rummaging around and making up your own table for that particular tense.

Here is the tense table. Study it well and keep it by your side. It’s not
difficult; it just takes a bit of time if you’re a little bit rusty.

FULL Tense Table: Twelve tenses in modern English

A. There are three simple tenses:

1. Present Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurs

2. Past Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurred

3. Future Simple: showing whether an action or condition will occur

B. There are three perfect tenses

4. Present Perfect: showing whether an action or condition has
occurred relative to the present

5. Past Perfect: showing whether an action or condition had occurred relative

to the past

6. Future Perfect: showing whether an action or condition will have

occurred relative to the future.

C. There are six continuous (also called progressive) tenses:

7. Present Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition is

occurring in the present

8. Past Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition was

occurring in the past

9. Future Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition will

be occurring in the future

10. Present Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or

condition has been occurring relative to the present

11. Past Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or

condition had been occurring relative to the past

12. Future Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or

condition will have been occurring relative to the future.

FULL Tense Table

Tense 1: Present Simple Tense (also called the Simple Present Tense)

In regular verbs, this tense is formed by using the verb stem, adding -s in the
third person singular (he, she, it).

Verb Stem Subject

like I
like you (singular)
likes he/she/it
like we
like you (plural)
like they

Positive: You like Edinburgh.

Question: Do you like Edinburgh?
Negative: You do not like Edinburgh.
Tense 2: Past Simple Tense (sometimes called the Simple Past
Tense)

This tense refers to actions in the past. In regular verbs, it is formed by adding
–ed to the verb stem (or -d if the verb stem already ends in e):

Verb stem (adding -d) Verb Stem (adding –ed) Subject

liked requested I
liked requested you (singular)
liked requested he/she/it
liked requested we
liked requested you (plural)
liked requested they

Positive: You played tennis.

Question: Did you play tennis?
Negative: You didn’t play tennis.
Note: In irregular verbs, there is a variety of past tense forms: become →
became, blow → blew, catch → caught. These just have to be learned.
Note: The past simple can also be formed with the verb be. The past of be,
i.e. was and were, is used:
Positive: I was annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.
Question: Were you annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last
moment?
Negative: I wasn’t annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last
moment.

Tense 3: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense)
Form 1

For this tense, we use will or shall, followed by the verb stem:

Verb Stem will, shall Subject

the door. close ‘ll, will, and also shall I
the door. close ‘ll, will you (singular)
the door. close ‘ll, will he/she/it
the door. close ‘ll, will, and also shall we
the door. close ‘ll, will you (plural)
the door. close ‘ll, will they

Note that we often use contractions when using will and shall, e.g. I’ll and We
shan’t. Shall is much more common in British English than in American
English.
With will:
Positive: You will see her on Sunday
Question: Will you see her on Sunday?
Negative: You won’t see her on Sunday.
With shall:
Positive: We shall see her on Sunday.
Question: Shall we see her on Sunday?
Negative: We shan’t see her on Sunday.
Tense 3 continued: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple
Future Tense) Form 2

Often called the goingto future, this form is a combination of be + going to +

verb stem.

Verb Stem going to am/is/are Subject

object. going to am; ‘m I
object. going to are; ‘re you (singular)
object. going to Is; ‘s he/she/it
object. going to are; ‘re we
object. going to are; ‘re you (plural)
object. going to are; ‘re they

Note that we often use contractions when using the verb be, e.g. I’m, you’re
Positive: You are going to see the show tonight.
Question: Are you going to see the show tonight?
Negative: You are not going to see the show tonight.

Tense 4: Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is formed by combining the present tense of the
verb have with the past participle of the main verb.

Past Participle of the Main Present Tense of the

Subject
Verb verb have
the dishes. washed have I
the dishes. washed have you (singular)
the dishes. washed has he/she/it
the dishes. washed have we
the dishes. washed have you (plural)
the dishes. washed have they

Note that we often use contractions when using have, e.g. I’ve and we’ve

Positive: You have visited the Prado Museum before.

Question: Have you visited the Prado Museum before?

Negative: You have not visited the Prado Museum before.

Tense 5: Past Perfect Tense

This tense is formed by had, followed by the past participle:

Past Participle of the Main Verb had Subject

again! failed had I
again! failed had you (singular)
again! failed had he/she/it
again! failed had we
again! failed had you (plural)
again! failed had they

Note that we often use contractions when using had, e.g. I hadn’t

Positive: You had studied Spanish before you went to Madrid.

Question: Had you studied Spanish before you went to Madrid?

Negative: You hadn’t studied Spanish before you went to Madrid.

Tense 6: Future Perfect Tense

This is a tense formed by will have followed by the past participle.

Past Participle of the Main Verb will have Subject

my work by 7pm. finished will have I
my work by 7pm. finished will have you(singular)
my work by 7pm. finished will have he/she/it
my work by 7pm. finished will have we
my work by 7pm. finished will have you (plural)
my work by 7pm. finished will have they

Positive: Dad will have cooked dinner by the time we get back.

Question: Will Dad have cooked dinner by the time we get back?

Negative: Dad won’t have cooked dinner by the time we get back.

Sometimes, the going to format is used (am/is/are + going to have + past

participle]:

Positive: Dad is going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.

Question: Is Dad going to have cooked dinner by the time we get

back?

Negative: Dad is not going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.

Either form can usually be used.

Tense 7: Present Continuous Tense (also called the Present

Progressive Tense)

This tense is formed by using the present tense of the verb be and the
present participle of the main verb.

Present Participle of the Main Verb am/is/are Subject

Coke. drinking am I
Coke. drinking are you (singular)
Coke. drinking is he/she/it
Coke. drinking are we
Coke. drinking are you (plural)
Coke. drinking are they

Positive: You are watching TV.

Question: Are you watching TV?

Negative: You are not watching TV.

Tense 8: Past Continuous Tense (also called the Past Progressive

Tense)

This tense is formed by was or were followed by the present participle of the
main verb.

Present Participle of the Main Verb was/were Subject

Coke. drinking was I
Coke. drinking were you (singular)
Coke. drinking was he/she/it
Coke. drinking were we
Coke. drinking were you (plural)
Coke. drinking were they

Positive: You were sleeping when she phoned.

Question: Were you sleeping when she phoned?

Negative: You were not sleeping when she phoned.

Tense 9: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future

Progressive Tense) Form 1

There are two forms. Form 1: This tense is formed by will be followed by the
present participle.

Present Participle of the Main Verb will be Subject

late. dining will be I
late. dining will be you (singular)
late. dining will be he/she/it
late. dining will be we
late. dining will be you (plural)
late. dining will be they

Positive: You’ll be cooking dinner when they arrive.

Question: Will you be cooking dinner when they arrive?

Negative: You won’t be cooking dinner when they arrive.

Tense 9 continued: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future

Progressive Tense) Form 2

Form 2: This form is made up of: am/is/are + going to be + present participle

Present Participle going to be am/is/are Subject

to work. jogging going to be am I
to work. jogging going to be are you (singular)
to work. jogging going to be is he/she/it
to work. jogging going to be are we
to work. jogging going to be are you (plural)
to work. jogging going to be are they

Positive: You are going to be sleeping when she gets home.

Question: Are you going to be sleeping when she gets home?

Negative: You are not going to be sleeping when she gets home.

Remember this: It is possible to use either will be or be going to in order to

create the Future Continuous tense. There’s not much difference.

Tense 10: Present Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Present
Perfect Progressive Tense)

This tense is formed by combining the present perfect of the verb be with the
present participle of the main verb.

Present Participle of the Main has/have

Subject
Verb been
customers for nine hours. serving have been I
customers for nine hours. serving have been you (singular)
customers for nine hours. serving has been he/she/it
customers for nine hours. serving have been we
customers for nine hours. serving have been you (plural)
customers for nine hours. serving have been they

Positive: You have been standing here for two hours.

Question: Have you been standing here for two hours?

Negative: You have not been standing here for two hours.

Tense 11: Past Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Past
Perfect Progressive Tense)

This tense is formed by using had been followed by the present participle.
 Present Participle of the Main Verb had been Subject
for four hours. waiting had been I
for four hours. waiting had been you (singular)
for four hours. waiting had been he/she/it
for four hours. waiting had been we
for four hours. waiting had been you (plural)
for four hours. waiting had been they

Positive: You had been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally
arrived.

Question: Had you been sitting there for more than two hours when she
finally arrived?

Negative: You had not been sitting there for more than two hours when she
finally arrived.

Tense 12: Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Usual Form: This tense is formed by using will have been followed by the
present participle.

Present Participle of the Main Verb will have been Subject

for three hours. studying will have been I
for three hours. studying will have been you (singular)
for three hours. studying will have been he/she/it
for three hours studying will have been we
for three hours. studying will have been you (plural)
for three hours. studying will have been they

Positive: You will have been waiting here for two hours.

Question: Will you have been waiting here for two hours?

Negative: You will not have been waiting here for two hours.

Another Form: am/is/are + going to have been + present participle. This is

not used as much as the usual form above.

Positive: You are going to have been driving for more than six hours
by the time you get back.

Question: Are you going to have been driving for more than six hours
by the time you get back?

Negative: You are not going to have been driving for more than six
hours by the time you get back.

NOTE: It’s possible to use either form with little or no difference in meaning.
Unit 5: Teaching grammar
Well, now you know all the requisite grammar. But how do you teach it?

We’re going to show you how so that you’ll be able to handle this from Day 1
– and get it right first time.

We’re going to cover the 3 key areas which will ensure you get it right first
time:

1. Understanding prescriptive and descriptive grammar

2. Different modes of presenting grammar
3. Teaching grammar to different levels

If you take your time with this and absorb it all, it’s unlikely you’ll
ever have to check any book or site about teaching grammar. Unless,
of course, you really like reading grammar books!

Understanding prescriptive
and descriptive grammar
1. Understanding prescriptive and descriptive grammar

The term grammar generally refers to the rules and conventions by which
words are ordered and changed to form a sentence.

Grammar can be prescriptive or descriptive.

Prescriptive grammar sets out rules which should be followed if you wish to
write ‘correct’ or ’good’ English. Sometimes, these ‘rules’ are based on
observation of the way in which ‘educated’ speakers actually use the
language.

At other times, they are based on what the speaker was taught at school,
many years ago. For example: My teacher always said you should never start
a sentence with And orBut. Oh, really?

Prescriptive grammar rules are the right rules, according to some ‘experts’,
e.g. Never start a sentence with And or But.

Prescriptive rules make a value judgment about the correctness of an

utterance.

Descriptive grammar seeks to describe how language is actually used in the

real world.
Descriptive rules accept the patterns a speaker actually uses and try to
account for them. Descriptive rules allow for different varieties of a language;
they don't ignore a construction simply because some prescriptive
grammarian doesn't like it.

Descriptive rules describe the way grammar is actually used. Descriptive

grammar is a reaction to the way people speak and is accepting of
alternative, less nit-picking forms.

Descriptive rules also tend to change since language itself is always

undergoing change.

Have a look at these example sentences:

1. Let’s start at the very beginning.

Prescriptive rules of grammar would tell us that this is wrong because the
beginning is a specific start point and you can’t make it any more specific by
using very. But descriptive rules say that this type of phrase is common in
spoken English, So, we’ll align with the descriptive side and we’ll keep very in.

2. That’s very true, absolutely true.

Native speakers also say very true or absolutely true. Again, prescriptive rules
of grammar would tell us that this is wrong because you can’t have anything
stronger than true. Something cannot be more true. But, again, descriptive
rules say that this type of phrase is common in spoken English. So, again we’ll
align with the descriptive side and use very true and absolutely true.

3. Who do you want to speak to?

A proponent of descriptive rules would say this sentence is fine.

A proponent of prescriptive rules would say the sentence is incorrect; we

should never end a sentence with a preposition (i.e. to). To satisfy the
prescriptive group we would need to change this to: To whom do you want to
speak?

To us, this seems a bit cumbersome and out-dated but you decide which is
best.

4. Never start a sentence with And or But.

Let’s have a look at this prescriptive rule a bit further by exploring these
sentences:

It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan but do you think those changes go
far enough?

It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan. But do you think those changes
go far enough?
The first sentence fits with the prescriptive rule. The second does not and fits
with the descriptive approach. There’s no doubt in our minds that the second
sentence creates a more forceful effect. The introductory
conjunction But gives more weight to the thought expressed in the sentence
and is more emphatic.

So, again, we’ll align with the descriptive side in this particular context.

But don’t get the impression that prescriptive rules are not
important:

1. When we adhere to most prescriptive rules, we are adhering to a standard

form of a language that is accepted by most speakers of that language. By
doing so, this allows us to be understood by the greatest possible number of
individuals.

2. Most prescriptive rules are critical for those who are learning a foreign
language. It just wouldn’t work if there were no guidelines for, say, learning
English.

3. Most prescriptive rules allow a speaker of a non-standard dialect to learn

the rules of the standard dialect and employ them in appropriate social
circumstances – if they wish to. Unfortunately, non-standard dialects are still
frowned upon and not accepted by many groups and can inhibit a person’s
progress in society, and in business.

Here are some common prescriptive rules relating to English. If these didn’t
exist, there would be lots of confusion:

The subject of a sentence must agree with the verb. We mustn’t say He go to
school.

In English, capitalise the first letter of a sentence: My computer isn’t

working. It needs to be fixed.

Use subject pronouns after the verb be (It wasI who phoned you NOT It was
me who phoned you.)

Use the definite article the before names of rivers and geographical areas but
not before the names of lakes or continents (the Amazon, the Far East; Lake
Superior, Europe).

Being able to distinguish between the two types is important since you will
need to ensure that your learners are familiar with some prescriptive
grammar rules, while also alerting them to alternative or more informal
descriptive uses.

Both types of grammar have their supporters and their detractors, which in all
probability suggests that both have their strengths and weaknesses.

You need to decide how you will approach the teaching of grammar.
Different modes of presenting
grammar to learners
2. Different modes of presenting grammar to learners

There is no doubt that a sound knowledge of key grammatical rules is

essential for the mastery of a language. But it’s the way that you teach these
rules that paves the way to success by better embedding the learning.

Here are some practical ideas you can use to do this:

1. Present material visually

One effective way to show how a given structure is formed, what it means,
and how it is used is to present the material visually, using board drawings,
illustrations, pictures, objects or props.

You could show them pictures and ask: What differences do you notice in the
pictures? To practise, for example, must/must have (as in He must have
fallen.) and could/could have (as in He could have been hit by a car.).

2. Use timelines

Another powerful visual is the timeline, which you can draw on the board.
Timelines are simple diagrams that can help learners see relationships
between verb forms and their time reference. They are a visual
representation of the passage of time. Students can see how the verb works.

We have made this simple timeline to explain the simple past tense.

Yesterday, I walked to school.

There are is no set format for making a timeline. Just make sure you explain it
first of all. You can use an X or any symbol to mark the event.

Here’s another one to demonstrate the simple future progressive (continuous)

tense:

Next year he is climbing Kilimanjaro.

Here we have used a squiggly line to demonstrate the event continuing.

The following exercise will give you huge opportunities for embedding
timelines – and it will make grammar learning interesting and fun. The key
point is the grammar part is integrated into the key skills of speaking,
reading, writing, listening as much as possible.

Exercise –Timelines

As they get used to these, you could introduce the idea of My Timeline where
students draw up a timeline of important events in their lives from the past till
now.

Older students will easily come up with a range of important events. Young
students could ask their parents/carers for important dates in the students’
short lives– when the student was born, when the student first walked and
talked, when the student first went to school, etc.

And you could add in when the student did something silly (this last one will
create a lot of fun later when they read out what they’ve completed).

Then you can change the format – student A interviews student B and draws
up a timeline for student B. Then they change roles, and after this they read
out the other student’s timeline to the class.

You can also give them a short list of important historical past events that
have happened in their country and future events the country hopes to
accomplish by some date in the future and get them to plot them on the
timeline.

These dates could be mixed up on the list. Keep away from serious ‘political’
events such as attempted coups. Or you could centre it on a world event such
as space exploration or the Olympic Games or the key successes in the
development of medicine.

You could also give the students a short written text and ask them to read it
for comprehension and then they prepare a timeline based on the important
facts in that text.

As they progress with the verb timelines, their My Timeline can be expanded
to marking future events on their personal timeline, for example: when will
they be going to the ‘big’ school, when they hope to accomplish something;
when they think they will start working etc.

Remember. Ensure the grammar part – relationships between verb forms and
their time reference – is integrated into, and reinforced by, the key skills of
speaking, listening, reading and writing.
3. Present material through situations

Let’s imagine you are presenting the concept of going to. Draw a face on the
board with a name under it. Name her Maria. Put a thought bubble above her.
Introduce Maria. Say: This is Maria and she’s thinking about something nice. I
wonder what it is.

Draw an aeroplane. Say: Ah, she’s thinking of her holiday next week. Next
week. (Using gestures of forward movement.) She’s going to fly on an
aeroplane. She’s going to fly. Repeat this class: She’s going to fly. Class
repeats.

Say: I wonder where she is going.

Draw or show a big picture of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona – elicit until
you get the response. Yes, she’s going to visit the Sagrada Familia. Repeat
this class: She’s going to visit the Sagrada Familia. Class repeats.

Say: She’s so lucky. I wonder what she will do there.

Next, draw a camera on the board. She’s going to take pictures. She’s going
to take pictures. What is she going to do? Class repeats.

Say: I wish I was her. What other things is she going to do? Elicit answers to
this.

When the correct response comes up, e.g. She’s going to walk around
Barcelona, drill this (with the whole class and some individuals). Write this
response on the board.

Follow the same format now with some additional going to questions, then
writing the correct response on the board. Then check with concept questions
(checking understanding) at random. So, tell me: What is Maria going to do
next week. Where is she going to visit?

You can then recap on the structure avoiding metalanguage (language about
language, e.g. noun, verb), and move them on to practising it with different
activities, e.g. a gap-fill exercise and then move them on to producing the
correct structure, say, by conversation in pairs and a writing activity.

By giving several different examples through a situation, or specific context,

you help the class to build up a clear idea of what the structure means and
how it is used. After giving a few examples, you can simply present the
situation and try to get the students to give the example.

This will verify how well the students have understood the concept, and this
also helps to get the class more involved.

4. Present material through demonstration

Yet another way of showing meaning is to present the learning material

through physical demonstration.
 Let’s just use the language item above – going to. You could also demonstrate
the concept of going to. You could tell them that you’re:

 going to open the door

 going to give a prize in a few minutes to whoever is best behaved
 going to open to the window because it’s too hot
 going to close the window because it’s too cold

and so on.

Using the same format above for situations, it will be another successful way
for you to get them to grasp the grammatical concept.

Teaching grammar to different

levels
3. Teaching grammar to different levels

Presenting grammar in the EFL classroom is no different from teaching other

skills, in that you need to take into account a range of factors, e.g. age, level
of competence, previous grammar experiences in the native language and the
like.

It would be foolhardy for anyone to say that a specific grammar structure

should always be presented to a specific learner at a specific age. There are
several variables at play.

So, bearing this in mind, it’s best to look at grammar presentations in fairly
general age groups. You’ll soon know it’s time to focus more on grammar
when learners start asking you questions, such as: Mr. Brown, why does this
word have an extra letter (dogs) but the other one hasn’t (dog)?

Here is a pretty useful grouping:

1. Young learners: younger young learners

2. Young learners: older young learners
3. Teenagers
4. Adults

Teaching grammar to younger

young learners
1. Teaching grammar to younger young learners
1. Key points

Here’s what to do and what not to do:

1. It just wouldn’t be appropriate to teach grammar formally and explicitly to

students under the age of, say, 8-9 years old. That’s a general age guide.
But that doesn’t mean you won’t be involved in grammar activities!

2. You should not use any metalanguage with your younger young learners.
However, there is the possibility that your younger young learners may
already be aware of some metalanguage, e.g. naming word, noun, and
adjective – from their learning in their native/first language (L1) classes.

You need to find out if this is the case. If so, you can use the terms naming
word and noun etc.

3. Your aim is to get them to notice some forms and patterns, and then use
them automatically after lots of practice.

4. The grammar you help them to notice must emerge from meaningful
contexts and there should be some sort of meaningful communication that
leads to a focus on grammar, e.g. listening to you reading a story or singing a
song such as This is the way we wash our hands.

Remember this: Never teach grammar in isolation when teaching

younger young learners. This would be a recipe for disaster.

5. Younger young learners need to be able to see (gradually) the relationship

between form, function, meaning and use, i.e. what form is used to express
what functions and meanings, e.g. Please Miss, can I have a pencil?

You should strive to balance form, meaning, function and use. Learners should
understand not only the mechanics of the language, but also (gradually) the
how, why, and where a particular structure, word, or phrase gets used.

6. Where grammar progress is slow, don’t think that this is all down to
influences of, and differences in, the learners’ L1. Some learners have
difficulties with grammar in their L1. In addition, some aspects of difficulty in
grammar are pretty universal.

7. Developing foreign language knowledge, understanding and application

skills is a lengthy and complex process. It is not a linear process, so take your
time with them.

Your key role is to help them to notice grammar. Here’s an extended

example of how to go about this:

An extended example: Noticing grammar

Younger young learners need grammar to take their language learning

forward to the next step. They won’t know they are getting grammar input.
Unknown to them, you will be selecting grammatical features in stories,
dialogues, songs, chants, rhymes etc. so that you can bring their attention to
these features in non-formal ways.
At this early stage the form-focusing techniques you use will be very simple
but very important at the same time.

Imagine you are reading them a story that goes like the one below.

Note:

 The words in bold should be emphasised.

 Take into class three real apples and hold up the requisite number
when each number is mentioned.

One day, Piggy the pig ate one apple

One day, Lionel the lion ate two apples

One day, Ellie the elephant ate three apples.

Remember: Here our goal is form-focusing, grasping a correct structure. So, it

would go something like this:

T: Can anyone tell me what Piggy ate?

Camila: One apple.

T: That’s right Camila. One apple. Hugo, can you tell me what Piggy ate?

Hugo: One apple.

T: That’s right, Hugo. One apple. Let’s say it together – One apple.

SS: One apple. (We’re using SS to stand for all students.)

T: Well done, class. Can anyone tell me what Lionel ate? Yes, Alana?

Alana: Two apple.

T: Yes, Alana, he ate two apples. Listen everyone, he ate
two apples. Again, who can tell me what Lionel ate?

Camila: Two apples.

T: That’s right, Camila. Two apples. Two apples. Lionel ate

two apples. Let’s say it together. Two apples.

Piggy ate one apple. Lionel ate two apples. Let’s say it together: Piggy ate
one apple. Lionel ate two apples.

Good!

Can anyone tell me what they hear? Is it the same? One apple, two apples.

Alvaro: Not same.

T: Why is it not the same, Alvaro?

Alvaro: Two apples has sss sound.

T: That’s right, Alvaro. Two appleshas a sss sound at the end.

Everyone, when we have one apple we say apple. When we have two
apples we say apples – a sss sound at the end. If we have more apples
than one, we say apples – a sss sound at the end.

Can anyone tell me what Ellie ate?

Daniel: Three apples.

That’s right, Daniel. He ate more than one apple. He ate three apples. So,
Piggy ate one apple. Lionel ate two apples. Ellie ate three apples.

Then you could finish the story and recap with an oral exercise on the plural
sound with other animals, to reinforce the plural ending –s.

Of course, you wouldn’t mention the word plural. And you can leave
exceptions to this plural formation till another time.

Remember this: Do your research and find out beforehand how the
plural form is constructed in the learners’ native language (L1). This
can help you with your planning, particularly where the construction
in the native language is much different from English.

You may even be able to impress them by using a bit of their language to
show differences or similarities in plural forms. They will love that.

In this example, your prime role is to help the learners notice this aspect of
form – the –s at the end of plural nouns. Further fun exercises based on the
topic will help to internalise this grammatical point into their internal grammar
system in their memory bank.
Once it is internalised, they should be able to draw on this knowledge and
form later as required.

This is an example of learning-centred grammar, taking the opportunity to

highlight and help them notice some grammar form point whilst they are
in the midst of the learning process - listening to and speaking about a story.

So, at this very early stage of learning, we are taking an opportunity to attend
to form, without them being aware of it.

Also, remember this: Frequently, the best way to get a learning point
over is to make up your own material. At these early stages, a story
may only last one or two pages, with very few words.

So, it’s easy to construct something that fits the bill, using only a few words
and relevant pictures you can draw, download from the internet, or take in as
realia, particularly where you feel the class materials are not exactly what you
want.

We just made up the apples bit when we got to this part of the course. It only
took 10 minutes or so. If we had built a little story around it, we doubt if it
would have taken more than 20 minutes.

As children get older, you can introduce more explicit forms of instruction but
with younger young learners it’s much too early to bog them down with too
much explicit grammar input.

Abstract and formal presentations of grammar with difficult words and

concepts such as adjective just won’t work with younger young learners.

Softly, softly is the key. Your role for these learners is to help them notice and
then try and use some grammatical forms and items as they crop up,
assuming they are ready to take these on board.

In the early years, your teaching of English as a Foreign Language will centre
mostly on meaning, e.g. This is a dog. This makes sense. But it’s important
that we do not overlook accuracy, so opportune moments should be grasped
to help the learners with the form of the language.

Clearly, fun exercises and games will be useful tools to make the grammar
input more enjoyable and less abstract for your younger young learners.

Remember: They need to learn words and expressions in context.

2. Different practical techniques for increasing younger young

learners’ grammar

1. Classroom routines

Younger young learners start to learn a language by picking up chunks of

language, primarily from you in the classroom, e.g. Good Morning, Mr Brown;
Please Miss …

So, the first steps have been taken in building their internal grammar.
 2. Whole class instructions

Whole class instructions can be fairly easily grasped and again you can
introduce them to patterns and new vocabulary. Backed up with gestures and
mime from you and perhaps a game such as Simon Says, these can be
transferred to their grammar memory banks:

1. Speak quietly, please.

2. Stand up, please.
3. Sit down, please.
4. Choose a partner, please.

3. Chants and rhymes

Chants and rhymes also provide excellent opportunities for introducing

grammatical constructions and patterns. You can use many of the traditional
songs and chants, e.g. This is the way we wash our hands or you can be more
adventurous and write your own to suit the targeted language form.

Your song/rhyme to the same tune as This is the way we wash our
hands could easily be something like:

This is the way we stand up quietly

This is the way we sit down quietly etc.

Use your imagination and don’t hang back from singing, even if you can’t
keep a tune very well. You could always try rapping!

4. Little planned conversations

With younger young learners, it’s important to build in planned little chats as
an integral part of your daily routine. You can do this with individuals, pairs or
groups.

In addition to building bonds, these chats will bring out useful information
about their language competence and their interests. This is quality
information for you.

You may learn about some structure that you can help them with:

My foot sore. (Oh, your foot is sore? Why is it sore?)

My books is wet. (Oh, your books are wet. Why are they wet?)

This corrective feedback is an essential tool for helping all learners of all ages.

Or your chat may give you useful information about their likes and dislikes.
You then have good information as to what your next topic might be – pets,
football, superheroes and so on.

5. Increasing their noticing skills

 As their learning progresses, you can step up the work on their noticing skills.
They may now be ready for more controlled noticing activities. So the story
you read is not just for listening and improving their speaking skills, it is also
for enhancing their noticing skills.

Example-noticing skills

Prepare a worksheet with statements and drawings:

1. The cup is ……….. the table (with a picture/drawing of a cup on a table). Write
the words on, under beside the picture/drawing.
2. The plate is ……….. the table (with a picture/drawing of a plate on a table).
Write the words on, under beside the picture/drawing.
3. The spoon is ……….. the table (with a picture/drawing of a spoon under the
table). Write the words on, under beside the picture/drawing).

Teach them the meanings of the prepositions: on, under – via visual
presentation, miming, via puppets or dolls/action men, board work, a little bit
of drilling etc.

Now read your prepared story, which might be something like this:

It was time for baby Alexa’s dinner.

Mummy put baby Alexa’s cup on the table.

Daddy put baby Alexa’s plate on the table.

Baby Alexa was watching. She wanted to help. She took her spoon to the
table but she put it under the table.

Now give your instructions re what they need to do to complete the exercise
in pairs. Read the story slowly, and then read it again at normal pace.

Guide them through the exercise. Read each statement through. Ask them to
tick the right choice – on or under.

You can then build on this simple exercise as time goes on, e.g. increasing the
number of prepositions, removing the drawings, putting the questions in a
random order so that they are not sequenced in line with the story sequence
etc.

You could involve the learners by getting one of them to do the actions, e.g.
sitting on your chair, crawling under your chair etc.

6. Language practice activities for enhancing form/structure

Here are some examples of activities, most of which have been discussed
before in other units.

1. Story reading
2. Drilling
3. Cloze Activities
4. Questionnaires, surveys and quizzes
5. Information gap activities - a worksheet activity where learners work out
missing and different information that each have on their worksheet.
6. Intentional little chats with individual learners to check their progress and give
corrective feedback on the spot
7. Projects. For example, if you are using an excellent story book such as The
Very Hungry Caterpillar you could extend this into project work and keep
caterpillars in the classroom. The opportunities for grammatical work would
be immense, e.g. Alejandra, your caterpillar is big. But, look, Pablo’s
is bigger.

Teaching grammar to older

young learners
2. Teaching grammar to older young learners

As mentioned before, we hesitate to name an age range as all children are

unique and cultural approaches to learning grammar vary.

But to help you, some would say that grammar learning and
metalanguage are best left until children are aged about 8 or 9 years
old. So, this section focuses on these older young learners from 8-9
up to the age of 12 or so.

If they are ready for it, you can start to introduce some language analysis and
some metalanguage.

1. Key points

1. Everything we have said above for younger young learners applies

to older young learners. Similar activities can be used but they will be a bit
more in-depth and a bit more complex. So, continue to use activities such as:
1. Rhymes
2. Chats with individual learners and groups – and discussions amongst
themselves
3. Some drilling
4. Cloze activities
5. Questionnaires and surveys
6. Information gap activities
7. Presentations
8. Fun activities and games for motivation and learning
2. Gradually, for older young learners it will be possible to introduce some
explicit activities which focus on separating grammar for study. If a set
curriculum is not prescribed by the school organisation, you need to decide
when to do this. You’ll know it’s time to do it when your older young learners
show an active interest in grammar forms such as: Why is it that eat becomes
ate but beat doesn’t become bate?
3. Ensure you are aware of what grammar they have learned and are learning in
their first language and make yourself aware of what metalanguage they
know. Don’t overdo this. Of course, sometimes it may be necessary to
introduce some of these words.
4. Generally, they should be ready for work on some tenses and punctuation and
may be ready for some self-correcting.
5. Also, they should enjoy puzzles and crosswords where they can start to
discover some basic grammar rules for themselves, e.g. most nouns are
formed in the plural with adding –s or –es but other groups make the plural in
different ways.
6. They may be ready for creating basic sentences with models, e.g. Pronoun +
Verb + Noun, e.g. I like apples or Pronoun + Verb + Adjective + Noun, e.g. I
like green apples.
Remember this: Always think: How can I make this easier for them to grasp?
So, for example, you could give all the word classes a different colour.
To make it more challenging, you could mix up the order of the words and
your learners have to rearrange them to the order of the model.
7. Fun grammar activities are important for older young learners, so include
puzzles where students are encouraged to discover grammar rules for
themselves, e.g. describing differences between two pictures, which can be
used to practise prepositions. Also use some of the grammar activities we will
explore later, adapting them accordingly.
8. As with all learning, recycling is critical for success. To embed words and
meanings in their memory banks and recall them when they need them is
dependent on lots of factors, particularly the number of times they hear and
come across a word (frequency). This is language recycling: meeting and
using a word several times so that eventually it is remembered and recalled
naturally.

Learning grammar can be a tricky business for older young learners. It needs
a lot of meaningful practice, recycling and guidance in attending to language
form.

Teaching grammar to
teenagers
3. Teaching grammar to teenagers

The sections above have focussed on young learners up to about age 12.
Young teenagers up to age 16 to 17 or so will continue their progress in
grammar in the school environment, doing more of the type of study we have
cited for the older young learners but at a more complex level.

Some will continue to progress during the period, so for that group there’s not
much to add in terms of grammar input. It will be a continuation of the
grammar syllabus.

Sometimes, though, this group can be a bit challenging, often because the
learners have reached a plateau or because some of them act as if they are a
bit ‘too cool for school’ and they lack interest in learning grammar.

Here’s what to do to make your grammar input more interesting,

particularly with those who are struggling a bit or are a bit
disenchanted with grammar:

1. Avoid using metalanguage

 Instead, you could say, for example: Let’s look at another way of describing
things you’ll be doing tomorrow by using an –ing word (i.e. am going to)

2. Empathise with them

Tell them you also had struggles with some aspects of grammar when you
were younger. But, with a bit of extra effort, you came through. And look at
you now!

Remind them, from time to time, how useful grammar is for writing blogs and
stories that others will admire, for passing examinations (not only in English),
for helping them in later years when they may wish to travel or work in an
English-speaking country, and so on.

3. Play to their interests as much as possible

Make a huge effort to find out what they really like. It may be watching action
movies, or soccer or fashion programmes on video. Catch their interest.

Then it’s easier to introduce some grammatical aspect by stopping the video
at one or two specific parts, to ask, for example, why the character made two
similar meaning statements but used different words for each statement.

4. Add in a bit of controlled competitiveness

Always do the competitive grammar activity in pairs or groups, so that

students are not alone and may feel embarrassed if they can’t find the
solution. Put time limits on these types of activities to heighten the tension.
The activity shouldn’t be complicated in any way.

Using the am going to example above, it could be:

I’m going to give out a sheet to each group. On the sheet you’ll see the
words will and won’t several times. Put in am going to or am not going to in
place of will or won’t. Be careful. There may be some parts where you can’t
do this. (For example, the text may include the construction Will you come
back tomorrow?)

One person in each group must put their hand up when their group has
finished the exercise and checked it all over. Remember, it needs to be
correct to get points added for your end-of- term group prize. If it’s not fully
correct, no points. I’ll then pass it to the second group to have a go at getting
points for the prize. Are you ready?

Remember this: When doing this type of competitive activity, ensure that it’s
not the same group that wins all of the time. You may have to change the
groups around from time to time to achieve a better balance, but you
wouldn’t tell them the reason for this.

5. Inspire them by giving them more autonomy

For example:
  Let them do the dictionary work to find synonyms they can use in a
passage.
 On occasions, ask those who have grasped a concept to help teach
those who haven’t.
 Sometimes, let them choose the video they want to watch or the story
they want to read (say, from a choice of three). With lots of effort
beforehand, you will have chosen areas of grammar in each of the
three items that you want to major on.

6. Make it fun

Use lots of games to keep up their interest such as snakes and ladders where
they pick up cards you have prepared and they have to decide whether the
sentence is correct or not if they are to move up the board.

Again, give the groups some autonomy in deciding what’s correct or not, but
you need to be moving around, monitoring and listening to ensure they’ve got
it right.

Teaching grammar to adults

4. Teaching grammar to adults

In this section, we focus on the older teenager as a young adult, and adults
themselves.

Our key focus is not on the grammar items you will cover, because these may
very much be the same as we have discussed for older young learners above.

So, what is our key focus? It’s to ensure you have the best practices and
approaches in place for meeting the needs of this diverse group.

This adult class will be a diverse group, diverse in educational background

(and therefore competency), age, employment history and culture.

They will have different goals for attending your English class. Some may be
immigrants who need to grasp English quickly if they are to secure a job and
some may be young adults who need this learning to help them secure entry
to college or a vocational programme.

Some may be adults who need this additional learning for their job and some
may be young or older adults who want to travel, work overseas or just want
to learn English as it’s good to have. There may be other goals.

The challenge is evident. How do you satisfy the grammar needs of a diverse
group with diverse goals? There is no easy answer to this. However, the
challenge is lessened for you due to one key characteristic of this group.

All of the learners in your group have a desire to succeed in learning English.
Otherwise, why would they be there?
So, they will be motivated. This is a huge plus point. So, what remains to be
resolved is deciding on the best practices and approaches to meet their
needs.

Here’s what you need to do:

1. Don’t assume adults are competent in grammar.

Remember this:Do not fall into the trap of thinking that teaching young and
older adults will be easier because they will have made more progress in
grammar learning before you have met up with them. It might be the case on
some occasions; however, there is no guarantee.

Some may not be any more competent in grammar than a young learner.

2. Don’t worry about the level.

When you are teaching grammar to young and older adults, all of the above
information about young learners and teenagers is wholly relevant. The key
differences will be that there will likely be more explicit sessions on grammar
and you will be helping them to be much more autonomous, identifying and
fixing the errors themselves where possible.

And with all the work you have completed during this course, you’ll be armed
and dangerous, ready to handle any query about the Present Perfect
Continuous or Phrasal Verbs.

3. Do a needs analysis.

This is imperative.

A needs analysis is a process of finding out what needs a learner has. Don’t
make this into a big formal event. Do it informally. You could do it during your
first meeting with the class or an individual where you explain that you need
to find out their purpose for attending your class.

What you’re trying to find out is:

1. What are the learner’s communicative competence needs at present?

Whilst chatting, think about questions such as:

 How good is her use of English at present?

 What aspects of her English need to be improved to get her to the
target situation?
 What are her grammar needs?

2. What are the learner’s communicative needs in terms of her goal for
learning English?

Ask directly, questions such as:

 When you go to college next year, what do you have to do in English?

  When you’re at work, what do you have to do in English?

Later, analyse, identify and decide what needs to done, via your teaching, to
get the learners to their desired situation in the future.

4. Help them to become grammar detectives.

In general, young adults and adults will be able to handle concepts much
easier than young learners. This is a key difference between adult and
younger learner classes.

Because of their adult ability to handle concepts, you can introduce

them to some concepts directly, whilst using the appropriate metalanguage.
By doing so, all of this will save time and get them faster to their goals. They
will appreciate your plan.

Your aim is not just to introduce them to concepts: it is to ensure they can put
these into practice.

Let’s explore 4 concepts that are critical in the grammar classroom. They
relate to words and their positions and functions in a sentence. By
understanding what these are, your adult learners can quickly become
grammar detectives.

They will better and faster understand word classes, word order and the
nature of words themselves.

If you ensure that they are fully au fait with the terminology and meaning of
these concepts, you’ll be off to an excellent start. These concepts are:

 Meaning
 Form
 Framework
 Function

If adult learners understand these terms, it will make their grammar learning
easier. Not only that, it will involve them in analysing a sentence and working
out themselves where something may have gone wrong. They will be able to
self-correct, to a degree. Adults enjoy and get great benefit from this
technique.

1. Meaning

This seems easy. But it’s not that easy. Words can have two meanings:

 A literal meaning - what the word normally means in everyday

communication
 A meaning for the context it’s being used in

The literal and usual meaning of wet is something like this: not dry; covered
in water or another liquid, as in:

Examples
I slipped on the wet floor.

However, in the next sentence, the meaning of wet bears no resemblance to

the meaning above:

Come on, John, don’t be such a tiresome wet.

In the UK, wet is a disapproving term for someone who displays weak
character and does not express any forceful opinions. He ‘sits on the fence’
most of the time.

So, understanding meaning is crucial. But it’s not just dictionary definitions
which help us to know meaning. Grammar constructions help us to work out
meanings by creating mental images in our mind which help us to work out
meaning.

For example, when reading John was a tiresome… and coming to the last part
of the sentence, we expect the sentence to finish with some kind of
complement, some kind of explanation as to who he was. In this case, it’s
a wet.

We can then work out that the meaning of wet here is not the not-
dry wet (adjective), but a wet (noun), some kind of person. We know that it
can’t be wet with the meaning not-dry, as that wouldn’t make sense after the
word a.

So, grammatical constructions help us to work out meaning. Grammar and

meaning are intertwined. If the adult learner understands this process, in
many cases she will be able to identify the meaning of a word from
grammatical analysis.

2. Form

Form is what a word looks like, how it is structured, e.g. boy, boy’s in this
sentence:

Example

The big boy took the small boy’s ball.

In our analysis, we can have a good go at working out that boy is a noun, not
just because we know its meaning. We know that nearly all nouns add
endings in the plural and in possession, so that’s a good clue to this being a
noun.

We can add –s to boy and it still makes sense. We know too, for example that
adjectives, adverbs, determiners etc. don’t do this – they don’t add plural or
possessive endings.

There are other ways to confirm this is a noun but these are not related to
form, e.g. it immediately precedes the verb, so it’s likely to be a noun or
pronoun. Then we can eliminate the pronoun forms, e.g. he, she, it. Yes, it’s a
noun
Knowing all about form can help us work out what part a word is playing in a
sentence.

3. Function

Function is another key element.

Function is what a word does in a sentence. Earlier, you will have taught them
that nouns are primarily subjects, objects and complements in a sentence.
That is, the noun can function as a subject, the object or the complement in a
sentence. (It can function as other things too).

With this bit of knowledge, students can better analyse a sentence. Have a
look at this interesting sentence:

Example

The ugggawagga kicked a thnollanugga.

Even if they don’t know what an ugggawagga is, they can work it out its
function from analysis. They know that nouns commonly function as subjects,
so this is likely to be a noun. It can’t be a pronoun, as there is The before it.

Plus, the verb functions as a doing word and the shape of the verb tells us
that the ugggawagga is doing something, i.e., something is not being done to
it. So, they can work out that ugggawagga is functioning as the subject of the
sentence and it is a noun.

4. Setting

In a sentence, words form a setting into which other words can fit.

If we recognise the setting, we have a good idea of what type of word can be
placed in that setting.

Examples

1. The/A/An ---------------- ate the apple.

We know that most nouns can fit after the, a, an. So, the word to complete
the sentence is likely to be a noun. It’s not a pronoun, verb, adjective etc. We
could work out again that the missing word is the subject due to the action
word ate and the object word apple.

At this stage we don’t know if the noun is singular or plural. If we take

away The, then we know it’s singular. If we take away The and A, we know it’s
singular and begins with a vowel. In any case, we know it’s a noun that fits
this frame.

2. The big boy ---------------the small boy’s ball.

If we are told that when this is completed it will be a sentence, then it’s easy.
Into the frame steps a verb. We don’t know which verb it is but we do know it
is a verb because it can’t be a sentence without a verb. We also know it’s a
transitive verb because there is an object.

Encourage your adult students to become grammar detectives applying these

four tests/tools in order to work out word classes, to find what or who is doing
what in the sentence, to find out what’s wrong, and most of all to enable them
to identify and repair errors on their own, where possible.

5. Use games and drills sparingly.

Use games and drills sparingly with young adults and adult students. All of
them are there to achieve a goal within a time limit. Although you may see
great benefit in these, some of your students are unlikely to look at it the
same way. This can have a dampening effect on the class atmosphere.

You could use the odd game or two, so long as you carefully explain the end
goal.

Many adults see drilling as a childish activity. You can often see a disgruntled
look on some of the faces. Why let this spoil the good atmosphere you have
built up?

You’ll need to play this by ear. If you feel it’s right to introduce these
techniques now and again, then we’re sure it will work out fine.