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SECTION 3: FLUID MECHANICS – AGE 204 NOTE 2022/2023 SECOND SEMESTER

OUTLINE

Energy Equation Open Channel Flow. Fluid properties, flow classifications; steady
flow, non-steady flow, uniform flow, laminar flow, turbulent flow

OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW

Open-channel flow is the flow of liquids in channels open to the atmosphere or in

partially filled conduits, and is characterised by the presence of a liquid-gas interface
called the free surface, whereas internal flow is the flow of liquids or gases that
completely fill a conduit.
At a free surface of a liquid, the pressure must be equal to the pressure of the gas
above it. This is what controls the pressure in open-channel flow. There is no such
restriction in internal (pipe) flow since there is no free surface. This implies that the
free surface coincides with the hydraulic grade line (HGL), and the pressure is
constant along the free surface. The slope of the free surface is not necessarily equal
to the slope of the bottom surface even during steady fully developed flow. In an open
channel, the flow velocity is zero at the side and bottom surfaces because of the no-
slip condition, and maximum at the midplane for symmetric geometries, typically
somewhat below the free surface.

An open-channel flow involves liquids only (typically water or wastewater) exposed to

a gas (usually air, which is at atmospheric pressure).
Flow in a channel is driven naturally by gravity. Water flow in a river, for example, is
driven by the elevation difference between the source and the sink. The flow rate in
an open channel is established by the dynamic balance between gravity and friction.
Inertia of the flowing fluid also becomes important in unsteady flow. In pipe flow, on
the other hand, there may be an additional driving force of pressure due to pumps.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPEN-CHANNEL FLOWS

a) Steady and Non-steady flows

Open-channel flows are also classified as being steady or unsteady. A flow is said to
be steady if there is no change with time at a given location. The representative
quantity in open-channel flows is the flow depth (or alternately, the average velocity),
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which may vary along the channel. The flow is said to be steady if the flow depth does
not vary with time at any given location along the channel (although it may vary from
one location to another). Otherwise, the flow is unsteady.

b) Uniform and Non-uniform Flows

Flow in open channels is also classified as being uniform or non-uniform (also called
varied), depending on how the flow depth y (the distance of the free surface from the
bottom of the channel measured in the vertical direction) varies along the channel. The
flow in a channel is said to be uniform if the flow depth (and thus the average velocity)
remains constant. Otherwise, the flow is said to be non-uniform or varied, indicating
that the flow depth varies with distance in the flow direction. Uniform flow conditions
are commonly encountered in practice in long straight sections of channels with
constant slope, constant roughness, and constant cross section.
In open channels of constant slope and constant cross section, the liquid accelerates
until the head loss due to frictional effects equals the elevation drop. The liquid at this
point reaches its terminal velocity, and uniform flow is established. The flow remains
uniform as long as the slope, cross section, and surface roughness of the channel
remain unchanged. The flow depth in uniform flow is called the normal depth (𝒚𝒏 ),
which is an important characteristic parameter for open-channel flows (Figure below).

For uniform flow in an open channel, the flow

depth y and the average flow velocity V remain
constant.

The presence of an obstruction in the channel, such as a gate or a change in slope or

cross section, causes the flow depth to vary, and thus the flow to become varied or
non-uniform. Such varied flows are common in both natural and human-made open
channels such as rivers, irrigation systems, and sewer lines. The varied flow is called
rapidly varied flow (RVF) if the flow depth changes markedly over a relatively short
distance in the flow direction (such as the flow of water past a partially open gate or
over a falls), and gradually varied flow (GVF) if the flow depth changes gradually
over a long distance along the channel. A gradually varied flow region typically occurs
between rapidly varied and uniform flow regions, as shown in Figure below.
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Uniform flow (UF), gradually varied

flow (GVF), and rapidly varied flow
(RVF) in an open channel.

c) Laminar, transitional and Turbulent Flows in Channels

Like pipe flow, open-channel flow can be laminar, transitional, or turbulent, depending
on the value of the Reynolds number expressed as

𝜌𝑉𝑅ℎ 𝑉𝑅ℎ 1
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝑣
where 𝑉 is the average liquid velocity, 𝜈 is the kinematic viscosity, and 𝑅ℎ is the
hydraulic radius defined as the ratio of the cross-sectional flow area 𝐴𝑐 and the wetted
perimeter 𝑝,
𝐴𝑐
Hydraulic radius: 𝑅ℎ = (𝑚)
𝑝

Considering that open channels come with rather irregular cross sections, the
hydraulic radius serves as the characteristic dimension and brings uniformity to the
treatment of open channels. Also, the Reynolds number is constant for the entire
uniform flow section of an open channel.

The relation between hydraulic radius and hydraulic diameter is

4𝐴𝑐
Hydraulic diameter: 𝐷ℎ = = 4𝑅ℎ
𝑝

Therefore, a Reynolds number based on the hydraulic radius is one-fourth of the

Reynolds number based on hydraulic diameter as the characteristic dimension. So, it
will come as no surprise that the flow is laminar for Re ≲ 2000 in pipe flow, but for Re
≲ 500 in open-channel flow. Also, open-channel flow is usually turbulent for Re ≳ 2500
and transitional for 500 ≲ Re ≲ 2500.

Hydraulic radius relations for various open-channel geometries.

i. Circular channels 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑅 2 (𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

𝑝 = 2𝑅𝜃
𝐴𝑐 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑅ℎ = = 𝑅
𝑝 2𝜃
(𝜃 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑)
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ii. Trapezoidal channels 𝑦

𝐴𝑐 𝑦(𝑏 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 )
𝑅ℎ = =
𝑝 𝑏 + 2𝑦/𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

iii. Rectangular channels

𝐴𝑐 𝑏𝑦 𝑦
𝑅ℎ = = =
𝑝 𝑏 + 2𝑦 1 + 2𝑦/𝑏

iv. Liquid film of thickness 𝑦

𝐴𝑐 𝑦𝑏 𝑦𝑏
𝑅ℎ = = ≅ ≅𝑦
𝑝 𝑏 + 2𝑦 𝑏

OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW EQUATIONS

We could recall that flow in a channel is called uniform flow if the flow depth (and thus
the average flow velocity since 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 in steady flow) remains
constant. The flow depth in uniform flow is called the normal depth yn, and the
average flow velocity is called the uniform-flow velocity V0. The flow remains uniform
as long as the slope, cross section, and surface roughness of the channel remain
unchanged (Figure below).

In uniform flow, the flow depth y, the average flow

velocity V, and the bottom slope S0 remain
constant, and the head loss equals the elevation
loss,
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑆𝑓 𝐿 = 𝑆0 𝐿.

When the bottom slope is increased, the flow velocity increases and the flow depth
decreases. Therefore, a new uniform flow is established with a new (lower) flow depth.
The opposite occurs if the bottom slope is decreased.
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During flow in open channels of constant slope 𝑆0 , constant cross section 𝐴𝑐 , and
constant surface friction factor 𝑓, the terminal velocity is reached and thus uniform flow
is established when the head loss equals the elevation drop. Therefore,
𝐿 𝑉2 𝐿 𝑉0 2 2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 × 𝑜𝑟 𝑆0 𝐿 = 𝑓 ×
𝐷ℎ 2𝑔 𝑅ℎ 8𝑔
since ℎ𝐿 = 𝑆0 𝐿 in uniform flow and 𝐷ℎ = 4𝑅ℎ .
Solving the second relation for 𝑉0, the uniform-flow velocity and the flow rate (𝑉̇ ) are
determined to be
𝑉0 = 𝐶√𝑆0 𝑅ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉̇ = 𝐶𝐴𝑐 √𝑆0 𝑅ℎ 3

where 𝐶 = √8𝑔/𝑓 is the Chezy coefficient. The Chezy coefficient is a dimensional

quantity, and its value ranges from about 30 m1/2/s for small channels with rough
surfaces to 90 m1/2/s for large channels with smooth surfaces.
The constant in Chezy equation was recommended by both Gauckler and Manning as
𝑎 4
𝐶 = 𝑅ℎ 1/6
𝑛
where 𝑛 is the Manning coefficient whose value depends on the roughness of the
channel surfaces.

Substituting into Equations. 3 gives the following empirical relations known as the
Gauckler–Manning equations for uniform flow.
𝑎 𝑎 5
𝑉0 = 𝑅ℎ 2/3 𝑆01/2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉̇ = 𝐴𝑐 𝑅ℎ 2/3 𝑆01/2
𝑛 𝑛
The factor 𝑎 is a dimensional constant whose value in SI units is 𝑎 = 1 m1/3/s, the
bottom slope 𝑆0 and the Manning coefficient 𝑛 are dimensionless quantities, and
Equations 5 give the velocity in 𝑚/𝑠 and the flow rate in 𝑚3 /𝑠 in SI units when 𝑅ℎ is
expressed in 𝑚.
Example 1.
Water flows uniformly half-full in a 2m diameter
circular channel that is laid on a grade of 1.5
m/km as shown in the Figure below. If the
channel is constructed of finished concrete,
determine the flow rate of the water. The
Manning coefficient, 𝑛, for an open channel of
finished concrete is 0.012.
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SOLUTION:
Assumptions: 1 The flow is steady and uniform. 2 The bottom slope is constant. 3
The roughness coefficient is constant along the channel.
To determine the flow rate, we need to find the flow area, wetted perimeter, and
hydraulic radius of the channel.
Therefore,
i. Flow area of the circular channel becomes;

2
𝜋𝑅 2 𝜋(1)2
𝐴𝑐 = 𝑅 𝜃 = = = 1.571 𝑚2
2 2
ii. Wetted perimeter of the circular channel becomes;
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋(1)
𝑝 = 2𝑅𝜃 = = = 3.142 𝑚
2 2
iii. Hydraulic radius of the circular channel becomes;
𝐴𝑐 1.571
𝑅ℎ = = = 0.5 𝑚
𝑝 3.142
iv. Then the flow rate can be determined from Gauckler–Manning’s equation to be

𝑎
𝑉̇ = 𝐴 𝑅 2/3 𝑆01/2
𝑛 𝑐 ℎ
𝑚 1.5
𝑆0 = 1.5 = = 1.5 × 10−3
𝑘𝑚 1000
Therefore,
1
𝑉̇ = × 1.571 × 0.52/3 × (1.5 × 10−3 )1/2 = 3.19 𝑚3 /𝑠
0.012
This implies that the flow rate in a given channel is a strong function of the bottom
slope.

Example 2.
Water is to be transported in an unfinished-concrete rectangular
channel with a bottom width of 1.2 m at a rate of 1.5 m3/s. The terrain
is such that the channel bottom drops 0.6 m per 300 m length.
Determine the minimum height of the channel under uniform-flow
conditions as shown in figure below. What would your answer be if
the bottom drop is just 0.3 m per 300 m length? The Manning
coefficient (𝑛) for an open channel with unfinished-concrete surfaces
is taken as 0.014.
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SOLUTION:
Assumptions: 1 The flow is steady and uniform. 2 The bottom slope is constant. 3
The roughness of the wetted surface of the channel and thus the friction coefficient is
constant.
To determine the minimum height of the channel under uniform flow conditions, we
need to find the cross-sectional area, perimeter, hydraulic radius of the channel and
the flow rate of water through the channel.
Therefore,
i. The cross-sectional area of the channel becomes;
𝐴𝑐 = 𝑏𝑦 = 1.2𝑦
ii. The perimeter of the channel becomes;
𝑝 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦 = 1.2 + 2𝑦
iii. The hydraulic radius becomes;
𝐴𝑐 1.2𝑦
𝑅ℎ = =
𝑝 1.2 + 2𝑦
iv. The flow rate becomes
𝑎
𝑉̇ = 𝐴 𝑅 2/3 𝑆01/2
𝑛 𝑐 ℎ
0.3
The bottom slope 𝑆0 = 300 = 0.002 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 0.014,

1 1.2𝑦 2/3
1.5 = × 1.2𝑦 × ( ) × 0.0021/2
0.014 1.2 + 2𝑦
𝑦 = 0.799 𝑚 = 0.80 𝑚
If the bottom drop/slope was just 0.3 m per 300 m length, the bottom slope would be
S0 = 0.001, and the flow depth would be 𝑦 = 1.05 𝑚
Note that 𝑦 is the flow depth, and thus the minimum value for the channel height. Also,
there is considerable uncertainty in the value of the Manning coefficient n, and this
should be considered when deciding the height of the channel to be built.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Water flows in a channel whose bottom
slope is 0.003 and whose cross section is
shown in Figure below. The dimensions and
the Manning coefficients for the surfaces of
different subsections are also given on the
figure. Determine the flow rate through the
channel and the effective Manning coefficient
for the channel.
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2. Water is to be transported at a rate of 2 m3/s in uniform

flow in an open channel whose surfaces are asphalt lined.
The bottom slope is 0.001. Determine the dimensions of
the best cross section if the shape of the channel is (a)
rectangular and (b) trapezoidal (see the figure below). The
Manning coefficient (n) for an open channel with asphalt
lining = 0.016.