Unit IV

Manufacturing of Polymer Matrix Composites

• Preparation of Moulding compounds and prepregs
– Hand layup method
– Autoclave method
– Filament winding method
– Compression moulding
– Reaction injection moulding
• Properties and applications of PMC
 Polymer as matrix materials
• Polymers: Most widely used matrix materials
• Structurally much more complex than metals and Ceramics.
• Polymers are giant chainlike molecules with covalently bonded carbon
atoms forming the backbone of the chain.
• Common examples: Polyesters, vinylesters, PEEK, PPS, nylon,
polycarbonate, polyacetals, polyamides, polyether imides, polystyrene,
epoxies, ureas, melamines, silicones.
• Advantages:
• Low cost
• Easy to process
• Low density
• Superior chemical resistance
• Limitations:
• Low strength
• Low modulus
• Limited range of operating temperature
• Sensitivity to UV radiation, specific solvents, and occasionally humidity.
 Polymer matrix
• Polymer is a long-chain molecule containing one or more repeating
units of atoms (Fig), joined together by strong covalent bonds .
• It is a collection of a large number of polymer molecules of similar
chemical structure (but not of equal length).
• In the solid state, these molecules are frozen in space, either in a
random fashion in amorphous polymers or in a mixture of random
fashion and orderly fashion (folded chains) in semi-crystalline
polymers.

(a) amorphous polymers and

A polypropylene molecule (b) semi-crystalline polymers
 Classification of Polymer matrix materials
• Thermoplastic polymers
• Have higher molecular weight and they do not undergo any chemical reaction during processing.
• Soften or become plastic on heating. Melt and flow during processing but do not form cross links.
• Their structure has long chain of molecules, chain inter-connected with strong intra-molecular
bonds, but weak inter-molecular bonds.
• When exposed to heat, these inter-molecular bonds breakdown, and the material starts “flowing”.
• Viscosity of thermoplastics during processing is many orders of magnitude higher than that of
thermosets. Thermoplastics: 103–106 Pa.s and thermoset resins: 1 Pa.s.
• Have higher impact strength – Better damage tolerance.
• Since there is no formation of cross-links during the processing of thermoplastics, they can be
reprocessed.
• There is less chance for the formation of microcracks in thermoplastic composites because of the
high strain-to-failure values of thermoplastics.
• They are processed close to their melting points. Nylons (6, 66), thermoplastic polyesters (such as
PET, PBT), polycarbonates (PC), polyacetals – used with discontinuous fibres in injection molded
articles.
• Polyamide-imide (PAI) polyether ether ketone (PEEK), polysulfone (PSUL), polyphenylene
sulfide (PPS), polyetherimide (PEI) – suitable for moderately high temp. applications with
continuous fibres.

Schematic representation of thermoplastic polymer

 Thermoplastic
• Glass transition temperature (Tg)
• Melting point (Tm)

(a) amorphous, (b) semicrystalline

Material ρs ρa Material Level of

Nylon 1.24 1.08 crystallinity

PET 1.5 1.33 HDPE 70 - 80 %

PTFE 2.35 2 PET 30 - 40 %

HDPE 1 0.85 PTFE 60 - 80 %

 Classification of Polymer matrix materials
• Thermoset polymers
• The molecules are chemically joined together by cross-links, forming rigid, 3-d
network structure.
• During curing the molecular weight increases by the formation of strong covalent
bond cross-links, the viscosity of the resin increases.
• These polymers do not melt, but breakdown (decompose) when heated.
• Thermoset resins can be processed at RT or at relatively lower temperatures.
• Thermosets cannot be reprocessed due to their highly cross-linked structures. They
will thermally degrade and eventually decompose at high temperatures.
• Epoxies – used mainly in aerospace and aircraft applications
• Polyesters, Vinyl esters – commonly used in automotive, marine, chem. & Elec.
• Phenolics – Used in bulk molding compounds
• Polyimides, polybenzimidazoles (PBI), polyphenylquinoxaline (PPQ) – (250-400°C)

Schematic representation of thermoset polymer

 Properties of polymers at ambient temp.
• Near the glass transition temperature (Tg) the polymeric solid changes from a hard, sometimes
brittle (glass-like) material to a soft, tough (leather like) material .
• Above Tg, its modulus is reduced by as much as five orders of magnitude. Near this
temperature, the material is also highly viscoelastic. Thus, when an external load is applied, it
exhibits an instantaneous elastic deformation followed by a slow viscous deformation.
• With increasing temperature, the polymer changes into a rubber-like solid, capable of
undergoing large, elastic deformations under external loads. As the temperature is increased
further, both amorphous and semi crystalline thermoplastics achieve highly viscous liquid
states, with the latter showing a sharp transition at the crystalline melting point (Tm).
However, for a thermoset polymer, no melting occurs; instead, it chars and finally burns at
very high temperatures. The glass transition temperature of a thermoset polymer can be con
trolled by varying the amount of cross-linking be tween the molecules.

Variation of tensile modulus with temperature for three different types of polymers
(a) amorphous thermoplastic, (b) semi-crystalline thermoplastic, and (c) thermoset
 Properties of polymers – Loading Rate & Temp.
• The effect of loading rate on the stress–strain behavior is opposite to that
due to temperature. At low loading rates or long durations of loading, the
polymer may behave in a ductile manner and show high toughness. At
high loading rates or short durations of loading , the same polymer
behaves in a rigid , brittle (glass-like) manner.
• At low temperatures, the stress–strain
behavior is much like that of a brittle
material. The polymer may not exhibit
any signs of yielding and the strain-to-
failure is low. As the temperature is
increased, yielding may occur; but the
yield strength decreases with increasing
temperature.
• The strain-to-failure, on the other hand,
increases with increasing temperature,
Effects of loading rate and temperature on the
transforming the polymer from a brittle stress–strain behavior of polymeric solids.
material at low temperatures to a ductile
material at elevated temperatures.
Polymer Matrix Materials: Selection Criteria
• Service temperature required for the component
• A good rule of thumb is to select a polymer, which has Tg of at least 25°C
higher than the maximum service temperature of the part.
• Most of the polymeric materials absorb moisture, which lowers the Tg of
the polymer. Hence, it is preferable to select a polymer with Tg of 50°C
higher than the maximum service temperature.
• Mechanical properties required for the component
• A high-modulus matrix is desirable for better compressive properties,
whereas a high tensile strength matrix is suitable to control intraply
cracking in the composites.
• A matrix material with better fracture toughness can have better control on
crack propagation and delamination.
• Wettability
• Some polymers wet the fibres easily and adhere to the fibers better than
others and form better chemical and/or mechanical bond that increases the
matrix-to-fibre load transfer capability.
• Processing conditions
• A long pot life (timed during which the viscosity of the mixed system
doubles.) is desirable for processes that use neat resin, such as filament
winding, resin transfer moulding, and Pultrusion.
 Processing Fundamentals
Raw Materials for Part Fabrication
1. Reinforcements - Glass, Carbon, Boron and Aramid Fibers
2. Matrix Materials
• Thermoset Resins – Epoxy, Phenolics, Polyesters, Vinylesters,
Cyanate Esters, Bismaleimide (BMI, Polyimide, Polyurethane,
etc.
• Thermoplastic Resins - Nylons, Polypropylene (PP),
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS), etc.
3. Fabrics – Woven, Noncrimp
4. Prepregs – Thermoset prepregs and Thermoplastic prepregs
5. Preforms
6. Moulding compounds – Sheet Moulding Compound, Thick
Moulding Compound (TMC), Bulk Moulding Compound (BMC)
and Injection Mouldable Compounds.
7. Honeycomb and Other Core Materials.
8. Fillers and additives.
Types of composite manufacturing techniques
and their corresponding material systems
 Fillers and other Additives
Fillers are added to a polymer matrix for one or more of the
following reasons:
1. Reduce cost (since most fillers are much less expensive than the
matrix resin)
2. Increase modulus.
3. Reduce mold shrinkage
4. Control viscosity
5. Produce smoother surface
 Fillers and other Additives
Some of the other additives used with PMC and their primary
functions are listed in the following:
1. Pigment or colorant to impart color to the polymer.
2. UV stabilizer to prevent degradation of the polymer due to long
exposure to UV energy from the sun.
3. Flame retardant to reduce flammability of the polymer.
4. Impact modifier to increase impact strength of the polymer.
5. Antioxidant to reduce the possibility of oxidation of the polymer
in an oxidizing atmosphere.
6. Heat stabilizer to reduce the possibility of degradation of the
polymer on long exposures to heat.
7. Mold release agent to easily make the molded part release from
the mold surface.
 Processing Fundamentals
• Processing of PMCs involves a combination of complex fluid flow and
thermomechanical phenomena that determines the quality of the composite part
and, ultimately, its mechanical properties and structural performance.
• Fluid flow takes place under pressure and determines if the liquid polymer has
flowed through each layer of the dry fiber stack and wetted the fiber.
• Good fluid flow is required for consolidation of prepreg layers, and removal of
air between them, if a bag molding process is used. Process-induced defects,
such as voids, uneven distribution of fibers, resin-starved areas, and interlayer
cracks, are influenced by fluid flow.
• Thermal condition determines if the part is sufficiently cured in the case of a
thermoset matrix composite or has melted during heating and developed the
desired molecular structure during cooling in the case of a thermoplastic matrix
composite.
• Mechanical properties, such as tensile modulus and strength, and thermal
properties, such as glass transition temperature and thermal conductivity, depend
on the degree of cure in a thermoset matrix composite and the degree of
crystallinity in a semicrystalline thermoplastic matrix composite.
• Several process-induced effects, such as shrinkage, warpage, and residual
stresses, also depend on the thermomechanical condition during processing.
 Manufacturing Techniques
Selection of particular manufacturing process is based on
• The type of matrix and fibers,
• Temperature to form and cure the matrix,
• The geometry of the end product and
• Cost effectiveness.
The two important parameters that control the manufacturing
techniques are temperature and pressure.
• High temperature is required for the chemical reaction of resin
to prevail.
• Pressure is required for the highly viscous resin to flow into the
fibers and to bind the fibers which are initially unbonded.
• The chemical reaction of resin, forming cross linking is called
curing. The time required to complete the curing is called the cure
cycle. Cure cycle determines the production rate for a part.
Fundamentals in composite manufacturing
• Degree of cure – It is a measure of conversion of from uncured to
cured state. It is defined as the ratio of cross-links formed at any
given time to the maximum number of cross-links that can form at
the selected cure temperature. It influences physical, thermal, and
mechanical properties of a thermoset polymer.
• The degree of cure at any time, t is defined by,
αc = H/HR
where, H - the amount of heat released in time t
HR - heat of reaction
• Gel time - On curing, the viscosity of the matrix increases with
increasing cure time and temperature. The rate of viscosity increase
is low at the early stage of curing. After a threshold degree of cure
is achieved, the resin viscosity increases at a very rapid rate. The
time at which this occurs is called the gel time.
 Fundamentals in composite manufacturing
• The variation of viscosity of a thermoset as a function of time for two
different temperatures (T1 > T2) is illustrated in Fig. A slight decrease in
viscosity in the beginning because of the heat generated by the exothermic
curing reaction. As the crosslinking progresses, the molecular mass of the
thermoset increases, viscosity increases at first slowly and then very rapidly.
• Figure shows the variation of mechanical properties as a function of curing
time. After a time marked tcure, the mech. properties of a thermoset
essentially do not change with time.

Viscosity (η) vs. time (t) for a thermoset for Variation of mechanical
two different temp. T1 > T2 properties with curing time
Fundamentals in composite manufacturing
• Viscosity - Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow under
shear stresses.
• Two factors determining the viscosity of a fluid are the temperature and
shear rate. For all fluids, the viscosity decreases with increasing temp.
Shear rate does not have any influence on the viscosity of low-molecular-
weight fluids, whereas it tends to either increase (shear thickening) or
decrease (shear thinning) the viscosity of a high-molecular-weight fluids.
• Polymer melts, in general, are shear-thinning fluids since their viscosity
decreases with increasing intensity of shearing.

Shear stress vs. shear rate curves for

various types of liquids
 Electron Beam Curing
• An electron beam (1–10 MeV) is used as a source of ionizing radiation
to initiate curing reaction. Parts up to 25 mm thick can be cured. Higher
energy beams are required for parts thicker than 25 mm. No hardener is
required in electron beam curing.
• Advantages
• Shorter cure times (minutes rather than the hours required by conventional
thermal processes).
• Curing can be accomplished at a selected temperature (room temperature or
near the service temperature).
• Lower energy consumption than in thermal curing.
• Removal of hardener means elimination of the undesirable VOCs. It also
allows the use of thermoset resins with unlimited shelf life.
• Limitations
• Only a few electron beam curing facilities are available, especially for large
and complex structures. This is especially so in the 5–15 MeV range.
• Shipping parts to outside accelerator facilities can be problematic.
• Long-term testing and experience in the field are missing; that is, customer
confidence needs to be built.
Fundamentals in composite manufacturing
Resin flow
• Proper flow of resin through a dry fibre network (in liquid composite
moulding [LCM]) or a prepreg layup (in bag moulding) is critical in
producing void-free parts and good fibre wet-out.
• In thermoset resins, curing may take place simultaneously with resin flow,
and if the resin viscosity rises too rapidly due to curing, its flow may be
inhibited, causing voids and poor interlaminar adhesion.
Consolidation
• Consolidation of layers in a fibre network or a prepreg layup requires good
resin flow and compaction; otherwise, the resulting composite laminate may
contain a variety of defects, including voids, interply cracks, resin-rich areas,
or resin-poor areas. Good resin flow by itself is not sufficient to produce
good consolidation.
• Both resin flow and compaction require the application of pressure during
processing in a direction normal to the dry fibre network or prepreg layup.
The pressure is applied to squeeze out the trapped air or volatiles, as the
liquid resin flows through the fibre network or prepreg layup, suppresses
voids, and attains uniform fibre volume fraction.
Fundamentals in composite manufacturing
Shrinkage
• Shrinkage is the reduction in volume or linear dimensions caused by curing as
well as thermal contraction. Curing shrinkage occurs because of the
rearrangement of polymer molecules into a more compact mass as the curing
reaction proceeds. The thermal shrinkage occurs during the cooling period
that follows the curing react ion and may take place both inside and outside
the mould.
Voids
• Void is considered the most critical defect in influencing its mechanical
properties. The most common cause for void formation is the inability of the
resin to displace air from the fibre surface during the time fibres are coated
with the liquid resin.
• The rate at which the fibres are pulled through the liquid resin, the resin
viscosity, the relative values of fibre and resin surface energies, and the
mechanical manipulation of fibres in the liquid resin affect air entrapment at
the fibre-resin interface. Voids may also be caused by air bubbles and volatiles
en trapped in the liquid resin.
• Voids can be removed by (1) degassing the liquid resin, (2) applying vacuum
during the moulding process, and (3) allowing the resin mix to flow freely in
the mould.
Basic Steps in a Composites manufacturing process
Four basic steps:
• Wetting/impregnation, lay-up, consolidation, and solidification.
• All composites manufacturing processes involve these four steps,
although they are accomplished in different ways.
• Impregnation - In this step, fibers and resins are mixed together to
form a lamina.
• Lay-up - In this step, composite laminates are formed by placing
fiber resin mixtures or prepregs at desired angles and at places
where they are needed. The desired composite thickness is built up
by placing various layers of the fiber and resin mixture.
• Consolidation - This step involves creating intimate contact
between each layer of prepreg or lamina. This step ensures that all
the entrapped air is removed between layers during processing.
• Solidification - The final step is solidification, which may take less
than a minute for thermoplastics or may take up to 120 min for
thermosets.
 Lay-up
• A Lay-Up process is a moulding process for composite
materials, in which the final product is obtained by overlapping a
specific number of different layers, usually made of continuous
polymeric or ceramic fibres and a thermoset polymeric liquid
matrix.
• It can be divided into Dry Lay-up and Wet Lay-Up, depending on
whether the layers are pre-impregnated or not.
• Dry Lay-up is a common process in the aerospace industry, due
to the possibility of obtaining complex shapes with good
mechanical properties, characteristics required in this field.
• On the contrary, as Wet Lay-Up does not allow uni-directional
fabrics, which have better mechanical properties, it is mainly
adopted for all other areas, which in general have lower
requirements in terms of performance.
• The main stages of the Lay-Up process are cutting, lamination
and polymerization.
 Composite Fabrication
• In general, a “primitive” version of composite is formed first (e.g. prepregs),
and this pre‐formed composite is later given the shape of final product by
application of heat and pressure. However, even in such cases, the properties of
the “primitive” composite material, and those of final product, may be
significantly different.
• In case of composites with thermoplastics matrix materials, the situation may
be somewhat different. Here, quite often, composite material is first produced,
and then subsequently given desired shape separately. However, even here, the
process of giving desired shape to composite may alter properties of composite,
due to a variety of factors including fiber length reduction, change of fiber
orientation, and thermal degradation.
• Overall, composite materials are produced through a large number of
processes. The choice of a specific production method strongly depends on
• Chemical nature of Matrix
• Temperature needed
• Melting the material
• Forming the material
• Curing the material and
• The nature of final product’s shape.
 What is good fabrication process ?
• Uniform and complete curing of Matrix
• Maintaining the shape and orientation of fibre during
processing
• Good adhesion between fibres and matrix
• Air and porosity should be eliminated / minimized
• Residual stress should be manageable
• Repeatable process
• Fast of manufacture
• Easy to manufacture
• Cost effective
• Surface finish of the part.
Manufacturing Process Selection Criteria
• Production Rate/Speed,
• Cost,
• Performance / Quality,
• Size, Shape
 Types of Composite Manufacturing
• Lay-up - Hand lay-up, Spray lay-up, Prepreg Lay-Up and
Automatic tape lay-up
• Prepregs
• Compression molding - Resin injection molding, Incremental
molding, Stamp molding, High-pressure compression molding and
Injection molding
• Bag molding - Pressure bag molding and Vacuum bag molding
• Autoclave molding
• Filament winding - Helical winding, Hoop winding
• Resin transfer molding (RTM) - Flexible RTM (FRTM),
Continuous RTM (CRTM), Vacuum assisted RTM (VARTM) and
High-speed RTM (HSRTM)
• Pultrusion
• Molding compounds - SMC (sheet molding compound), BMC
(bulk molding compound)
• Centrifugal Casting
Classification of composites processing techniques
 Incorporation of fibers into matrix
Processes for incorporating fibers into a polymer matrix can be
divided into two categories.
• In one category, fibers and matrix are processed directly into the
finished product or structure.
• Examples of such processes are filament winding and
pultrusion.
• In the second category, fibers are incorporated into the matrix to
prepare ready-to-mould sheets that can be stored and later
processed to form laminated structures by autoclave moulding
or compression moulding.
• Ready- to-mold fiber-reinforced polymer sheets are available in
two basic forms, prepregs and sheet-molding compounds.
 Prepregs
• A prepreg is a resin-impregnated fibre, fabric, or mat in flat form, which is
stored for later use in hand lay-up or moulding operations. Fibres laid at 0°
orientation and preimpregnated with resin are called unidirectional tape.
• Epoxy is the primary matrix material in prepreg sheets, although other
thermoset and thermoplastic polymers have also been used.
• The width of prepreg sheets vary from less than 25 mm to over 457 mm.
Sheets wider than 457 mm are called broad goods. The thickness of a ply
cured from prepreg sheets is 0.13–0.25 mm. Resin content in commercially
available prepregs is between 30% and 45% by weight.

Prepreg types: unidirectional tape, woven

Making unidirectional prepreg tape
fabric prepregs, and rovings.
 Characteristics of good prepreg
1. The fiber to resin ratio should be high and should not vary
from place to place.
2. Volatile contents and solvents should be minimum.
3. The prepreg should be flexible and tack free.
4. The material should have long storage life.
5. During moulding, the resin should be soften and flow
filling the mold cavity should be without voids and
defects.
• Materials
• Glass fiber is the most commonly used as reinforcing
material, but other fibers like carbon fiber, boron have also
been used. Epoxy and polyester resins are used as the
impregnating agents.
Properties of Various Prepreg Materials
 Prepregs
• Prepregs are used in a wide variety of applications, including
aerospace parts, sporting goods, printed circuit boards, medical
components, and industrial products.
• The advantages of prepreg materials over metals are their higher
specific stiffness, specific strength, corrosion resistance, and
faster manufacturing.
• The major disadvantage of prepreg materials is their higher cost.
Products made with prepreg materials provide a higher fibre
volume fraction than those made by filament winding and
pultrusion.
• Prepregs also provide more controlled properties and higher
stiffness and strength properties than other composite products.
 Prepregs
Thermoset Prepregs
• Thermoset prepregs are more common and more widely used than
thermoplastic prepregs.
• Usually, the resin is partially cured to a tack-free state called B-staging.
• Several additives (e.g., flame retardants, catalysts, and inhibitors) are
added to meet various end-use properties and processing and handling
needs.
• These prepregs are generally stored in a low-temperature environment
and have a limited shelf life.
• Thermoset prepregs require a longer process cycle time, typically in
the range of 1 to 8 hr.
• Prepregs are generally used for hand lay-up, roll wrapping,
compression molding, and automatic lay-up processes.
• Once the prepregs are laid on a tool, it is cured in the presence of
pressure and temperature to obtain the final product.
 Prepregs
• Thermoplastic Prepregs
• Have an unlimited shelf life at room temperature and are generally processed at
the melting temperature of the resin.
• The most common resins are nylon, polyetheretherketone (PEEK),
polyphenylene sulfide, polyimide, etc.
• The process cycle time for thermoplastic composites is much faster than
thermoset composites, in the range of a few minutes.
• The benefits of thermoplastic prepregs are:
• Recyclability
• Good solvent and chemical resistance
• Reduced process cycle time
• Higher toughness and impact resistance
• Indefinite shelf life with no refrigeration
• Reshaping and reforming flexibility
• Greater flexibility for joining and assembly by fusion bonding and in situ
consolidation
• Better repairability potential
• The disadvantages of thermoplastic prepregs are that they require higher
temperatures and pressures for processing. They provide some processing
difficulties because of their poor drape capabilities.
 Preparation of prepregs
Prepregs can be made by basically two methods:
1. Wetting the glass fiber cloth with the resin and heating it to a
B-stage of curing (partial curing) so that the material becomes
tack free. After sometime, if the heat is withdrawn and the
material is stored at -18°C, the cross linking operation can be
stopped. At the correct B-stage the cloth will be tack free and
very flexible. The prepregs are slightly heated before
processing to get soften and bond with the successive layers.
After shaping (winding, press moulding), the material is
heated to take it to the full cure.
2. If the matrix is in powder form it cannot go through the
B-staging. In such cases, the resin is dissolved in a suitable
solvent and brought to required viscosity.
 Prepreg Production Processes
• The prepregging process, begins by collimating a series of spool-wound continuous
fiber tows. These tows are then sandwiched and pressed between sheets of release
and carrier papers using heated rollers, a process termed “calendering.”
• The release paper sheet has been coated with a thin film of heated resin solution of
relatively low viscosity so as to provide for its thorough impregnation of the fibers. A
“doctor blade” spreads the resin into a film of uniform thickness and width.
• The final prepreg product-the thin tape
consisting of continuous and aligned
fibers embedded in a partially cured
resin—is prepared for packaging by
winding onto a cardboard core.
• The release paper sheet is removed as
the impregnated tape is spooled.
• Typical tape thicknesses range
between 0.08 and 0.25 mm tape
widths range between 25 and 1525
mm, whereas resin content usually lies
between about 35 and 45 vol%.
 Prepregs Storage Condition
• At room temperature the thermoset matrix undergoes curing
reactions; therefore, the prepreg is stored at 0°C or lower. Also,
the time in use at room temperature (or “out-time”) must be
minimized.
• The prepregs are stored in refrigerated chambers. The
temperature of the storage area is important in improving the
shelf life of the material. Moisture should be completely
avoided. Shelf life is 6-8 months when stored at -18°C.
• If properly handled, thermoset prepregs have a lifetime of at
least six months and usually longer.
• Both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are utilized; carbon,
glass, and aramid fibers are the common reinforcements.
 Preforms
• Preforms are feedstock for the RTM and SRIM processes, where a
reinforcement in the form of a thick two or three dimensional fiber
architecture is put in the mold cavity and then resin is injected into the cavity
to obtain the composite part.
• Preforms are made in several ways. To make a preform by braiding and
filament winding, dry fibers are laid over a mandrel as shown in Figure.
• Preforms can be of any shape, depending on the requirements and size of the
component. Preforms are stable and offer a good strength-to-weight ratio.

Braiding of fiberglass preform for an airfoil Braided carbon fiber duct preform
application. (Courtesy of Fiber Innovations Inc.) for an aircraft application
 Moulding Compound
• Several types of molding compounds available to meet various needs.
Moulding compounds are made of short or long fibers impregnated with
resins. In general, they are used for compression molding and injection
molding processes.
• Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC) – It is a sheet of ready-to-mold composites
containing uncured thermosetting resins and uniformly distributed short fibers
and fillers. It primarily consists of polyester or vinylester resin, chopped glass
fibers, inorganic fillers, additives, and other materials. Normally, SMC
contains 30% by weight short glass fibers. The longer cure time for epoxies
has limited their use in SMC.

Filler is added to reduce

the overall cost, increase
dimensional stability, and
reduce shrinkage during
molding. Thickener is used
to increase resin viscosity.
Styrene is added for the
curing or cross-linking
process.
 Sheet Molding Compound
• Thermoset Sheet Molding Compound (SMC) is a mixture of polymer resin,
inert fillers, fiber reinforcement, catalysts, pigments and stabilizers, release
agents, and thickeners and possesses strong dielectric properties. Manufacture
of sheet molding compounds is a continuous in-line process.

• The material is sheathed both top and bottom with a polyethylene or nylon
plastic film to prevent auto-adhesion. The paste is spread uniformly onto the
bottom film. Chopped glass fibers are randomly deposited onto the paste. The
top film is introduced and the sandwich is rolled into a pre-determined thickness.
The sheet is allowed to mature for 48 hours.
 Sheet-molding compounds (SMC)

SMC-R SMC-CR XMC

a) SMC- R, containing randomly oriented discontinuous fibers. The nominal fiber content
(by wt. %) is usually indicated by two-digit numbers after the letter R. For example, the
nominal fiber content in SMC- R30 is 30 % by wt.
b) SMC- CR, containing a layer of unidirectional continuous fibers on top of a layer of
randomly oriented discontinuous fibers. The nominal fiber contents are usually indicated
by two-digit numbers after the letters C and R. For example, the nominal fiber contents in
SM C-C40 R30 are 40% by wt. of unidirectional continuous fibers and 30% by wt. of
randomly oriented discontinuos fibers.
c) XMC (trademark of PPG Industries), containing continuous fibers arranged in an X
pattern, where the angle between the inter laced fibers is between 58 and 78.
Additionally, it may also contain randomly oriented discontinuous fibers interspersed
with the continuous fibers.
 Molding Compounds
• Thick Molding Compound (TMC) - Thick molding compound (TMC) is a
thicker form of SMC. The thickness of TMC goes up to 50 mm whereas the
maximum thickness of SMC is 6 mm.
• TMC is used for making thicker molded parts. TMC eliminates having to
use several SMC plies. Due to its greater thickness, TMC provides reduced
pliability. In TMC, fibers are randomly distributed in three dimensions,
whereas in SMC fibers are in two dimensions.
• Bulk Molding Compound (BMC) - Bulk molding compound (BMC) is a
compound that is in log or rope form. It is also known as dough molding
compound (DMC).
• BMC is obtained by mixing the resin paste with fibers and then extruding
the compound in log or rope form. The extruded part is cut to length,
depending on the requirement.
• BMC generally contains 15 to 20% fiber in a polyester or vinylester resin.
The fiber length ranges from 6 to 12 mm. Due to the lower fiber volume
fraction and shorter fiber length, BMC composites provide lower
mechanical properties than SMC composites.
 Molding Compounds
• Injection Moldable Compounds
• Injection molding is a widely used manufacturing method for thermoplastic
product fabrication. This method provides increased production rates and
low-cost fabrication of parts. Because unfilled thermoplastics have lower
stiffness and strength, reinforcements are made by adding short fibers.
• Thermoplastic molding compound is
made by passing the fiber strand through
a die similar to the pultrusion process.
The counterflow die induces shear that
lowers the resin viscosity and enhances
fiber wet-out and dispersion.
• The rod-like structure is then pulled and cut into lengths of around 10
mm in pellet form. The molded part contains fibers in the range 0.2 to 6
mm long. The reduction in fiber length takes place during the molding
operation. Glass, carbon, and aramid fibers can be reinforced to make
pellets. A wide variety of resins (e.g., nylon, PPS, PP, PE, etc.) can be
used to make injection moldable thermoplastic parts.
 Hand Lay-Up Process
• Hand lay-up refers to the manufacturing process of fiber-reinforced
plastics (FRPs) by laying fiber reinforcements with thermoset resins in
or on a mold using hand or handheld tools. It is a non-mechanized
open mold manufacturing process.
• It is suitable for any thermoset resin system that is available in liquid
form under room temperature. Ex. Polyester, epoxies, and certain
grades of phenolics, silicones, and polyimides.
• It is mainly used for making FRP products in a mould. The mould has
the shape of the product. The product will have smooth finish only on
the side that is in contact with the mould. Only the male or the female
half of the mould is generally used in hand lay-up process. If the
inside surface needs smooth finish, then the product is made over a
male mould or vice versa.
• It is possible to make a product with glossy, mat, or textured finish on
the surface by using a mould with the respective finish. The mould
must be free from surface defects, because the imprint of such defects
will form on the product.
Hand Lay-Up Process
 Hand Lay-Up Process
• The typical cross-sectional structure (architecture) of layers in a
hand lay-up product is shown schematically
 Hand Lay-Up Process
• Moulds - Molds for hand lay-up process are made out of plaster of Paris, wood,
FRP, or metals. Plaster of Paris mold is good for making a few pieces, since the
mold easily breaks during the release of product. FRP and cast epoxy molds are
ideal for making intricate shapes. For critical components and when heating
and/or pressing is required, metallic molds are the best choice. The thickness of
the mold should be such that it should not deform excessively during lay-up and
release of the product.
• Release Film or Layer - A release film or layer should be placed over the mold
surface for the easy release of product from the mold. For flat sheets and simple
product shapes, a thin polyester film (Mylar) can be used. For complex shapes,
the use of release layer of wax and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is recommended.
• Gel Coat - Gel coat is a thin layer of resin (∼0.5 mm thickness) applied over the
release film. Gel coat gives superior finish to the product. The required color of
the product can be obtained by adding suitable pigment to the resin. The gel coat
serves the following purposes:
1. It provides color, glossiness, and/or texture to the products.
2. It conceals the fiber pattern.
3. It also provides a resin-rich layer that protects the fiber from getting in
contact with water and chemicals.
The gel coat resin is generally of the same grade as the lay-up resin.
 Hand Lay-Up Process
• Surface Mat Layer - When there is a requirement of thick resin layer, as in
chemical equipment for increased chemical resistance, a surface mat layer is
used after the gel coat layer. In the surface mat, very fine fibers are bonded into
a mat. The mat provides the required crack resistance and impact strength to
the resin-rich layer. Surface mat layer is an optional layer and is used only in
specific cases.
• Laminates - Fiber layers wetted with resin are laid-up to the required thickness
and the stacking is called laminate. The laminate provides strength and rigidity
to the product. Glass fibers in the form of CSM are generally used. Woven
roving mat (WRM) is used in between CSM layers to improve the strength of
the laminates.
• The first layer of laminate shall invariably be a CSM layer and the lamination
should satisfy the following requirements:
1. The fibers should be uniformly placed, and they should fit correctly on the
contours of the mold surface.
2. The fibers should not be damaged during lay-up.
3. The fiber-to-resin ratio should be correctly maintained.
The required quantities of filler, accelerator, and other additives are added to the
resin and mixed thoroughly.
 Hand Lay-Up Process
• Lamination -A layer of resin is applied with a brush on the gel coat. One layer
of CSM is then placed carefully over the resin. The resin is squeezed to the top
surface by a stippling action using resin-wetted brush. The bristles of brush
may come out and stick on the product during this action. Hence, for a high-
quality product, the usage of brush should be avoided; instead a hand roller can
be used.
• The hand lay-up of successive layers should
not be delayed too long, as it can lead to
difficulty for the new layer to bond with the
previous layer. When WRM is needed, it
should be placed in between CSM layers in
order to have better interlaminar shear
strength. The lay-up procedure for WRM
and CSM are identical except that less resin
is used for WRM. All lay-up operations must
be finished before the gelation of resin.
• The gel time depends on the amount of catalyst and accelerator added, but in a
normal curing process, it is usually 15–30 min. Once the lay-up is completed, then
the laminate is allowed to cure on the mold. The product can be released from the
mold, when more than 90% of the curing is completed. Further curing takes long
time; normally, it may be 5–10 days. The curing process can be accelerated by post-
curing the product at an elevated temperature after releasing from the mold.
 Basic Processing Steps
1. A release agent is applied to the mould.
2. The gel coat is applied to create a Class A surface finish on the
outer surface. The gel coat is hardened before any reinforcing layer
is placed.
3. The reinforcement layer is placed on the mould surface and then it
is impregnated with resin. Sometimes, the wetted fabric is placed
directly on the mould surface.
4. Using a roller, resin is uniformly distributed around the surface.
5. Subsequent reinforcing layers are placed until a suitable thickness
is built up.
6. In the case of sandwich construction, a balsa, foam, or honeycomb
core is placed on the laminated skin and then adhesively bonded.
Rear-end laminated skin is built similar to how the first laminated
skin was built up.
7. The part is allowed to cure at room temperature, or at elevated
temperature.
 Hand lay-up procedure

(1) Mould is cleaned and treated with a mould release agent; (2) A thin gel coat
(resin, possibly pigmented to colour) is applied, which will become the outside
surface of the moulding; (3) When the gel coat has partially set, successive layers
of resin and fibre are applied, the fibre being in the form of mat or cloth; each
layer is rolled to fully impregnate the fibre with resin and remove air bubbles; (4)
The part is cured; and (5) The fully hardened part is removed from the mould.
 Hand‐Layup
• Advantages
• Large and products with contoured surfaces can be fabricated.
• Limited capital expenses.
• Setup costs, and production lead time are less.
• Does not require highly trained and skilled personnel.
• Flexible in terms of accommodating changes in design.
• Depending on the end user’s taste, colours and decorative finishes can be
incorporated in the product.
• Sandwich constructions are possible.
• Limitations
• Inappropriate for large volume production.
• Labor intensive.
• Requires long cure time, as material hardens at room temperature.
• It is difficult to get a void free composite product . Quality control is difficult as
many processes are highly dependent on manual skills.
• Products produced through open molding process yield on one good molding
surface. The other surface is rough and coarse in surface finish.
• Wastage of materials may be high.
• Product‐to‐product variations in quality may be high.
 Hand‐Layup

The following conditions favour hand lay-up process as the

choice for fabrication:
• Good surface finish is needed on only one side.
• Slight thickness variations are permissible.
• Labour charges are not prohibitively high.
• The product is large in size and is very complex in shape.
• Only a few numbers of products are required, and the
number does not justify the use of costly metal dies and
compression moulding.
 Hand lay up method - Thermosets

Materials used
Matrix Epoxy, Polyester, Polyvinyl ester, Phenolic resin, Unsaturated polymer,
Polyurethane resin
Reinforcement Glass, carbon, aramid, natural plant fibers (sisal, banana, nettle, hemp,
flax etc.). (all these fibers are in the form of UD mat, bidirectional (woven)
mat, stitched into a fabric form, mat of randomly oriented fibers)
Applications
• Aircraft components, automotive parts, boat hulls, diase board, deck etc.
• Production rate is less and
• High volume fraction of reinforcement is difficult to achieve.
 Spray lay up

• Process: Fibre is chopped in a hand-held gun and fed into a spray of

catalysed resin directed on to the mould. The deposited materials are left
to cure under standard atmospheric conditions.
• Main advantages:
• Widely used for many years
• Low cost way of quickly depositing fibre and resin.
• Low cost tooling
Spray lay up
 Spray lay up

Materials
Matrix Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin, unsaturated polyester,
polyurethane resin
Reinforcement Glass, carbon, aramid, natural plant fibers (sisal, banana, nettle,
hemp, flax, coir, cotton, jute etc.). (all these fibers are in the form of
chopped short fibers, flakes, particle fillers etc.)
Applications Lower load carrying parts like small boats, bath tubs, fairing of
trucks etc. Ability produce high volume fraction composites.
No part size limitation.
 Bag Molding
• Bag molding technique works well with wet‐forming process, and
also with premix/prepreg forming process. It is a very old, and yet
versatile composite fabrication process.
• In this process, layers of fibers, impregnated with uncured resin,
are laid on top of a mold, layer‐by‐layer. Once the layup is
complete, the overall fiber stack up is covered with a flexible bag
or diaphragm.
• The overall assembly is next subjected to external pressure and
temperature for purposes of reliably curing the resin in relatively
short period of time.
• Once curing is complete, constituent materials become one
integrated mass in desired shape. They can subsequently trimmed,
and finished, following which they can be used in actual
application.
 Bag Moulding

• Apply release film on top of all the prepreg. The release film is a perforated film that
allows entrapped air, excess resins, and volatiles to escape.
• Apply bleeder, a porous fabric, on top of the release film. The function of the bleeder is to
absorb moisture and excess resin coming from the stack of prepregs.
• Apply barrier film on top of the bleeder. The film is similar to release film except that it is
not perforated or porous.
• Apply breather layer, a porous fabric similar to the bleeder. The function of the breather is
to create even pressure around the part and at the same time allowing air and volatiles to
escape.
• The final layer is a vacuum bag. It is an expendable polyamide (PA) film or reusable
elastomer. This film is sealed on all sides of the stacked prepreg using seal tape. If the
mold is porous, it is possible to enclose the entire mold inside the vacuum bag. Seal tape
is a 0.5- to 1-in.-wide rubbery material that sticks to both the mold and the bagging
material. A nozzle is inserted into the vacuum bag and connected to a vacuum hose for
creating vacuum inside the bag.
 Bag Molding
Based on the method of application of external pressure, categorized into three groups.
• Pressure bag molding: Here pressures exceeding 1 bar are applied on the composite
material being processed.
• Vacuum bag molding: In this process, the composite materials is subjected to vacuum to
remove air bubbles from the laminate. Post this stage, the material may be subjected to
atmospheric pressure while it undergoes curing process in an oven.
• Autoclave molding: Here, the composite is subjected to vacuum pressures, and also
elevated pressures simultaneously, while it undergoes curing at elevated temperatures.
Setup for Pressure Bag Molding Process Setup for Vacuum Bag Molding Process

• Pressure bag molding is relatively

expensive due to tooling costs. In this
method, tooling is expensive since it is • In contrast, vacuum bag and autoclave
integrated with curing pressure system. molding approaches are relatively
• Further, tools for this type of bag inexpensive as the basic curing
molding are part specific. equipment does not change.
 Autoclave molding
• Autoclave is a pressure vessel with a provision for heating. When the molding is carried out
in an autoclave, the molding process is called autoclave molding.
• An autoclave is a closed vessel (spherical or cylindrical) in which curing process occurs
under simultaneous application of high temperature and pressure. The quality of the
products made in autoclave is very good because of the application of pressure and
temperature. The temperature initiates the curing reaction and the pressure aids the better
consolidation of the product during curing. High quality of the products is essential for the
aerospace industry. Hence, autoclave molding is a preferred method in the aerospace
industry. The production rate of autoclave molding is low. This is another reason for the
suitability of this process for aerospace industry. Prepregs are generally used in the
autoclave process. Composites made from prepregs provide superior mechanical properties,
which can meet the stringent requirements of the aerospace industry.
• Curing pressures are generally in the range of 350 to 700 kPa and cure cycles normally
involve many hours. The method accommodates higher temperature matrix resins such as
epoxies, having higher properties than conventional resins.
• In this process, the part is enclosed in a bag
connected to a vacuum pump. Further, the exterior
of the bag is subjected to pressures exceeding 1 bar.
Finally, curing of the resin is initiated through
raising the temperature of material by placing it in
an autoclave chamber. In such a process, application
of high pressure ensures increased removal of air
and other volatiles, increased wetting, and improved
impregnation of fibers with resin.
 Two-stage cure cycle - Autoclave

Curing Cycle:
I Stage - Controlled addition of heat @2ºC up to 130ºC and dwell for 1 hr. During dwell an
external pressure is applied to flow out the excess resin into bleeder.
II Stage - Temperature is increased to cure temperature - Temp. & Pr. are maintained for 2 hrs
and then the temp. is reduced slowly but the pressure is maintained. After pre-
curing, it is postcured at an elevated temp in an oven.
Selection of Curing temperature and pressure – to meet
1. The resin is cured uniformly & attains a specified deg. of cure in the shortest possible time.
2. The temperature at any position inside the prepreg does not exceed a prescribed limit
during the cure.
3. The cure pressure is sufficiently high to squeeze out all of the excess resin from every ply
before the resin gels (increases in viscosity) at any location inside the prepreg.
 Autoclave process characteristics
• Very high quality product.
• Generally prepregs are used.
• Chopped fibres with resin can also be used.
• Hybrid composites can be produced.
• High fibre volume fractions can be obtained.
• Simultaneous application of high temperature and pressure
helps in,
- Consolidating the laminate.
- Removing the entrapped air.
- Curing the polymeric matrix.
 Autoclave molding
• Advantages
• It provides fabrication of structural composite components with a
high fibre volume fraction.
• The pressure helps bond composite layers, and remove voids in the
matrix.
• Very large parts can be made with high fiber loadings.
• Properties are improved.
• Many different parts can be cured at the same time.
• Disadvantages
• Initial cost of tooling is high.
• Running and maintenance cost is high.
• Not suitable for small products.
• Applications
• The process is suitable for aerospace, automobile parts like wing
box, chassis, bumpers, etc.
 Autoclave molding

Applications: are lighter, faster and more agile fighter

aircraft, motor sport vehicles.
 Filament Winding
• Filament winding is a very popular method to produce composite parts which are
axi‐symmetric. Composite pipes, tubes, tanks, cylinders, domes, spheres are
fabricated using filament winding technique.
• In this process, an axi‐symmetric mandrel with an outside surface similar to the
inner surface of part to be produced is used to produce the axisymmetric
composite part.
• Fiber from continuous‐fiber rovings gets wetted as it passes through a resin bath.
This resin‐wet, as it exits from resin bath gets wound on a mandrel, which
continually rotates on its axis of symmetry.
• Care is taken, that there is sufficient tension in fiber so that the winding remains
taut on the mandrel.
 Filament Winding
• In a typical filament winding machine, the
rotational speed of mandrel, and also the traverse
speed of resin bath, are variable process
parameters. By choosing appropriate values of
these parameters, the helix angle of filament
wound can be controlled, layer‐by‐layer, and
section-by‐section in the desired part.
• Using such an approach, the filament winding
pattern can be helical, or circumferential, or even
longitudinal. Quite often, an optimally designed
filament wound part would have a combination of
winding patterns.
• Once the winding is complete, filament wound
part is allowed to cure. Post curing, the mandrel is
taken out. To facilitate easy removal of mandrel, a
variety of mandrel designs have been developed.
• Mandrel may be made of segmented and
collapsible, inflatable, or made of materials with
low melting points. They may also be fabricated
from salts, soluble plasters, or plasters which can
be broken post curing of the part.
 Filament Winding
• Filament winding
• Wet winding and Prepreg winding
• In wet winding, low-viscosity resin is applied to the filaments during
the winding process. Polyesters and epoxies with viscosity less than
2 Pa.s (2,000 cP) are used in wet winding.
• In prepreg winding, a hot-melt or solvent-dip process is used to
preimpregnate the fibers. Rigid amines, novolacs, polyimides, and
higher viscosity epoxies are generally used for this process.
• Compared to wet winding, parts produced from prepreg tapes exhibit
less fibre damage, and better product quality. Further, such an
approach provides latitude to use resin systems, which may not
manageable in wet layup systems.
• Also, usage of prepregs for filament wound parts makes the overall
production environment cleaner, and better controlled.
 Filament Winding
• The winding machine has the facilities for wetting the fiber,
tensioning the tows, and winding the fibers or tapes at the
required angle in a uniformly spaced pattern. Winding machines
can be broadly divided into three groups:
1. Helical winding machines
2. Polar winding machines
3. Advanced winding machines
• Helical Winding Machines
• The helical winding machine lays the fiber tows on a rotating
mandrel at winding angles varying from 0° to 90° with respect to
the axis of rotation. The basic movements of this machine are
mandrel rotation and the feed traverse motion. It is possible to
vary the winding angle by varying the speed of the two
movements.
 Filament Winding
Polar Winding Machines
• Polar winding is generally used for spherical, ellipsoidal, or other
closed axisymmetric shapes. The fiber tows are wound from one pole
to the other in this process. In order to facilitate easy winding, end
bosses are provided and fiber is taken around the end bosses. After one
revolution of fiber around the mandrel, the mandrel is rotated in such a
way that the next roving is placed side by side. The polar winding
machines can be made in two different types:
• The feeder revolves around the mandrel, while the mandrel rotates on a
fixed axis.
• The feeder is fixed while the mandrel rotates about its axis and about
one of the mounting supports.
 Advanced Winding Machines
• In this machine, the winding in the cylindrical region is
helical winding and in the end dome region is polar winding.
It is possible to wind more precisely with computer-
controlled machines, which change from helical to polar
mode according to the program in the computer. For high-
performance vessels, such as rocket motor cases, integral
end closures are essential.

Five-axis filament winding machine

Filament winding Process characteristics
• Fibre tension is critical
• Fibre tension depends on
• Type of fibre
• Part diameter
• Winding pattern
• Fibre tension directly affects
• Fibre volume fraction
• Void content
• Strength and stiffness of the composite part.
• Difficult to maintain tension on flat surfaces
• Axial winding not a preferred orientation on cylinders.
• In filament winding, the most probable void sites are roving
cross overs and regions between layers with different fibre
orientations.
 Filament Winding
Advantages
1. Filament winding can be done more effectively with a few operators,
since it is a semi-automated process.
2. Precise control of fibre-to-matrix ratio, geometrical arrangement of
fibres, and fibre tensioning is possible, which gives products of high
strength and consistent quality.
3. In filament winding, the fibre content can be as high as 70% by volume.
4. It is possible to produce a part having high strength in any particular
direction by suitably varying the angle of winding. The structures can
be made for any specific loading conditions, such as internal pressure,
external pressure, torsional loading, or compressive loading.
5. Much larger products can be made with less expensive machinery
compared to autoclave process. Filament winding process has been
used for making storage tanks up to 15 m diameter.
6. Wastage of materials is very less compared to many other polymer
composite processing methods.
 Filament Winding
Limitations
• Products with surfaces having complicated profiles and reverse
curvature (concave) are difficult to make by the filament winding
process.
• This process may not be suitable to make a product with very small end
opening, since it will be difficult to release the mandrel.
• Although the process is not as expensive as autoclave moulding, it is a
capital intensive process.
• The inter-laminar shear strength and compressive strength of the
filament wound parts are low.
• The external surface finish is poor unless external moulds or
compaction devices are used.
• The quality of filament wound components is generally lower than that
of the components made by autoclave moulding. Filament wound
products have higher void content than autoclave-moulded products.
 Applications
• Matrix – Epoxy, Polyester, Polyvinyl ester, Phenolic
• Fibre – Glass, Carbon, Boron, Aramid
• Applications
• Tubular structures, pressure vessels, pipes,
• Rocket motor casings, Rocket launch tubes.
• Chemical storage tanks
• Bent shapes, connecting rods, bottles, fishing rods,
golf shafts, pressure rollers, bushings, bearings, drive
shafts (industrial and automotive),
• Oil field tubing, cryogenics, telescopic poles, tool
handles, fuse tubes,
• Hot sticks (non-conducting poles), conduits,
fuselage, bicycle frames and handle bars,
baseball/softball bats, hockey sticks, fishing rods, ski
poles, tubes, etc.
• Complex engineered non-spherical and non-
cylindrical products.
 Compression molding
• Compression molding is a closed mold processing method, in which
the product is made within the cavity of a die. A predetermined
quantity of molding charge is placed in the die cavity. The molding
charge can be bulk molding compound (BMC), sheet molding
compound (SMC), prepreg, or wet lay-up. The die is closed and the
required pressure is applied by means of a press. The die remains
closed till the charge cures and becomes rigid enough to maintain its
shape. After the completion of curing, the pressure is released and the
die is opened to remove the component. There are two types of
compression molding processes:
• Hot pressing, in which the molding charge is heated while
shaping.
• Cold pressing, in which the product is cured without the
application of heat.
• Molding compounds and prepregs are generally hot pressed. Parts
made by hand lay-up process are cold pressed, for better
consolidation and better surface finish on both the sides.
 Compression molding
• Compression Molding is a Closed Mold process in which a
molding charge is squeezed into a preheated mold taking a shape of
the mold cavity and performing curing (cross-linking) due to heat
and pressure applied to the material. The method uses a split mould
mounted in a hydraulic press.
• Compression Molding process involves the following steps:
• A pre-weighed amount of a polymer (commonly thermo-setting
resin) mixed with chopped reinforcing fibers, hardening agent, anti-
adhesive agent and pigment (charge) is placed into the lower half of
the mold.

Placement of Charge

Cure under Heat

and Pressure

Demould
Mould closure
 Compression molding
• The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, putty-like masses or pre-
formed sheets.
• The charge is usually preheated prior to placement into the mold.
Preheated polymer becomes softer resulting in shortening the molding
cycle time.
• The upper half of the mould moves downwards, pressing on the
charge and forcing it to fill the mold cavity.
• The mold, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-
linking) of the polymer matrix (if thermosetting resin is processed).
• The mold is opened and the part is removed from it by means of the
ejector pin.
• Compression Moulding cycle time is
about 1-6 min, which is longer than
Injection Moulding cycle.
• The method is suitable for mass
production of flat or moderately
curved parts.
 Compression Molding
• Moulding press - The three types of presses available are mechanical,
pneumatic, and hydraulic. Pressure required for composite molding can
be up to 10 MPa.
• Moulds (Dies) - Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the product
depends mainly on the dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the
dies. Inner surfaces of the die should have high-class surface finish and
high abrasion resistance, since several thousand parts are usually made
using the same die. Alloy steel AISI 4140 or its equivalent (EN 19C) pre-
hardened to 30–32 Rc. The shrinkage of the compound after molding
must be taken into account while designing the die.
• Parameters - Molding temperatures for FRP molding lie in the range
120°C–200°C. Heating should be uniform across the mold faces. Both
the dies should be heated to the same temperature. Comparatively low
molding pressures can be used for molding compounds, from which no
volatiles are liberated during molding. Generally, SMC requires pressure
in the range of 3.5–10.5 MPa, while BMC requires pressure in the range
of 1.4–5.6 MPa.
 Compression molding
• Process control - The essential requirements for an efficient
compression molding process are:
• The temperature and pressure required for curing must be as low
as possible to reduce the production cost.
• The consistency of the molding compounds must be such that the
material flows into all parts and cavities of the die without blow
holes and other defects.
• The molding operation should not cause any fiber degradation or
fiber/matrix segregation.
• The compression-molded product should have a fairly smooth
surface finish and must be free from crazing, cracks, fractures,
edge chips, and porosity.
• The fibre pattern should not be visible on the surface of the product.
• Shrinkage after compression molding should be a minimum.
 Compression molding
Some sources of variation in compression molded parts that affect
process repeatability include:
• Press parallelism. The thickness variation in a molded part
depends on press parallelism tolerances as well as mold
tolerances. Each equipment supplier has its own tolerances on
parallelism.
• Mold tolerances. Every mold and tool has tolerances that can
affect part tolerances.
• Molded datum features. In dimensioning, geometric
characteristics of a part are established from a datum. A datum
feature is an actual feature of a part that is used to establish a
datum.
• Material shrinkage. Shrinkage is the reduction in volume or
linear dimension caused by curing of the resin as well as by
thermal contraction of the material.
 Compression molding - Applications
• The compression moulding process is suitable for the high-volume
production of composite parts.
• It is considered the primary method of manufacturing for many
structural automotive components, including road wheels, bumpers,
and leaf springs.
• Compression molding of SMC is used for making one- and two-piece panels
for automotive applications.
• One-piece panels are used where the panel is fixed and can be supported around the
majority of its periphery.
• Roof panels, quarter panels, fenders, and add-ons such as spoilers, ground-effects
packages, and limited-access panels are examples of this category.
• Two-piece panels are used for closure panels such as doors, hoods, and deck lids.
These panels are usually supported by hinges with body structures and therefore
should have enough rigidity of their own.
• Other applications of the compression molding process include skid plates,
military drop-boxes, pickup box components, radiator supports, heavy-truck
sleeper cabs, engine components such as rocker covers/oil pans, personal water
crafts (PWCs), and home applications such as showers/tubs.
• Electrical applications of compression molding processes are enclosures,
fuses, outdoor lamps, lamp housings, switches, street light canopying, and more.
 Compression molding
The advantages of compression molding process are
• It offers high-volume production and thus is very suitable for automotive
applications. The mold cycle time is only 60 to 240 s (1 to 4 min).
• It offers production of low-cost components at high volume because it utilizes
SMC, which is fairly inexpensive.
• The process offers high surface quality and good styling possibilities (Good
surface finish on both sides).
• Multiple parts can be consolidated into one single molded part and thus is very
advantageous compared to the metal stamping process.
• Today, automotive companies are looking for ways to economically differentiate
car and truck models with shorter production runs and more rapid design-to-
production schedules. Compressive molding of SMC offers this benefit.
The disadvantages are
• The initial investment for the process is high because of high equipment and
mold costs. However, this initial investment is low compared to sheet metal
stamping processes.
• The process is not suitable for making a small number of parts or for
prototyping applications.
• Compression molding of SMC provides nonstructural parts; but by utilizing ribs
and stiffeners, structural parts can be manufactured.
 Injection moulding
• Injection Molding is a Closed Mould process in which molten polymer (commonly
thermoplastic) mixed with very short reinforcing fibers (10-40%) is forced under high
pressure into a mold cavity through an opening (sprue). It is most common in
thermoplastic polymeric composites.
• Polymer-fibre mixture in form of pellets is fed into an Injection Molding machine through
a hopper. The material is then conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced into a split
mold, filling its cavity through a feeding system with sprue gate and runners.
• Screw of injection molding machine is called reciprocating screw since it not only rotates
but also moves forward and backward according to the steps of the molding cycle.
• It acts as a ram in the filling step when the molten polymer-fibers mixture is injected into
the mold and then it retracts backward in the molding step.
• Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften and melt the polymer.
• The mold is equipped with a cooling system providing controlled cooling and
solidification of the material.
 Reaction Injection moulding
• Reaction injection moulding (RIM) is similar to injection moulding but
with little modification. In this method two are mixed by impingement
and injected into the mould cavity.
• Chemical reaction starts immediately after mixing the materials and
polymerization takes place and completes in few seconds.
• Major portion of reaction injection moulding process acts as a high
pressure pump.
• This process is more suitable for thermosetting resin, where a curing
reaction takes place within the mould cavity.
• Reacting ingredients such as isocyanates, polyurethanes, and polyamides
do fast polymerization process and cycle time of the process is reduced
and production rate is substantially enhanced.
• Two variants of RIM:
• Reinforced Reaction Injection Moulding (RRIM) – Fillers (including
chopped glass, carbon/graphite fibres) can be incorporated into one or
both monomers.
• Structural Reaction Injection Moulding (SRIM) – reinforcement (glass,
carbon, aramid, fabric(woven, UD, multiaxial) and Mat) placed in mould
before injecting the reactive liquid monomers.
Structural Reaction Injection Molding (SRIM) Process
• The SRIM process is similar to the RTM
process, with the difference being in the resin
used and the method of mixing resins before
injection.
• In the SRIM process, two resins A and B are
mixed in a mixing chamber at a very high
velocity just before injecting into the mold.
The resin flows at a speed of 100 to 200 m/s
and collides in the mixing chamber. The
pressure generated during collision is in the
range of 10 to 40 MPa although the resin is
injected into the mold at a pressure of less
than 1 MPa.
• Low pressure is used to prevent the wash-out
of fibers at the injection port.

• The resin used for the SRIM process is of very low viscosity and the most
common resin is polyisocyanurate. This mixed resin is injected into the
mold, which contains fiber preforms. The preform used for the SRIM
process can be made of short or long fibers.
Structural Reaction Injection Molding (SRIM) Process
Basic Processing Steps
1. The preform is prepared on-site or bought from a supplier.
2. The release agent is applied to the mold and the preform is
placed on the mold.
3. The mold is clamped.
4. The resin inlet hose is connected to the inlet ports of the
mold.
5. The mold is preheated according to requirements.
6. Resin mixing is initiated by operating the dispensing
equipment.
7. Resin is injected into the mold.
8. After mold filling and curing of the resin, the mold is
declamped.
9. The composite part is removed from the mold.
Structural Reaction Injection Molding (SRIM) Process
• The SRIM process was developed from the RIM (reaction injection
molding) process, in which two resins are mixed at high velocity in a
mixing chamber and then the resin is injected into a closed mold where
there is no preform.
• The components made by the RIM process is weak because of absence
of fibers.
• In RIM and SRIM processes, cross-linking of the polymers is initiated
by the rapid mixing of two resins; therefore, this process does not
require heat to start the curing (cross-linking) process.
• In RRIM, short or milled glass fibers are added to one of the resin
components before being mixed into the chamber. The fiber lengths are
kept less than 0.02 in. (0.5 mm) in order to keep the resin viscosity low.
• RRIM parts are stiffer and more damage tolerant than RIM parts;
however, from a structural point of view, RRIM parts are weaker.
• The RRIM process is used in automotive applications to make body
panels.
Structural Reaction Injection Molding (SRIM) Process
• Major Applications
• The SRIM process is used in applications (e.g., the
automotive industry) where high-volume production at
low cost is required.
• SRIM parts can be made in a process cycle time of 1 to 5
min, depending on part size.
• Recently, the Automotive Composites Consortium
(general partnership of Daimler Chrysler, Ford, and
General Motors) utilized the SRIM process to make
pickup truck boxes.
• Other applications include bumper beams, fascia, and
body panels.
Structural Reaction Injection Molding (SRIM) Process
Advantages of the SRIM Process
1. It is very suitable for making high-volume structural parts
at low cost, in particular for making automotive parts.
2. Small- to large-sized parts with complex configurations
can be made with this technique.
Limitations of the SRIM Process
1. It requires a large capital investment in equipment.
2. The tooling cost for the SRIM process is high.
3. A high fiber volume fraction cannot be attained by this
process; the maximum fiber volume fraction achievable is
about 40%.
 Resin Transfer Molding
• Resin Transfer Molding, commonly known as RTM, is a wet‐process,
where fibers and resin are placed in the mold separately.
• First, non-impregnated layers of fibers (or mats/fabrics, …) are preshaped
and oriented into skeleton of the actual part known as preform.
• The preform is inserted into the matched Die mould.
• After placing the preform into the die, pressurized resin is introduced in
the mold to impregnate the fibers. The mold cavity, into which resin flows,
has inlets for resin, and also vents for air.
• Once the mold is full of resin, the system is heated to initiate curing.
• After curing, the mould is opened and part is removed.
 Resin Transfer Molding
• RTM ensures improved control over fiber orientation, as fluid pressure
in resin is not sufficiently large enough to dislodge fibers from their
intended location.
• VARTM is an adapted version of RTM process, in which the
application of vacuum assists the better impregnation of fiber packing.
It is a very cost-effective process to make large structures such as boat
hulls.
• In this process, fibers are placed in a female mold and covered with a
flexible material to form a vacuum-tight seal. Hence, tooling costs are
very much reduced because only one half of the rigid mold is used to
make the part.
• Application of vacuum facilitates the removal of entrapped air and
better flow of resin through the fiber packing.
• High fiber volume fraction can be achieved, and therefore the structural
performance of the part is generally high.
 Resin Transfer Moulding
Advantages
• Large complex shapes and curvatures can be made easily.
• High level of automation.
• Lay-up is simpler than in manual operations.
• Takes less time to produce.
• Fiber volume fractions as high as 60% can be achieved.
• Styrene emission can be reduced to a minimum.
• Cost effective High volume process for large-scale processing.
Disadvantages
• Mold design is complex and requires mold-filling analysis.
• Fiber reinforcement may "wash" or move during resin transfer.
 Pultrusion
• Pultrusion is a continuous process of producing long, straight structural members,
such as I-beams, hollow rectangular beams, and round tubes, containing mostly
continuous fibers and a few layers of random discontinuous fibers along their
lengths.
• In this process, rovings, are first impregnated with a thermosetting resin; these are
then pulled through a steel die that preforms to the desired shape and also
establishes the resin/fiber ratio.
• The stock then passes through a curing die that is precision machined so as to
impart the final shape; this die is also heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix. A
pulling device draws the stock through the dies and also determines the production
speed. Pultrusion process can be easily automated. Principal reinforcements are
glass, carbon, and aramid fibres, normally added in concentrations between 40 and
70 vol%.
Pultruded
 Pultrusion
• Pultrusion is used extensively to fabricate bars, tubes, rods, and
other structural shapes. Profiles produced this way are very
strong as well as stiff in the fiber direction.
• This process of fabrication works well with resins which cure
without producing by‐product.
• Occasionally, this process is also used with thermoplastic resins.
However, in such cases, high power and specialty machines are
required since:
• The resin is highly viscous, and thus force required to pull
the reinforcement is significantly higher vis‐à‐vis that
required while pultruding composite sections with thermoset
resins.
• Also, due to high viscosity, proper wetting and impregnation
of fibers with resin is more difficult. Hence, specialized
equipment is used for this purpose.
 Pultrusion
• Materials
• Most fibers are used (carbon, glass, aramids) and Resins must
be fast curing because of process speeds (polyester and epoxy) .
• Processing
• Speeds are 0.6 to 1 m/min; thickness are 1 to 76 mm; diameters
are 3 mm to 150mm
• Double clamps, or belts/chains can be used to pull the part
through. The best designs allow for continuous operation for
production.
• Diamond or carbide saws are used to cut sections of the final
part. The saw is designed to track the part as it moves.
• Pultruded parts have good axial properties.
 Pultrusion
• Advantages
• Good material usage compared to layup.
• Good Quality control.
• High throughput and higher resin contents are possible
• Disadvantages
• Part cross section should be uniform.
• Fiber and resin might accumulate at the die opening, leading
to increased friction causing jamming, and breakage.
• When excess resin is used, part strength will decrease.
• Void can result if the die does not conform well to the fibers
being pulled.
• Quick curing systems decrease strength.
 Pultrusion - Characteristics
• Seek uniform thickness in order to achieve uniform cooling and hence
minimise residual stress.
• Hollow profiles require a cantilevered mandrel to enter the die from the fibre-
feed end.
• Continuous constant cross-section profile
• Normally thermoset (thermoplastic possible)
• impregnated with resin
• pulled through a heated die
• resin shrinkage reduces friction in the die
• polyester easier to process than epoxy
• Tension control as in filament winding
• Post-die, profile air-cooled before gripped
• hand-over-hand hydraulic clamps
• conveyor belt/caterpillar track systems.
• Moving cut-off machine ("flying cutter"). The solid laminate will be cut to the
desired length
• Inside the metal die, precise temperature control activates the curing of the
thermoset resin.
 Pultrusion -applications
• Panels – beams – gratings – ladders
• Tool handles - ski poles – kites
• Electrical insulators and enclosures
• Light poles - hand rails – roll-up doors
• 450 km of cable trays in the Channel Tunnel

Various cross-sectional shapes formed by pultrusion process

 Processing of Thermoplastic composites
• Thermoplastic matrices are more difficult to process into a composite than thermoset
polymer matrices.
• The important factors that influence processability are matrix viscosity and processing
parameters (i.e., temperature, pressure, time). Fully polymerized thermoplastics have
very high molecular weights; hence, their melt viscosities are at least two orders of
magnitude higher than thermoset polymer viscosities, which make impregnation more
difficult.
• Since the viscosity of molten thermoplastics is higher, pressure is applied during
processing to achieve the same degree of material flow as with thermosets is higher,
even then the flow is not significant in many cases.
• But with thermoplastic matrices, only they need to be melted, shaped, and then cooled
to get the product and the time needed is very short. Hence, thermoplastic composites
can be manufactured more rapidly than thermoset composites, which usually require a
few hours.
• Chemical reactions involving volatiles and potentially toxic substances occur during
the curing of thermoset polymers, whereas fully polymerized thermoplastics do not
involve any hazardous substance during processing.
• Molding compounds and prepregs are mostly used in the manufacturing of
thermoplastic composites, and use of reinforcement and matrix separately is very rare
due to impregnation difficulties.
• Thermoplastic composite processing is carried out above the melting temperature or at
least near the melting temperature of the matrix. In many cases, shaping and
consolidation take place simultaneously.
 Film Stacking
• Film-stacking process is used to produce thermoplastic composites, in which alternate
layers of thermoplastic film and woven cloth (reinforcement) are laid up and consolidated.
• Laminae of thermoplastic matrix containing fibers with very low resin content are used in
this process. Low resin content is used because these are very boardy materials.
• The laminae are stacked alternately with thin films of pure polymer matrix material. This
stack of laminae consists of fibers impregnated with insufficient matrix and polymer films
of complementary weight to give the desired fiber volume fraction in the end product.
These are then consolidated by simultaneous application of heat and pressure.
• The impregnation of thermoplastic matrix takes place under the simultaneous application
of heat and pressure; the magnitude of pressure and temperature must be sufficient to
force the polymeric melt to flow into and through the reinforcement preform.
• The time required for the successful consolidation of lay-up is longer, since the high-
viscosity polymer should flow longer distances. A typical processing cycle time for a film-
stacking laminate would be 1 h at 1MPa applied pressure.
 Diaphragm forming
• In diaphragm forming, the blank is placed between two very thin
flexible sheets or diaphragms that can plastically deform as
pressure is applied during the forming process. The diaphragms,
not the blank placed between the diaphragms, are clamped around
the edges of the mold using a clamping frame (Fig. 1), and the air
within the diaphragms is evacuated. The entire assembly is then
placed inside an autoclave, and the autoclave temperature is raised
to the forming temperature. After the forming temperature is
reached, pressure inside the autoclave is increased.

Fig.1 Diaphragm forming process Fig. 2 Temperature and pressure profiles

 Diaphragm forming
• As the pressure increases and the diaphragms start to deform, the air
between the mold surface and the bottom diaphragm escapes through the
vents provided in the mold. It is also possible to apply vacuum on the
bottom side of the diaphragms to facilitate their deformation. After the
forming and consolidation are complete, the temperature is slowly reduced
to room temperature, the pressure is released, and the part is removed.
• Fig.2 shows the temperature and pressure profiles used in a diaphragm
forming process. The process shown in this figure is isothermal and has a
relatively long cycle time. Preheating the autoclave to the forming temp.
before placing the mold assembly inside can reduce the cycle time.

Fig.1 Diaphragm forming process Fig. 2 Temperature and pressure profiles

Basic mechanisms of forming of thermoplastic matrix composites
1. Percolation or flow of molten
polymer through fiber layers.
2. Transverse flow (movement in
the thickness direction) of fibers
or fiber networks.
3. Intraply shearing which allows
fibers within each ply to move
relative to each other in the
axial as well as in the transverse
direction.
4. Interply slip, by which plies
slide over each other while
conforming to the shape of the
die.

• The first two mechanisms are essential for good consolidation, since they help
reduce the gaps and voids that exist between the plies as well as within each ply
and create good interlaminar adhesion. The other two mechanisms help in
forming contoured shapes without fibre wrinkling, splitting, or local thinning.
 Diaphragm Forming
Advantages
• It offers excellent structural properties because continuous fibres are used in making the
part.
• Reasonably complex shapes with uniform thickness can be produced with reasonably high
production efficiencies.
Limitations
• The process is limited to making parts that have constant thickness.
• Maintaining uniform fibre distribution during the manufacture of complex shapes is a
challenge. In the diaphragm forming process, composite layers float between diaphragms
and are free to have all the allowable modes of deformation. This freedom necessarily
results in significant reorientation of the reinforcing fibres.
• The materials can be formed only at the forming temperatures of the available diaphragm
materials.
• The process is expensive because of the high cost and non-reusable nature of the
diaphragm materials.
Applications
• Helmets, trays, corrugated shapes
 Thermoplastic Tape laying
• In this process, only the area that is being
consolidated is heated above the melt temperature.
Heating can be carried out using hot shoes or a
focused laser beam.
• The heated tape is consolidated by a cold roller. The
consolidation can occur in less than 0.5 s. A
controllable tape head has the tape-dispensing reels
and heating shoes. There are three heating and two
cooling/compaction shoes. The hot shoes heat the
tape to molten state, and the cold shoes compact and
cool the tape instantly to a solid state.
• A potential problem with hot tape-laying is lack of consolidation due to insufficient
diffusion at the short processing time.
• If there are intraply voids, then these voids may not be healed and consolidated during this
process.
• A post consolidation cycle will be required to achieve full densification. The interlaminar
shear strength of the composite will be reduced by about 7% for each 1% of voids up to a
void content of 4%. It is preferable to produce a composite with void content of less than
0.5%. Usually the hot tape-laying process results in only 80%–90% consolidation, hence a
secondary processing is necessary to get full consolidation.
 Interfaces in PMCs
• There is always an interface between constituent phases in a composite material.
For the composite to operate effectively, the phases must bond where they join.
In some cases, there is a direct bonding between the two ingredients.
• In other cases, a third ingredient is added to promote bonding of the two primary
phases. Called an interphase, this third ingredient can be thought of as an
adhesive. An important example is the coating of glass fibres to achieve adhesion
with thermosetting resin in fiberglass-reinforced plastics.
• As illustrated in Fig. (b), this case results in two interfaces, one on either
boundary of the interphase.
• Finally, a third form of interface occurs when the two primary components are
not completely insoluble in each other; in this case, the interphase is formed
consisting of a solution of the phases, as in Fig. (c).

Direct bonding between Addition of a third ingredient to Formation of an interphase by solution of

primary and secondary phases bond the primary and secondary the primary and secondary phases at their
phases and form an interphase boundary.
Fig. (a) Fig. (b) Fig. (c)
 Interfaces in PMCs
• During processing of PMCs, most polymeric matrix materials will shrink on
curing, while the reinforcement fiber remains unaffected. This can lead to large
stresses at the fiber/polymer interface.
• Stresses can also result in cooling due to differences in coefficients of thermal
expansion of glass and rigid polymer.
• A clean glass surface under ordinary atmospheric conditions can readily pick up
a molecular layer of water. Water can reach the glass/polymer interface by
diffusion through the polymer, by penetrating through cracks or by capillary
migration along the fibers.
• Glass fibers are surface treated by applying a size on the freshly drawn glass
fibers to protect them from the environment, for handling ease, and to avoid
introducing surface defects. Example- Starch gum, hydrogenated vegetable oil,
gelatin, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and a variety of nonionic emulsifiers.
• Silane coupling agents are normally applied to reduce the tendency for water
molecules to cluster at the interface. Silane compounds at the glass/resin
interface also have the important function of allowing the composite to
accommodate internal stresses.
 Interfaces in PMCs
• Carbon fiber/polymer matrix interface is very important in
determining the final properties of the composite. Carbon fiber
is a highly inert material, which makes it difficult to have a
strong adhesion between carbon fiber and a polymer matrix.
• By increasing the roughness of the by oxidation or etching in an
acid, can enhance specific surface area and improved wetting,
which in turn results in improved interlaminar shear strength.
This is mainly due to mechanical keying effect at the
fiber/matrix interface.
• Carbon fibers are given some form of surface treatment to
improve their compatibility with the polymer matrix and their
handleability.
• Organic sizes are commonly applied by passing the fibers
through a sizing bath. Common sizes include polyvinyl alcohol,
epoxy, polyimide, and titanate coupling agents.
 Interfaces in PMCs
• Most polymers show rather poor adhesion to aramid fibers.
• Glass/epoxy and Carbon/epoxy composites have higher
interfacial strength compared to aramid/epoxy composite.
• A highly oriented chain microstructure and skin/core
heterogeneity are responsible for this poor interfacial strength.
• This may not be a disadvantage in aramid/polymer composites
used to make impact-resistant items such as helmets or body
armor, where ease of delamination may be an advantage from
a toughness point of view. Various fiber surface treatments are
carried out:
• Bromine water treatment. This also results in reduced fiber
strength.
• Silane coupling agents developed for glass fibers.
• Isocyanate-linked polymer.
• Treatment with reactive chemicals
• Plasma treatment in vacuum, ammonia, or argon.
 Structure and Properties of PMCs
• The properties of a composite depend on the type of fiber &
matrix, volume fraction of constituents, fabrication process, and
the fiber orientation.
• The final stage in any PMC fabrication is called debulking
(compacting a thick laminate under moderate heat and pressure
and/or vacuum to remove the entrapped air), which serves to
reduce the number of defects. Some common structural defects
present in PMCs:
• Resin-rich (fiber-depleted) regions.
• Voids, mainly present at roving crossovers in filament winding and
in between layers having different fiber orientations (this is a very
serious problem and low void content is necessary for better
mechanical properties).
• Microcracks (may form due to stresses developed during curing or
moisture absorption during processing).
• Debonded and delaminated regions.
• Variations in fiber alignment.
 Mechanical Properties of PMCs
• Continuous fiber-reinforced composites invariably show anisotropic properties,
that is, the mechanical properties are very high in the fiber direction and very
poor in the direction perpendicular to the fiber.
• In a randomly oriented short fiber-reinforced composite, the properties will be
isotropic, but in certain cases, the properties are anisotropic because of the
processing-induced orientation of fibers.
• Laminates of PMCs made by stacking of appropriately oriented plies also show
highly anisotropic behavior. In particular, the mechanical properties of continuous
fiber-reinforced polymers are very high in the longitudinal direction than in the
other directions.
• The composites made with aramid and polyethylene fibers will not have attractive
compressive properties in the fiber direction, even though the tensile properties
are very good.
• Most thermoset matrix composites show essentially elastic behavior right up to
fracture, i.e., there is no yield point or plasticity. The strain-to-failure values are
rather low, typically, less than 0.5%.
• In a UD PMC, the fiber volume fraction can be 65%. In bidirectionally aligned
composites, this value can fall to 50%, while in a composite containing in-plane
random distribution of fibers, the volume fraction will rarely be more than 30%.
 Mechanical Properties of PMCs
• The properties of a composite is generally predicted by the properties of the components
present and their geometric arrangement in the composite. continuous fiber reinforced
composites will be stiff and strong along the fiber axis, but off-angle these properties fall
rather sharply. Continuous fiber reinforced composites will be stiff and strong along the
fiber axis, but off-angle these properties fall rather sharply.
• In a unidirectional PMC, the fiber volume fraction can be 65%. In composites having
fibers aligned bidirectionally, this value can fall to 50%, while in a composite containing
in-plane random distribution of fibers, the volume fraction will rarely be more than 30%.
• Though it involves various micromechanical aspects of composites, as a rule of thumb,
Rule-of-mixtures, a rough tool that considers the composite properties as volume-
weighted averages of the component properties is used. In this, composite density is
applied readily.
Rule of mixtures

Variation of longitudinal modulus (E11) and transverse

modulus (E22) with fiber volume fraction (Vf)
 Properties of PMCs

Properties of UD is higher in longitudinal direction than other directions.

Most thermoset matrix composites show elastic behavior up to fracture. The strain to failure values are low.
 Properties of PMCs
• Damping Characteristics - In a composite, damping will depend on
relative proportion of fiber and matrix, orientation of reinforcement with
respect to the axis of loading, viscoelastic characteristics of the matrix and
the reinforcement, any slipping at the interface between the matrix and the
reinforcement. In general, aramid fiber/polymer composites provide good
damping characteristics. This mainly due to superior damping of aramid.
• Moisture Effects in Polymer Matrix Composites - Environmental
moisture can penetrate organic materials by diffusion. Typically, moisture
works as a plasticizer for a polymer, i.e., properties such as stiffness,
strength, and glass transition temperature decrease with the ingress of
moisture in a polymer.
• The epoxy resins commonly employed as matrices in the composites
meant for use in the aerospace industry are fairly impervious.
• Two fundamental effects that must be taken into account when designing
components made of PMCs, namely, temperature and humidity. The
combined effect of these two, that is, hygrothermal effects, can result in a
considerable degradation in the mechanical characteristics of the PMCs.
Influence of Environmental factors on Mech. properties

1. Physical and chemical degradation of the polymer matrix,

• Reduction in modulus due to increasing temperature, volumetric
expansion due to moisture absorption, and alteration of polymer
molecules due to chemical attack or ultraviolet rays.
2. Loss of adhesion or debonding at the fiber–matrix interface,
which may be followed by diffusion of water or other fluids into
this area. In turn, this may cause a reduction in fiber strength due
to stress corrosion.
3. Reduction in fiber strength and modulus. For a short-term or
intermittent temperature rise up to 150°C–300°C, reduction in the
properties of most commercial fibers is insignificant. However,
depending on the fiber type, other environmental conditions may
cause deterioration in fiber properties.
• For example, moisture is known to accelerate the static fatigue in
glass fibers. Kevlar 49 fibers are capable of absorbing moisture
from the environment, which reduces its tensile strength and
modulus.
 Influence of Environmental factors
4. Ultraviolet radiation - UV radiation breaks the covalent bonds of organic
polymers, resulting in a reduction in molecular weight and hence properties. This
may also lead to the formation of fine cracks on the surface.
• Figure shows the loss of stiffness or modulus as a function of exposure to
ultraviolet radiation for glass fibre reinforced polypropylene composites.
• Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) are generated during the curing of thermoset
polymers. These include volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogenous
oxides.

Loss of stiffness or modulus as a function of exposure to ultraviolet radiation for glass

fiber reinforced polypropylene composites [from Goel et al. 2008]
 Fatigue properties
• The fatigue properties of a material represent its response to cyclic
loading, which is a common occurrence in many applications. It is
well recognized that the strength of a material is significantly
reduced under cyclic loads.
• Metallic materials, which are ductile in nature under normal
operating conditions, are known to fail in a brittle manner when
they are subjected to repeated cyclic stresses (or strains).
• For low-carbon steels, the fatigue limit is ~50% of its ultimate
tensile strength. Below the fatigue limit, no fatigue failure occurs
so that the material has essentially an infinite life.
• But, for many fiber-reinforced composites, a fatigue limit may not
be observed; however, the slope of the S–N plot is markedly
reduced at low stress levels. In these situations, it is common
practice to specify the fatigue strength of the material at very high
cycles, say, 106 or 107 cycles.
 Failure modes in composite materials
• Failure modes at the micro-level are:
• Fibre dominated failures (breakage, micro-buckling and dewetting)
• Bulk matrix dominated failures (Void, crazing etc.)
• Interface / flaw dominated failures (crack propagation, edge delamination)
• One of the attractive characteristics of composites is the possibility of obtaining
high strength with improved fracture toughness.
• Fracture toughness depends on the resistance to crack propagation. The crack
propagation resistance in a fibrous composite can be increased by one of the
following means:
• Plastic deformation of the matrix (usually in metal/thermo plastic matrix).
• Fiber pullout.
• Debonding and crack deflection.
• Another failure mode, which is observed in laminated composites, is
delamination failure associated with the separation of plies and fiber/matrix.
This is very important in structural applications involving long-term use, for
example, under fatigue conditions. Highly oriented molecular structures such as
that present in aramid fiber can also contribute to the work of fracture.
 Failure modes in composite materials
• Composite materials are characterised by the presence of several types inherent flaws. These are
usually broken fibres, voids in the resin, misaligned fibres, resin-rich zones, debonded interfaces etc.
Therefore composite materials generally exhibit a variety of failure modes including matrix crazing or
micro cracking, fibre failures resulting from statistically distributed flaw strengths, debonding,
delamination and void growth.

Possible failure modes in a fibre reinforced materials

1. Brittle fibre/ brittle matrix, 2. Fibre pull-out, 3. Crack bridging, 4. Matrix micro
cracks, 5. Ductile fibre failure, 6. Fibre fracture at a weak flaw with matrix craze,
7. Plastic tensile strain distribution at tip of main crack, 8. Plastic shear strain
distribution leading to interfacial fracture, 9. Longitudinal matrix failure, and
Common damage mechanisms 10. Zone of inter-laminar shear failure at an adjacent off-axis ply.
 Fracture behavior of PMCs
• In fiber-reinforced composite materials, such cracks may originate at
manufacturing defects, such as microvoids, matrix microcracks, and ply
overlaps, or at localized damages caused by in-service loadings, such as
subsurface delaminations due to low-energy impacts and hole-edge
delaminations due to static or fatigue loads.
• Fracture in PMCs is associated with the characteristics of the three
entities: fibers, matrix, and interface. Specifically, fiber/matrix
debonding, fiber pullout, fiber fracture, polymer crazing, and fracture
of the matrix are the energy absorbing phenomena that can contribute to
the failure process of the composite. Debonding and pullout processes
depend on the type of interface.
• At low temperatures, the fracture of a PMC involves a brittle failure of
the polymeric matrix accompanied by pullout of the fibers transverse to
the crack plane. This kind of fracture at −80 °C in the case of a short
glass fiber/ polyethylene terephthalate (PET) composite.
• The toughness of the matrix and several microstructural factors related
to the fibers and the fiber/matrix interface have a strong influence on
the fracture toughness of the composite.
Fracture behaviour and damage tolerance
• At low temperatures, the fracture of a PMC involves a brittle
failure of the polymeric matrix accompanied by pullout of the
fibers transverse to the crack plane.
• At room temperature, the same polymeric matrix (PET) deformed
locally in a plastic manner, showing crazing.
• Creep strain depends on the architecture of the composite.

(a) Brittle matrix fracture and fiber pullout in a short glass fiber (b) Creep strains at ambient temperature for a ±45° and
reinforced polyethylene terephthalate (PET) composite fractured for a 0°/90°/±45° carbon/epoxy laminate
at -80°C
 Creep in PMCs
• One can observe creep even at room temperature in many polymers
and PMCs such as aramid/epoxy.
• At a given temperature, thermoset polymers undergo less creep than
thermoplastics. Creep is usually measured by applying a constant
stress and observing the strain as a function of time.
• There is another related phenomenon called stress relaxation, which
is also important in polymers and PMCs.
• In the stress relaxation test, a constant strain is imposed on the
specimen, and the drop in stress as a function of time is observed.
• To have better creep resistance in PMCs, it is necessary to use creep-
resistant fibers such as alumina, SiC, or even glass instead of
polymeric fibers such as aramid or polyethylene.
• Aramid fiber/polymer composites are likely to show higher creep rate
than glass/polymer composites. Aramid fiber has superior impact
characteristics, therefore, aramid fiber-based polymer composites will
show good ballistic resistance, and impact resistance in general.
 Polymer Composites - Applications
• GFRPs are widely used in several industries, from sporting goods to
construction industries. Tanks and reaction vessels (with and without pressure)
in the chemical industry, as well as process and effluent pipelines, are frequently
made with glass fiber-reinforced polyester resin.
• Walk ways and many other offshore structures are fabricated using a wide
variety of glass fiber/resin structural shapes made by the pultrusion.
• Glass fiber and aramid fiber-reinforced PMCs are used in the storage bins and
floorings of civilian aircraft. Other PMC aircraft parts doors, fairings, radomes.
• Aramid fiber-reinforced PMCs are also used in some critical parts of helicopters
and small planes.
• Racing yachts and private boats are examples of composites, where glass fibers
are replaced with aramid fibers, since performance is more important than cost
in these applications.
• Currently drumsticks are being made with a pultruded core containing aramid
fibers and thermoplastic injection-molded cover. These drumsticks are
lightweight, will not warp, are more consistent, and last longer than the wooden
ones.
• Military applications of PMCs vary from helmets to rocket engine cases.
• PMCs are extensively used in military and commercial helicopters. The main
driving force in such applications is weight reduction.
Polymer Composites - Aerospace Applications
• Weight reduction is critical for high speeds and increased
payloads – Aerospace applications
• Airframe Structural components &, Modules
• Load Carrying
• Energy Absorbing
• Protective Housings, Fairings, etc.
• Electronic Requirements
• Radomes (narrow or broad band)
Intelsat 5 has a primary structure
• Weather Radomes and several antennas made of
• Radar Augmentation carbon fiber PMCs

• Special Functional Requirements

• Lightning Protection
• Avionic Enclosures (EMI Shielding)
 Aerospace applications
1. The principal reason for using fiber-reinforced polymers in aircraft and
helicopter applications is weight saving, which can lead to significant fuel
saving and increase in payload.
2. Reduction in the number of components and fasteners, which results in a
reduction of fabrication and assembly costs.
3. Higher fatigue resistance and corrosion resistance, which result in a
reduction of maintenance and repair costs.
4. The laminated construction used with fiber-reinforced polymers allows the
possibility of aeroelastically tailoring the stiffness of the airframe structure.
• Use of composites in Jet engines: GEnx
• Outer parts of a modern jet engine,
nacelles, fan, exit guide vanes, ducts, etc. – PMC
• Advanced dual rotor, axial flow, high by-pass turbofan
engine (used in Boeing 787 and 747).
Blades of GEnx engine are made of
• Represents an advance over GE90 turbofan, carbon fiber/epoxy composites

especially the use of PMCs to make fan blades and case fan.
• Chemical process industry – Filament wound
Pressure and non-pressure vessels, Storage and
Transportation of Natural gas, Process and
effluent pipelines, Pipeline for irrigation and On-
board storage of gas
• Glass fibre/polyester or carbon fibre
reinforced polymers
• Drumsticks – Pultruded Kevlar
• Armour - Ballistic protection
• Body armor is a high-performance, soft armor
system used for protection against rifle bullets.
• Woven fabric - Kevlar or polyethylene
(Spectra).
• Spectra shield is a product of Allied Signal
that is made by using woven fabrics of
polyethylene fiber. It is used to make helmets,
hard armor for vehicles, and soft body armor.
• Pressure vessels: The use of compressed natural gas as a vehicle
fuel requires on-board storage of gas at high pressure (200 kPa).
Steel cylinders were used as pressure vessels. These metallic gas
cylinders are quite heavy and thus result in a reduced payload.
• Much lighter, filament wound PMC cylinders were developed to
replace the steel cylinders.
• Examples of these include steel or aluminium cylinders hoop wrapped with
glass fibre/polyester and hoop- and polar-wound glass or carbon fibre
reinforced polymer cylinders with a thermoplastic liner.
• Wind Energy: The rotors of windmills are typically made of glass
fibre reinforced epoxy.
 Composites in Modern aircraft (787)

• Material depends upon application

• Structural application – High-medium temperature Epoxy
• Interiors – Phenolics, HS carbon fibres, Glass fibres and Aramid
• Non-structural apllications – Low resistance resin: polyesters,
Vinyesters
 Recycling of PMCs
• Four classes of Recycling techniques in handling composite waste
• Primary recycling – Conversion of waste into material having
properties equivalent to those of the original material.
• Secondary cycling – Conversion of waste into material having
properties inferior to those of the original material
• Tertiary recycling – Conversion of waste into chemicals and fuel
• Quaternary recycling – Conversion of waste into energy.
• Primary and secondary recycling (also called mechanical
recycling) essentially involve mixing of some waste material with
virgin raw material, which is then processed as if it were all virgin
material.
• Tertiary recycling refers to chemical decomposition of the polymer,
i.e., depolymerization, into useful chemical substances and fuel.
• Quaternary recycling synonymous with incineration with
utilization of the energy released
 Recycling of PMCs
• Grading – identify the materials in the incoming scrap
and grade them according to the material type.
• UT, density differentiation, differential solution, electrostatic,
Infrared spectroscopy etc.
• Shredding – Thermosets are to undergo initial size
reduction called shredding.
• It can be a true shredding or crushing or milling.
• The scrap composite must be reduced to a size and shape for
easy handling/packing and transportation. Some recycling
strategies include separating the glass fiber, since the glass
fiber will provide a higher value if it still has an aspect ratio.
 Recycling of Thermoset Composites
Difficulties in recycling thermosets
• Thermosetting polymers cannot be remolded, since they do not
melt.
• A wide range of reinforcements and fillers are used and also
they are present in varying proportions.
• The major constituents in many thermoset polymer composites
are inert glass fiber and mineral fillers.
• Dissolution of these polymers is also not possible, since they are
resistant to most of the common solvents.

Even with these barriers, many recycling methods for the

reinforced thermoset plastics have been tried over a period of time
Recycling of Thermoset Composites
 Recycling of Thermoset Composites
• Fine Grinding - It is one of the simplest methods to make fine powder
and use the fine powder as filler. However, glass fiber is difficult to grind
and it becomes more difficult in the presence of cured resin and mineral
fillers.
• Requires extra resin for wet-out, The filler cost may not even match
the grinding cost. Even then, it is a more suitable option for the
composites fabricated from molding compounds.
• Advanced Grinding Processes - Shredded in a controlled manner using
a multistage shredding process, which allows significant preservation of
the fiber length.
• Not an acceptable option for the recycling of advanced composites.
• Selective Chemical Degradation - Selective chemical degradation of
polymer by using an appropriate chemical agent. It is useful to recover
some compounds from the polymer matrix.
• Involves certain problems, such as reduced quality of glass fibers and
the requirement of neutralization step for potassium hydroxide.
Hence, chemical reagents, which are less aggressive toward glass
fibers, such as ethanolamines, have been tried.
 Recycling of Thermoset Composites
• Pyrolysis of Composites - It involves decomposing the polymer matrix
at temperatures between 700°C and 1000°C under inert atmosphere.
• The heating of high molecular weight hydrocarbon (oil) in the absence of
oxygen breaks the large organic molecules into smaller hydrocarbons. The
resulting liquids and gases can often be used as fuels.
• Organic monomers are produced in this process, which can be used for the
synthesis of polymers.
• Significant quantities of useful gases such as methane, ethane, propane,
propylene, and isobutylene are also produced during this process.
• Energy Recovery - Incineration is an useful option for disposal and not
for recycling. But this approach is not preferred because:
• Most composites have relatively low fuel values because of the high level of
filler contents.
• The cost of collection and transportation of composite scrap is relatively high.
• The two main methods that have been identified for energy recovery
and utilization of inorganic material from SMC waste are
• Co-combustion of SMC scrap with coal in thermal power plant
• As a fuel and additive in cement manufacture
 Recycling of Thermoplastic Composites
• Although recycling of thermoplastics is easier than thermoset polymers,
the presence of fibers and fillers poses problems. A summary of
recycling options available for thermoplastic composites are:
 Recycling of Thermoplastic Composites
• Thermoplastic composites can be reused several times, even though
there is some degradation in mechanical properties after each cycle.
The following methods can be used for the reuse of thermoplastics:
• Parts can be ground to chips and used as raw material for producing
sheets.
• Several smaller parts can be heated and remolded into large-sized part.
• Parts can be ground and used in place of short glass fiber for injection
molding or extrusion purposes.
• Sulfuric acid dissolution has been found to be a successful method
to dissolve polyether ether ketone (PEEK) from carbon/PEEK
composite. The PEEK polymer is recovered from acid solution by
adding drops of ice water to the solution at 0°C.
• The other methods are similar to those used for thermoset
polymer composites.
Thank you