II I.

Advanced Math
Chapter 10: Law of Exponents and Polynomials
Chapter 11: Quadratic Functions
Chapter 12: Composition, Recursion, and Exponential Functions
Chapter 13: Polynomials and Radical Functions
Chapter 14: Rational Expressions
Chapter 15: Trigonometric Functions
 CHAPTER 10
Laws of Exponents and Polynomials

10-1. Laws of Exponents and Scientific Notation

Laws of Exponents
For all integers m and n and any nonzero numbers a and b , the following properties hold.
Symbols Example

am ⋅ an = am+n 23 ⋅ 25 = 23+ 5 = 28

( a m ) n = a m⋅n (23 )5 = 23⋅5 = 215

(ab) m = a m b m (−2 x)5 = (−2)5 x5 = −32 x5

am 25
= a m−n = 25−3 = 22
an 23

a am 2 x 3 (2 x)3 8 x3
( )m = m ( ) = 3 =
b b 5 5 125

a0 = 1 (−2 xy )0 = 1

1 1 1 1
a−n = and −n
= an 5−2 = and = 43
a n
a 5 2
4−3

a b bm −2 x 3 y 3 2 (3 y 3 ) 2 9 y 6
( )− m = ( )m = m ( ) −2 = ( ) = =
b a a 3y 3
−2 x (−2 x) 2 4 x 2

Example 1 □ Simplify.

a. (−2ab 2 )(3a 5b3 ) = b. [(a 2 )3 ]4 =

a7b4c2
c. x n − 2 ⋅ x ⋅ x n +1 d. =
a 5b 2 c
3a 2 bc3 7 a −1bc3 0
e. ( )3 = f. ( ) =
2ab 2 4a 2 b 4
a −2 b3c −3 2 p 2 −3
g. = h. ( ) =
ab −2 3q

Solution □ a. (−2ab 2 )(3a 5b3 ) = (−2)(3)(a ⋅ a 5 )(b 2 ⋅ b3 ) Group the coefficients and variables.
6 5
= −6a b am ⋅ an = am+n

b. [(a 2 )3 ]4 = [a 6 ]4 = a 24 ( a m ) n = a m⋅n

c. x n − 2 ⋅ x ⋅ x n +1 = x ( n − 2) +1+ ( n +1) am ⋅ an = am+n

2n
=x Simplify.

a7b4 c2 a7 b4 c2
d. =( )( )( ) Group powers that have the same base.
a 5b 2 c a5 b2 c
am
= a 2b2 c = am−n
an
154 Chapter 10

3a 2 bc3 (3a 2 bc3 )3 a am

e. ( )3 = ( )m = m
2ab 2 (2ab 2 )3 b b

33 (a 2 )3 (b)3 (c3 )3
= (ab) m = a mb m
(2)3 (a )3 (b 2 )3
27 a 6 b3c9
= ( a m ) n = a m⋅n
8a 3b6
27 a 3c9 am
= = am−n
8b 3 an

7 a −1bc3
f. ( 2 4
)0 = 1 a0 = 1
4a b

a −2 b3c −3 b 3b 2 1 1
g. −2
= a−n = and − n = a n
ab aa 2 c3 an a
b5
= Simplify.
a3c3

2 p 2 −3 3q (3q )3 a b bm
h. ( ) = ( 2 )3 = ( )− m = ( )m = m
3q 2p (2 p 2 )3 b a a

27 q 3
= Simplify.
8 p6

Scientific Notation
A number is in scientific notation when it is in the form a × 10n , in which 1 a 10 and n are integers.

Example 2 □ Write each number in scientific notation.

a. 205, 000 b. 0.000107

Simplify and write each number in decimal form.

6 × 103
c. (5 × 10−12 )(3 × 104 ) d.
12 × 10−4

Solution □ a. 205, 000 = 2.05 × 105 Decimal point moved 5 places to the left.

b. 0.000107 = 1.07 × 10−4 Decimal point moved 4 places to the right.

c. (5 × 10−12 )(3 × 104 ) = 15 × 10−8 10−12 ⋅ 104 = 10−8

= 1.5 × 10 × 10−8 = 1.5 × 10−7 Simplify.

6 × 103 6 103
d. −4
= × Group the coefficients and variables.
12 × 10 12 10−4
1 103
= × 107 = 103− ( −4) = 107
2 10−4
= 0.5 × 107 = 5 × 10−1 × 107 = 5 × 106 Simplify.
Laws of Exponents and Polynomials 155

Exercises - Laws of Exponents and Scientific Notation

1 6

If (−a 2 b3 )(2ab 2 )(−3b) = ka m b n , what is the (6 xy 2 )(2 xy ) 2

value of m + n ? 8x2 y 2

If the expression above is written in the form

ax m y n , what is the value of m + n ?

2
2 4
If ( a 2 b) 2 ( ab) −3 = ka m b n , what is the
3 3
value of k ?
7
If x is not equal to zero, what is the value
(2 x)3 (3 x)
of ?
3 (6 x 2 ) 2

( x)3 (− y ) 2 z −2 xm
If −2 3
= , what is the value
( x) y z yn z p
of m + n + p ?

If 8, 200 × 300, 000 is equal to 2.46 × 10n , what

4 is the value of n ?
If 2 x = 5 , what is the value of 2 x + 22 x + 23 x ?

5
9
(3x + 3x + 3x ) ⋅ 3x
240 6, 000 1
If × is equal to , what is
Which of the following is equivalent to the 80, 000 900, 000 5 × 10n
expression shown above? the value of n ?

A) 34 x
2
B) 33 x

C) 31+ 3 x

D) 31+ 2 x
156 Chapter 10

10-2. Adding, Subtracting, Multiplying, and Dividing Polynomials

An expression with the form ax n , in which n is a nonnegative integer, is called a polynomial.

Polynomials that have only one term are called monomials. Polynomials that have two unlike terms
are called binomials, and that have three unlike terms are called trinomials.
Terms such as 3x 2 and −2x 2 are called like terms because they have the same variable to the same power.
The degree of monomial is the sum of the exponents of all of the monomial’s variables.
The degree of polynomial is the greatest degree of any term in the polynomial.

Example 1 □ Find the degree of the polynomial x − 3 xy − 12 + 5 x 2 y .

Solution □ Degree of x , −3 xy , −12 , and 5x 2 y are 1, 1 + 1 , 0 , and 2 + 1 respectively.

Therefore the degree of the polynomial is 3.

Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

To add or subtract two polynomials, add or subtract the coefficient of like terms.

Example 2 □ Find each sum or difference.

a. (5 x 2 − 3 x + 14) + (2 x 2 + x − 9) . b. (−2 p 3 + 7 p 2 − 1) − (4 p 3 + p − 6)

Solution □ a. (5 x 2 − 3 x + 14) + (2 x 2 + x − 9)
= (5 x 2 + 2 x 2 ) + (−3 x + x) + (14 + (−9))
= 7 x2 − 2 x + 5

b. (−2 p 3 + 7 p 2 − 1) − (4 p 3 + p − 6)
= −2 p 3 + 7 p 2 − 1 − 4 p 3 − p + 6
= (−2 p 3 − 4 p 3 ) + (7 p 2 ) + (− p ) + (−1 + 6)
= −6 p 3 + 7 p 2 − p + 5

Multiplying Polynomials
The Distributive Property and the various laws of exponents can be used to multiply a polynomial by a monomial.

Example 3 □ Simplify each expression.

a. −3 x 2 (2 x 2 − 3 x + 5) b. 5(a 2 + 3) − a (a 2 + 7 a − 2)

Solution □ a. −3 x 2 (2 x 2 − 3 x + 5)
= −3 x 2 (2 x 2 ) − (−3 x 2 )(3 x) − 3 x 2 (5) Distributive Property
4 3 2
= −6 x + 9 x − 15 x Simplify.

b. 5(a 2 + 3) − a (a 2 + 7 a − 2)
= 5(a 2 ) + 5(3) − a (a 2 ) − a (7 a ) − a (−2) Distributive Property
= 5a 2 + 15 − a 3 − 7 a 2 + 2a Multiply.
= −a 3 − 2a 2 + 2a + 15 Combine like terms
Laws of Exponents and Polynomials 157

Dividing Polynomials
To divide a polynomial by a monomial, divide each term by the monomial, add the results, and simplify.
When dividing a polynomial function f ( x) by ax + b , long division, which is similar to long division in
arithmetic, can be used to find quotient q ( x) and remainder R .
f ( x) R
The division can be written as = q( x) + .
ax + b ax + b

Example 4 □ Divide.
a. (3 x 2 − 8 x + 4) ÷ (2 x) b. ( x3 + 2 x 2 − 5 x + 9) ÷ ( x − 2)

c. (2 x3 − 15 x + 9) ÷ ( x + 3)

Solution □ a. (3 x 2 − 8 x + 4) ÷ (2 x)
3x 2 − 8 x + 4
= Write in fraction form.
2x
3x 2 8 x 4
= − + Divide each term in 3 x 2 − 8 x + 4 by 2x .
2x 2x 2x
3x 2
= −4+ Simplify.
2 x

b. x2 + 4 x + 3 Quotient
Divisor x−2 x3 + 2 x 2 − 5 x + 9 Dividend
x3 − 2 x 2 x 2 × ( x − 2) = x3 − 2 x 2
4 x2 − 5x Result of subtraction
4 x2 − 8x 4 x × ( x − 2) = 4 x 2 − 8 x
3x + 9 Result of subtraction
3x − 6 3 × ( x − 2) = 3 x − 6
15 The remainder is 15.

15
( x3 + 2 x 2 − 5 x + 9) ÷ ( x − 2) = x 2 + 4 x + 3 + .
x−2

c. 2 x2 − 6 x + 3 Quotient
Divisor x+3 2 x3 + 0 x 2 − 15 x + 9 Write 0x 2 .
2 x3 + 6 x 2 2 x 2 × ( x + 3) = 2 x3 + 6 x 2
−6 x 2 − 15 x Result of subtraction
−6 x 2 − 18 x −6 x × ( x + 3) = −6 x 2 − 18 x
3x + 9 Result of subtraction
3x + 9 3 × ( x + 3) = 3 x + 9
0 The remainder is 0.

(2 x3 − 15 x + 9) ÷ ( x + 3) = 2 x 2 − 6 x + 3
158 Chapter 10

Exercises – Adding, Subtracting, Multiplying, and Dividing Polynomials

1 4

a (2 − a ) + (a 2 + 3) − (2a + 1) ( x3 − x 2 + 3 x − 3) ÷ ( x − 1)

Which of the following is equivalent to the Which of the following is the quotient of the
expression shown above? expression shown above?

A) 2 A) x 2 − 3
B) 4a
B) x 2 + 3
C) 2a + 2
C) x 2 − 2 x
D) 2a − 2
D) x 2 − 2 x + 3

2 5

(−m 2 n − n 2 + 3mn 2 ) − (m 2 n − n 2 + mn 2 ) −12

(14 x 2 + 9 x − 20) ÷ (ax − 1) = 7 x + 8 +
ax − 1
Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression shown above? In the equation above, a is a constant and
ax − 1 0 . What is the value of a ?
A) 4mn 2

B) 4m 2 n

C) −2m 2 n + 2mn 2

D) 2m 2 n + 2mn 2

3 6

(2 x 2 − 3 x + 1) − (−2 x 2 − 3 x + 2) 6 x2 − 5x + 4 A
If = −2 x + 1 + , what is the
−3 x + 1 −3 x + 1
If the expression above is written in the form value of A ?
ax 2 + bx + c , in which a , b , and c are constants,
what is the value of a + b + c ?

A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 5
Laws of Exponents and Polynomials 159

10-3. FOIL Method and Special Products

FOIL Method
The product of two binomials is the sum of the products of the first terms, the outer terms, the inner terms,
and the last terms.
Product of Product of Product of Product of
First Terms Outer Terms Inner Terms Last Terms

(2 x + 3)( x − 5) = (2 x)( x) + (2 x)(−5) + (3)( x) + (3)(−5)

2
= 2 x − 10 x + 3 x − 15
= 2 x 2 − 7 x − 15

Example 1 □ Simplify.
a. ( x + 3)(2 x − 9) b. (3n − 2)(2n 2 − n + 5)

Solution □ a. ( x + 3)(2 x − 9) = x(2 x) + x(−9) + 3(2 x) + 3(−9)

= 2 x 2 − 9 x + 6 x − 27 = 2 x 2 − 3 x − 27

b. (3n − 2)(2n 2 − n + 5) = 3n(2n 2 − n + 5) − 2(2n 2 − n + 5)

= (6n3 − 3n 2 + 15n) + (−4n 2 + 2n − 10)
= 6n3 − 7 n 2 + 17 n − 10

Certain binomial products occur so frequently that their patterns should be memorized.
Special Products
Square of a Sum: (a + b) 2 = (a + b)(a + b) = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
Square of a Difference: (a − b) 2 = (a − b)(a − b) = a 2 − 2ab + b 2
Product of a Sum and Difference: (a + b)(a − b) = a 2 − b 2

Example 2 □ Simplify.
a. (2a + 3b) 2 b. (5n − 4)(5n + 4)
1 2
c. ( x − y)
2

Solution □ a. (2a + 3b) 2 = (2a ) 2 + 2(2a )(3b) + (3b) 2 (a + b) 2 = (a + b)(a + b) = a 2 + 2ab + b 2

= 2a 2 + 12ab + 9b 2

b. (5n − 4)(5n + 4) = (5n) 2 − (4) 2 (a + b)(a − b) = a 2 − b 2

= 25n 2 − 16

1 2 1 1
c. ( x − y ) = ( x) 2 − 2( x)( y ) + ( y ) 2 (a − b) 2 = (a − b)(a − b) = a 2 − 2ab + b 2
2 2 2
1
= x 2 − xy + y 2
4
160 Chapter 10

Exercises – FOIL Method and Special Products

1 4
( x + 3)( x − 5) ( x + y )( x − y )( x 2 + y 2 )

Which of the following is equivalent to the Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression shown above? expression shown above?

A) ( x + 1) 2 − 14 A) x 4 − 2 x 2 y 2 + y 4

B) ( x − 1) 2 − 12 B) x 4 + 2 x 2 y 2 + y 4

C) ( x − 1) 2 − 16 C) x 4 + y 4

D) ( x − 2) 2 − 12 D) x 4 − y 4

2 5
(2 − 5 x)(5 x + 2) 3( a −b ) ⋅ 3( a + b )
What is the value of ?
32 a +1
Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression shown above? 1
A)
3

A) 25 x 2 − 4 1
B)
9
B) −25 x 2 + 4
C) 3
C) 25 x 2 − 10 x + 4
D) 9
2
D) −25 x + 10 x + 4

3 6
2 2
4 x − 12 xy + 9 y 2( a −1)( a +1)
What is the value of ?
2( a − 2)( a + 2)
Which of the following is equivalent to the
1
expression shown above? A)
16

A) (2 x 2 − 3 y ) 2 1
B)
8
B) (2 x 2 − 3 y 2 ) 2
C) 8
2 2
C) (2 x − 3 y ) D) 16

D) (2 x − 3 y ) 2
Laws of Exponents and Polynomials 161

10-4. Prime Factorization, GCF, and LCM

A prime number is an integer greater than 1 that only has the factors 1 and itself.
The first ten prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 23, and 29.
A composite number is a positive integer greater than 1 that has factors other than 1 and itself.
The numbers 0 and 1 are neither prime nor composite.
A whole number expressed as the product of prime factors is called the prime factorization of the number.

Example 1 □ Find the prime factorization of 420.

Solution □ Method 1 Find the least prime factors. Continue until all factor are prime.
420 = 2 ⋅ 210 The least prime factor of 420 is 2.
= 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅105 The least prime factor of 210 is 2.
= 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 35 The least prime factor of 105 is 3.
= 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅3⋅5⋅ 7 The least prime factor of 35 is 5.

Method 2 Use a factor tree.

420

10 42 420 = 10 ⋅ 42

2 5 6 7 10 = 2 ⋅ 5, 42 = 6 ⋅ 7

2 3 6 = 2⋅3

All of the factors in the last step are prime. Thus the prime factorization
of 420 is 22 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7 .

A monomial is in factored form when it is expressed as the product of prime numbers and variables,
and no variables has an exponent greater than 1.

Example 2 □ Factor completely.

a. 102a 2 b 4 b. −28 p 2 q 3 r

Solution □ a. 102a 2 b 4 = 2 ⋅ 51 ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ b ⋅ b ⋅ b ⋅ b 102 = 2 ⋅ 51 , a 2 = a ⋅ a , b 4 = b ⋅ b ⋅ b ⋅ b

= 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅17 ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ b ⋅ b ⋅ b ⋅ b 51 = 3 ⋅ 17

Thus, 102a 2 b 4 in factored form is 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅17 ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ b ⋅ b ⋅ b ⋅ b .

b. −28 p 2 q 3 r = −1 ⋅ 28 p 2 q 3 r Express −28 as −1 ⋅ 28 .

= −1 ⋅ 2 ⋅14 ⋅ p ⋅ p ⋅ q ⋅ q ⋅ q ⋅ r 28 = 2 ⋅ 14
= −1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 7 ⋅ p ⋅ p ⋅ q ⋅ q ⋅ q ⋅ r 14 = 2 ⋅ 7

Thus, −28 p 2 q 3 r in factored form is −1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 7 ⋅ p ⋅ p ⋅ q ⋅ q ⋅ q ⋅ r .

162 Chapter 10

The greatest common factor (GCF) of two or more integers is the greatest integer that is a factor of each integer.
To find the GCF of two or more monomials, take the smallest power of each prime factor and multiply.
The least common multiple (LCM) of two or more integers is the least positive integer that is a common
multiple of two or more integers.
To find the LCM of two or more monomials, take the largest power of each prime factor and multiply.

Example 3 □ Find the GCF and LCM of each set of polynomials.

a. 90, 108 b. 12a 2 b3c , 36a 5b 2 c 2

c. 28 p 3 q 4 r 5 , 35 p 2 q 7 r 4 , 42 p 3 q 6 r 9 d. ( x − y ) 2 ( x + y ) , ( x − y )( x + y )3

Solution □ a. 90 = 10 ⋅ 9 = 2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 2 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 5
108 = 2 ⋅ 54 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 27 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 22 ⋅ 33
The smallest power of 2 is 2. The greatest power of 2 is 22 .
The smallest power of 3 is 32 . The greatest power of 3 is 33 .
5 is not a common factor. The greatest power of 5 is 5 .
The GCF is 2 ⋅ 32 or 18. The LCM is 22 ⋅ 33 ⋅ 5 or 540.

b. 12a 2 b3c = 22 ⋅ 3a 2 b3c

36a 5b 2 c 2 = 22 ⋅ 32 a 5b 2 c 2
The smallest power of 2 is 22 . The greatest power of 2 is 22 .
The smallest power of 3 is 3 . The greatest power of 3 is 32 .
The smallest power of a is a 2 . The greatest power of a is a 5 .
The smallest power of b is b 2 . The greatest power of b is b3 .
The smallest power of c is c . The greatest power of c is c 2 .
The GCF is 22 ⋅ 3a 2 b 2 c or 12a 2 b 2 c . The LCM is 22 ⋅ 32 ⋅ a 5b3c 2 or 36a 5b3c 2 .

c. 28 p 3 q 4 r 5 = 22 ⋅ 7 p 3 q 4 r 5
35 p 2 q 7 r 4 = 5 ⋅ 7 p 2 q 7 r 4
42 p 3 q 6 r 9 = 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 7 p 3 q 6 r 9
2 is not a common factor. The greatest power of 2 is 22 .
3 is not a common factor. The greatest power of 3 is 3.
5 is not a common factor. The greatest power of 5 is 5.
The smallest power of 7 is 7. The greatest power of 7 is 7.
The smallest power of p is p 2 . The greatest power of p is p 3 .
The smallest power of q is q 4 . The greatest power of q is q 7 .
The smallest power of r is r 4 . The greatest power of r is r 9 .
The GCF is 7 p 2 q 4 r 4 . The LCM is 22 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7 p 3 q 7 r 9 or 420 p 3 q 7 r 9 .

d. ( x − y ) 2 ( x + y )
( x − y )( x + y )3
The smallest power of ( x − y ) is ( x − y ) and the greatest power of ( x − y ) is ( x − y ) 2 .
The smallest power of ( x + y ) is ( x + y ) and the greatest power of ( x + y ) is ( x + y )3
The GCF is ( x − y )( x + y ) and the LCM is ( x − y ) 2 ( x + y )3 .
Laws of Exponents and Polynomials 163

Exercises – Prime Factorization, GCF, and LCM

1 4

42 x 2 y 2 + 63 xy 3 If x and y are positive integers and 123 = 2 x ⋅ 3 y ,

what is the value of x + y ?
Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression shown above?

A) 21x 2 y 2 (2 x + 3 y )

B) 21xy 2 (2 x + 3 y )

C) 21x 2 y (2 x + 3 y )

D) 21xy (2 x + 3 y )

2 5
12 x 2 y − 18 xy 2 z If 2 × 59 − k × 58 = 2 × 58 , what is the value of k ?

Which of the following is equivalent to the

expression shown above?

A) 6 xy (2 x − 3 yz )

B) 6 x 2 y (2 x − 3 yz )

C) 6 xy 2 (2 x − 3 yz )

D) 6 x 2 y 2 (2 x − 3 yz )

3 6
2 2
5a b − 10abc + 5bc If 1299 − 1297 = 1297 × n , what is the value of n ?

Which of the following is equivalent to the

expression shown above?

A) 5b(a − b) 2

B) 5c(a − b) 2

C) 5a (b − c) 2

D) 5b(a − c) 2
164 Chapter 10

10-5. Factoring Using the Distributive Property

You used the Distributive Property to multiply a polynomial by a monomial. You can reverse this
process to express a polynomial as the product of a monomial factor and a polynomial factor.
The first step in factoring a polynomial is to find the GCF of its terms. Then write each term as the
product of the GCF and its remaining factors, and use the Distributive Property to factor out the GCF.
Factoring by Grouping.
To factor polynomials having four or more terms, group pairs of terms with common factors and
use Distributive Property.
ax + bx + ay + by = x(a + b) + y (a + b)
= (a + b)( x + y )

Example 1 □ Factor each polynomial.

a. 12 x3 − 18 x b. 6mn − 3n + 2mp − p

Solution □ a. 12 x3 − 18 x
= 6 x(2 x 2 ) − 6 x(3) Rewrite each term using the GCF.
= 6 x(2 x 2 − 3) Use the distributive property.

b. 6mn − 3n + 2mp − p
= (6mn − 3n) + (2mp − p) Group terms with common factors.
= 3n(2m − 1) + p (2m − 1) Factor the GCF from each grouping.
= (2m − 1)(3n + p ) Use the distributive property.

Another helpful tool in factoring polynomials is recognizing factors that are opposites of each other.

Factors Opposit Factors

a −b −( a − b) = − a + b = b − a
9 − x2 −(9 − x 2 ) = −9 + x 2 = x 2 − 9
p + 2q − r −( p + 2q − r ) = − p − 2q + r

Example 2 □ Factor each polynomial.

a. 3( x − y ) − 2 x( y − x) b. (a − 2b − 3) − (6c + 4bc − 2ac)

Solution □ a. 3( x − y ) − 2 x( y − x)
= 3( x − y ) − 2 x(−( x − y )) y − x = −( x − y )
= 3( x − y ) + 2 x( x − y ) −(−( x − y )) = x − y
= ( x − y )(3 + 2 x) Use the distributive property.

b. (a − 2b − 3) − (6c + 4bc − 2ac)

= (a − 2b − 3) − 2c(3 + 2b − a ) Factor the GCF.
= (a − 2b − 3) + 2c(−(3 + 2b − a )) −2c(3 + 2b − a ) = 2c(−(3 + 2b − a ))
= (a − 2b − 3) + 2c(a − 2b − 3) −(3 + 2b − a ) = a − 2b − 3
= (a − 2b − 3)(1 + 2c) Use the distributive property.
Laws of Exponents and Polynomials 165

Exercises – Factoring Using the Distributive Property

1 4
mn − 5n − m + 5
1 + 2 x − x(1 + 2 x)
Which of the following is equivalent to the
Which of the following is equivalent to the expression shown above?
expression shown above?

A) (m − 5)(n − 1)
A) (1 − 2 x) 2
B) (m − 1)(n − 5)
B) (1 + 2 x)(1 − x)
C) (m + 5)(n + 1)
C) − x(1 + 2 x)
D) (m − 5)(5n − 1)
D) x(1 − 2 x)

2 5
What is the value of x , if rx + sx = 3 and 7 y 2 − 21xy − 2 y + 6 x
1
r+s = ?
3 Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression shown above?
A) 1
A) (7 y − 3)( y − 2 x)
B) 3
C) 9 B) (7 y − 2)(2 y − 3 x)

D) 27 C) (7 y − 2)( y − 3 x)

D) (7 y + 2)(2 y − 3 x)

3 6

2ax − 6a − 3 x + 9 x − 2 y + 3 z − 2 wx + 4 wy − 6 wz

Which of the following is equivalent to the Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression shown above? expression shown above?

A) (2a − 1)( x − 9) A) (1 + 2 w)( x + 2 y − 3 z )

B) (2a − 3)(2 x − 3) B) (1 − 2 w)( x − 2 y + 3 z )
C) (a − 3)(2 x − 3) C) (1 + 2 w)( x − 2 y − 3 z )
D) (2a − 3)( x − 3) D) (1 − 2 w)( x − y − 3 z )
166 Chapter 10

Chapter 10 Practice Test

1 4

2( a + b )
2
1 1
If ( x + ) 2 = 9 , then ( x − ) 2 =
2 ( a −b )2 x x

Which of the following is equivalent to the A) 3

expression shown above?
B) 5
C) 7
A) 8( a + b )
D) 9
B) 8ab

C) 16a + b

D) 16ab
5

4 8
− 1
If 8 3 ⋅ 8 3 = , what is the value of m ?
2 2m
2m 2 n − mnp − 6m + 3 p
4
A) −
3
Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression shown above? B) −4
4
A) (2m − n)(mp − 3) C)
3
B) (2m − p )(mn − 3) D) 4
C) (2m + p )(mn + 3)

D) (2m − n)(mn − 3 p )

3 (−2 xy 2 )3
If xy 0 , then =
4 x4 y5
a +b 2 a −b 2
( ) −( ) =
2 2 xy
A) −
2
A) ab
2
B) −
B) −ab x
2ab + b 2 2y
C) C) −
2 x2
D) ab + b 2 2y
D) −
x
Laws of Exponents and Polynomials 167

7 10

If x12 = 32n 4 and x9 = 4n , then x = (2.1× 10−3 )(2 × 105 )

If −4
= 6 × 10n , what is the
7 × 10
A) 2n value of n ?
1
B) 2n 2
1
C) 4n 2
D) 4n

8 11
3 1
(3 x3 − 2 x 2 − 7) − (−2 x 2 + 6 x + 2) If a 4 = 8 , what is the value of a
−
2 ?

Which of the following is equivalent to the

expression shown above?

A) 3( x3 + 2 x − 6)

B) 3( x3 − 2 x − 9)

C) 3( x3 + 2 x − 3)

D) 3( x3 − 2 x − 3)

9 12

9 x − ( x − 3)( x + 12) x2 − x − a 8
= x +1−
x−2 x−2
Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression shown above? In the equation above, what is the value of a ?

A) 36 − 18x − x 2

B) 36 + 12x − x 2
C) (6 − x)(6 + x)

D) (6 − x) 2
 CHAPTER 11
Quadratic Functions

11-1. Graphs of Quadratic Equations

The standard form of a quadratic function y = f ( x) can be written in the form f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c ,

in which a 0 . The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola.
If a 0 , the graph opens upward and the vertex is the minimum point.
If a 0 , the graph opens downward and the vertex is the maximum point.
The maximum or minimum point of a parabola is called the vertex.
b b b
The equation of the axis of symmetry is x = − . The coordinates of the vertex are (− , f (− )) .
2a 2a 2a
The vertex form of a quadratic function can be written in the form f ( x) = a ( x − h) 2 + k , in which (h, k )
is the coordinates of vertex of the parabola.
The solutions of a quadratic function are the values of x for which f ( x) = 0 . Solutions of functions are
also called roots or zeros of the function. On a graph, the solution of the function is the x - intercept(s).
To find the y - intercept of a parabola, let x equal to zero in the equation of the parabola and solve for y .

If the parabola has two x- intercepts, then the x- intercepts are equidistant from the axis of symmetry.
The factored form of a quadratic function can be written in the form f ( x) = a ( x − b)( x − c) .
The x- intercepts or the solutions of the function are x = b and x = c .
A parabola may have no x- intercept, one x- intercept, or two x- intercepts.

y vertex y
1 25
(− , )
2 4
x axis of symmetry
(−1,0) O (3,0) 1
x=−
axis of symmetry 2
x =1 x
(−3,0) O (2,0)
vertex
(1, −4)

The graph of the quadratic function The graph of the quadratic function
y = x 2 − 2 x − 3 opens upward since y = − x 2 − x + 6 opens downward since
a = 1 0, so the vertex is a minimum a = −1 0,so the vertex is a maximum
point. The equation of the axis of point. The equation of the axis of
−2 −1 1
symmetry is x = − or x = 1. symmetry is x = − or x = − .
2(1) 2(−1) 2
The vertex form of the function is The vertex form of the function is
y = ( x − 1) 2 − 4, from which the 1 25
y = −( x + ) 2 + , from which the
coordinates of the vertex can be 2 4
identified as (1, −4). The factored coordinates of the vertex can be
form of the function is y = ( x + 1)( x − 3). 1 25
identified as (− , ). The factored
The x-intercepts are − 1 and 3, which are 2 4
equidistant from the axis of symmetry. form of the function is y = −( x + 3)( x − 2).
The x-intercepts are − 3 and 2, which are
equidistant from the axis of symmetry.
174 Chapter 11

Example 1 □ Given f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x − 2 , find the following.

a. The y - intercept. b. The axis of symmetry.

c. The coordinate of the vertex. d. Identify the vertex as a maximum or minimum.

Solution □ a. To find the y - intercept, let x = 0 .

f (0) = 02 + 2(0) − 2 = −2
x = −1
The y - intercept is −2 .

b. The coefficients are a = 1 , b = 2 ,

and c = −2 .
The equation of the axis of symmetry x
O
b 2
is x = − =− or x = −1 .
2a 2(1) y = x2 + 2 x − 2
(−1, −3)
c. f (−1) = (−1) 2 + 2(−1) − 2 = −3 .
The coordinates of the vertex are (−1, −3) .

d. Since the coefficient of the x 2 term

is positive, the parabola opens upward
and the vertex is a minimum point.

The graph of the parabola f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x − 2 is shown above.

Example 2 □ Given f ( x) = −( x + 2)( x − 4) , find the following.

a. The x- intercepts. b. The axis of symmetry.

c. The coordinate of the vertex. d. Identify the vertex as a maximum or minimum.

Solution □ a. To find the x- intercept, let f ( x) = 0 .

From f ( x) = −( x + 2)( x − 4) = 0 , we
y
get x- intercepts, x = −2 and x = 4 .
(1,9)
b. Since the x- intercepts are equidistant
y = − x2 + 2 x + 8
from the axis of symmetry, the axis of x =1
symmetry is the average of the two
x- intercepts.
−2 + 4
x= or x = 1
2
c. f (1) = −(1 + 2)(1 − 4) = 9 .
x
The coordinates of the vertex are (1,9) . (−2,0) O (4,0)

d. Since the coefficient of the x 2 term

is negative, the parabola opens downward
and the vertex is a maximum point.

The graph of the parabola f ( x) = −( x + 2)( x − 4) is shown above.

Quadratic Functions 175

Exercises - Graphs of Quadratic Equations

3
Questions 1 and 2 refer to the following y
information.
y = a ( x − h) 2
y
5
y = x2 − 6 x + 5
4
3
2
1 x
x O (4,0)
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−2
−3 In the xy - plane above, the parabola y = a ( x − h) 2
−4
−5 V has one x- intercept at (4, 0) . If the y - intercept
of the parabola is 9, what is the value of a ?
The graph of quadratic function y = x 2 − 6 x + 5 is
shown above.

1
Which of the following is an equivalent form
of the equation of the graph shown above, from
which the coordinates of vertex V can be
identified as constants in the equation? 4
In the xy - plane, if the parabola with equation
A) y = ( x − 1)( x − 5) y = a ( x + 2) 2 − 15 passes through (1,3) , what
B) y = ( x + 1)( x + 5) is the value of a ?

C) y = x( x − 6) + 5

D) y = ( x − 3) 2 − 4

2
Which of the following is an equivalent form 5
of the equation of the graph shown above, that
The graph of the equation y = a ( x − 1)( x + 5) is
displays the x- intercepts of the parabola as
constants? a parabola with vertex (h, k ) . If the minimum
value of y is −12 , what is the value of a ?
A) y = ( x − 1)( x − 5)

B) y = ( x + 1)( x + 5)

C) y = x( x − 6) + 5

D) y = ( x − 3) 2 − 4
176 Chapter 11

11-2. Factoring Trinomials

Factoring Trinomials: x 2 + bx + c
To factor trinomials of the form x 2 + bx + c , you need to find two integers with sum b and product c .
When two binomials ( x + m) and ( x + n) are multiplied using FOIL method, ( x + m)( x + n) = x 2 + nx + mx + mn ,
or x 2 + (m + n) x + mn . So, you can write x 2 + bx + c as ( x + m)( x + n) , then as m + n = b and mn = c .

Example 1 □ Factor each trinomial.

a. x 2 + 9 x + 20 b. x 2 − 11x + 18

c. x 2 + 5 x − 14

Solution □ a. Make a list of factors of 20, and look for the pair of factors that has a sum of 9.
Both integers must be positive since the sum is positive and the product is positive.

Factors of 20 Sum of Factors

1 and 20 1 + 20 = 21
2 and 10 2 + 10 = 12
4 and 5 4+5=9 The correct factors are 4 and 5.

x 2 + 9 x + 20 = ( x + m)( x + n) Write trinomial as the product of two binomials.

= ( x + 4)( x + 5) mn = 20 and m + n = 9

b. Make a list of factors of 18, and look for the pair of factors that has a sum of −11 .
Both integers must be negative since the sum is negative and the product is positive.

Factors of 18 Sum of Factors

−1 and − 18 −1 + (−18) = −19
−2 and − 9 −2 + (−9) = −11 The correct factors are − 2 and − 9.
−3 and − 6 −3 + (−6) = −9

x 2 − 11x + 18 = ( x + m)( x + n) Write trinomial as the product of two binomials.

= ( x − 2)( x − 9) mn = 18 and m + n = −11

c. Make a list of factors of −14 , and look for the pair of factors that has a sum of 5.
One integer is negative and the other is positive since the product is negative.

Factors of − 14 Sum of Factors

−1 and 14 −1 + 14 = 13
1 and − 14 1 + (−14) = −13
−2 and 7 −2 + 7 = 5 The correct factors are − 2 and 7.
2 and − 7 2 + (−7) = −5

x 2 + 5 x − 14 = ( x + m)( x + n) Write trinomial as the product of two binomials.

= ( x − 2)( x + 7) mn = −14 and m + n = 5
Quadratic Functions 177

Factoring Trinomials: ax 2 + bx + c
To factor trinomials of the form ax 2 + bx + c , in which a 1 , you need to find two integers m and n with
sum b and product ac . Then write bx as mx + nx and use the method of factoring by grouping.

Example 2 □ Factor each trinomial.

a. 2 x 2 − 7 x + 6 b. 5 x 2 − 14 x − 3

c. 6 x 2 − 5 x − 4 d. −16 x 2 − 40 x + 24

Solution □ a. Find two numbers with a sum of −7 and a product of 2 ⋅ 6 , or 12.

The two numbers are −3 and −4 .
2 x 2 − 7 x + 6 = 2 x 2 − 3x − 4 x + 6 Write −7x as −3 x − 4 x .
= (2 x 2 − 3 x) − (4 x − 6) Group terms with common factors.
= x(2 x − 3) − 2(2 x − 3) Factor the GCF from each grouping.
= (2 x − 3)( x − 2) Distributive Property

b. Find two numbers with a sum of −14 and a product of 5 ⋅ −3 , or −15 .

The two numbers are 1 and −15 .
5 x 2 − 14 x − 3 = 5 x 2 + x − 15 x − 3 Write −14x as + x − 15 x .
= (5 x 2 + x) − (15 x + 3) Group terms with common factors.
= x(5 x + 1) − 3(5 x + 1) Factor the GCF from each grouping.
= (5 x + 1)( x − 3) Distributive Property

c. Find two numbers with a sum of −5 and a product of 6 ⋅ −4 , or −24 .

The two numbers are 3 and −8 .
6 x 2 − 5 x − 4 = 6 x 2 + 3x − 8 x − 4 Write −5x as +3 x − 8 x .
= (6 x 2 + 3 x) − (8 x + 4) Group terms with common factors.
= 3 x(2 x + 1) − 4(2 x + 1) Factor the GCF from each grouping.
= (2 x + 1)(3 x − 4) Distributive Property

d. The GCF of the terms −16x 2 , −40x , and 24 is −8 . Factor it out first.
−16 x 2 − 40 x + 24 = −8(2 x 2 + 5 x − 3) Factor out −8 .
Now factor 2 x 2 + 5 x − 3 . Find two numbers with a sum of 5 and a product
of 2 ⋅ −3 , or −6 . The two numbers are 6 and −1 .
2 x 2 + 5 x − 3 = 2 x 2 + 6 x − 1x − 3 Write 5x as 6x − x .
= (2 x 2 + 6 x) − 1 ⋅ ( x + 3) Group terms with common factors.
= 2 x( x + 3) − 1 ⋅ ( x + 3) Factor the GCF from each grouping.
= ( x + 3)(2 x − 1) Distributive Property

Thus, the complete factorization of −16 x 2 − 40 x + 24 is −8( x + 3)(2 x − 1) .

178 Chapter 11

Exercises – Factoring Trinomials

1 4

x 2 − 2 x − 24 3x 2 + 7 x − 6

Which of the following is equivalent to the Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression above? expression above?

A) ( x + 3)( x − 8) A) (3 x − 2)( x + 3)

B) ( x − 3)( x + 8) B) (3 x + 2)( x − 3)

C) ( x − 6)( x + 4) C) (3 x − 1)( x + 6)

D) ( x + 6)( x − 4) D) (3 x + 1)( x − 6)

2 5

x 2 − 17 x + 72 2 x 2 + x − 15

Which of the following is equivalent to the Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression above? expression above?

A) ( x + 8)( x − 9) A) (2 x + 3)( x − 5)

B) ( x − 8)( x − 9) B) (2 x − 3)( x + 5)

C) ( x − 12)( x − 6) C) (2 x − 5)( x + 3)

D) ( x − 12)( x + 6) D) (2 x + 5)( x − 3)

3 6

− x 2 + 5 x + 84 −6 x 2 + x + 2

Which of the following is equivalent to the Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression above? expression above?

A) (12 − x)( x + 7) A) −(6 x + 1)( x − 2)

B) (12 + x)( x − 7) B) −(6 x − 1)( x + 2)

C) (21 + x)( x − 4) C) −(3 x + 2)(2 x − 1)

D) (21 − x)( x + 4) D) −(3 x − 2)(2 x + 1)

Quadratic Functions 179

11-3. Factoring Differences of Squares and Perfect Square Trinomials

The polynomial forms a 2 + 2ab + b 2 and a 2 − 2ab + b 2 are called perfect square trinomials, and they are
the result of squaring (a + b) and (a − b) . Also, the polynomial a 2 − b 2 is called a difference of squares,
and is the product of (a + b) and (a − b) .

Perfect Square Trinomials Difference of Squares

a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = (a + b) 2 a 2 − b 2 = (a + b)(a − b)
a 2 − 2ab + b 2 = (a − b) 2

Example 1 □ Factor each polynomial.

1 1
a. 27 x 2 − 3 b. 4 x 2 + 12 x + 9 c. x 2 − x+
2 16

Solution □ a. 27 x 2 − 3 = 3(9 x 2 − 1) Factor out the GCF.

2 2
= 3((3 x) − (1) ) Write in the form a 2 − b 2 .
= 3(3 x + 1)(3 x − 1) Factor the difference of squares.

b. Since 4 x 2 = (2 x) 2 , 9 = 32 , and 12 x = 2(2 x)(3) , 4 x 2 + 12 x + 9 is

a perfect square trinomial.
4 x 2 + 12 x + 9 = (2 x) 2 + 2(2 x)(3) + 32 Write as a 2 + 2ab + b 2 .
= (2 x + 3) 2 Factored as (a + b) 2 .

1 1 1 1 1 1
c. Since x 2 = ( x) 2 , = ( ) 2 , and x = 2( x)( ) , x 2 − x + is
16 4 2 4 2 16
a perfect square trinomial.
1 1 1 1
x2 − x + = ( x) 2 − 2( x)( ) + ( ) 2 Write as a 2 − 2ab + b 2 .
2 16 4 4
1 2
= (x − ) Factored as (a − b) 2 .
4

Zero Product Property

If the product a ⋅ b = 0 , then either a = 0 , b = 0 , or both a and b equal zero. Factoring and zero product
property allow you to solve a quadratic equation by converting it into two linear equations.

Example 2 □ Solve each equation.

a. (2 x − 5)(3 x − 10) = 0 b. x 2 − 3 x + 28 = 0

Solution □ a. (2 x − 5)(3 x − 10) = 0

2 x − 5 = 0 or 3 x − 10 = 0 Zero Product Property
5 10
x = or x = Solve each equation.
2 3
b. x 2 − 3 x + 28 = 0
( x + 4)( x − 7) = 0 Factor.
x + 4 = 0 or x − 7 = 0 Zero Product Property
x = −4 or x = 7 Solve each equation.
180 Chapter 11

Exercises – Factoring Differences of Squares and Perfect Square Trinomials

1 4

3 x 2 − 48 If x + y = 10 and x − y = 4 , what is the value

Which of the following is equivalent to the of x 2 − y 2 ?

expression above?
A) 20
A) 3( x − 4)( x + 4) B) 24
C) 36
B) 3( x − 4) 2
D) 40
C) (3 x − 4)( x + 4)

D) (3 x + 4)( x − 4)
5

6 x 2 + 7 x − 24 = 0
2 If r and s are two solutions of the equation
above and r s , which of the following is the
x − 6 x − 16
value of r − s ?
Which of the following is equivalent to the
expression above? 7
A)
6

A) ( x − 4) 2 16
B)
3
B) ( x − 4)( x + 4)
25
C)
C) ( x + 8)( x − 2) 6

D) ( x − 8)( x + 2) 20
D)
3

3 6

If x 2 + y 2 = 10 and xy = −3 , what is the value x 2 − 3 x = 28

of ( x − y ) 2 ?
If r and s are two solutions of the equation
above, which of the following is the value of
A) 12 r+s?
B) 16
A) −3
C) 20
B) 3
D) 25
C) 6
D) 9
Quadratic Functions 181

11-4. Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square

Definition of Square Root
For any number a 0 , if x 2 = a , then x is a square root of a and x = a.

A method called completing the square can be used to solve a quadratic equation. To complete the square
for a quadratic equation of the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , you can follow the steps below.

1. Subtract c from each side: ax 2 + bx = −c

b c
2. If a 1 , divide both sides by a : x 2 + x = −
a a
1 b b 2 b b c b
3.Add of square which is ( ) , to both sides: x 2 + x + ( ) 2 = − + ( ) 2
2 a 2a a 2a a 2a
b 2 c b 2
4. You have completed the square: ( x + ) = − + ( )
2a a 2a
b c b b c b
5. Square root each side: x + = − + ( ) 2 or x = − − + ( )2
2a a 2a 2a a 2a

Definition of Equal Polynomials

If ax 2 + bx + c = px 2 + qx + r for all values of x , then a = p , b = q , and c = r .

Example 1 □ Solve 2 x 2 − 6 x − 7 = 0 by completing the square.

Solution □ 2 x2 − 6 x = 7 Add 7 to each side.

7
x 2 − 3x = Divide each side by 2.
2
9 7 9 1 3 3 9
x 2 − 3x + = + of −3 is − . Add (− ) 2 = , to each side.
4 2 4 2 2 2 4
3 2 23
(x − ) = Complete the square and simplify.
2 4
3 23
x− = Take the square root of each side and simplify.
2 4
3 23 3
x= Add to each side.
2 2 2

Example 2 □ If s 0 and 4 x 2 − rx + 9 = (2 x − s ) 2 for all values of x , what is the value of r − s ?

Solution □ 4 x 2 − rx + 9 = 4 x 2 − 4 sx + s 2 FOIL right side of the equation.

2 2 2
4 x − rx + 9 = 4 x − 4 sx + s By the Definition of Equal Polynomials
4 = 4 , r = 4 s , and 9 = s 2 .

s= 9= 3 Definition of square root

Since s 0 is given, s = 3 .
r = 4 s = 4(3) = 12
r − s = 12 − 3 = 9
182 Chapter 11

Exercises - Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square

1 4

If x 2 − 10 x = 75 and x 0 , what is the value k2

x 2 − rx =
of x + 5 ? 4

A) −15 In the quadratic equation above, k and r are

are constants. What are the solutions for x ?
B) −10
C) −5
r k 2 + 2r 2
D) 0 A) x =
4 4

r k 2 + 8r 2
B) x =
2 4
2
r k2 + r2
k C) x =
If x 2 − kx = 20 and x − = 6 , which of the 4 2
2
following is a possible value of x ? r k2 + r2
D) x =
2 2
A) 2
B) 4
C) 6 5
D) 8
If ( x − 7)( x − s ) = x 2 − rx + 14 for all values of x ,
what is the value of r + s ?

3
k
x2 − x=5
3

Which of the following is an equivalent form of the

equation shown above, from which the equation
could be solved by completing the square?
6
k k k 3
A) x 2 − x + = + 5 If x 2 − x + c = ( x − k ) 2 , what is the value of c ?
3 6 6 2
k k2 k2
B) x 2 − x+ = +5
3 9 9

k k2 k2
C) x 2 − x+ = +5
3 36 36

k k2 k2
D) x 2 − x+ = +5
3 6 6
Quadratic Functions 183

11-5. Quadratic Formula and the Discriminant

Solving Quadratic Equations by Using the Quadratic Formula

The solutions of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c , in which a 0 , are given by the formula
2
−b b − 4ac
x= .
2a

Example 1 □ Use the quadratic formula to solve 2 x 2 − 4 x − 3 = 0 .

Solution □ For this equation a = 2 , b = −4 , and c = −3 .

−b b 2 − 4ac
x= Quadratic Formula
2a
−(−4) (−4) 2 − 4(2)(−3)
= Substitute a = 2 , b = −4 , and c = −3 .
2(2)
4 16 + 24 4 40 2 10
= = = Simplify.
4 4 2
2 + 10 2 − 10
x= or x = Separate the solutions.
2 2

The Discriminant
In a Quadratic Formula, the expression under the radical sign b 2 − 4ac is called the discriminant.
The value of the discriminant can be used to determine the number of real roots for the quadratic equation.

Example −2 x 2 + 3 x + 5 = 0 x2 + 4 x + 4 = 0 x2 + 5x + 8 = 0

b 2 − 4ac = 32 − 4(−2)(5) = 49 b 2 − 4ac = 42 − 4(1)(4) = 0 b 2 − 4ac = 52 − 4(1)(8) = −7

Discriminant
Positive Zero Negative

Number of 2 1 0
Real Roots

−3 49 −3 7 −4
x - intercepts x= = 0 −5 −7
2(−2) −4 x= = −2 x=
or Roots of 2(1) 2(1)
the function x = 2.5 or x = −1 one root no real roots
two real roots

y y y

y = −2 x 2 + 3 x + 5

Graph of y = x2 + 4x + 4
Related
Function y = x2 + 5x + 8
x x x
O O O

The graph crosses The graph touches The graph does not
the x - axis twice. the x - axis once. cross the x - axis.
184 Chapter 11

Example 2 □ Find the number of solutions for each system of equations.

y = 5x − 7 y = −x + 2
a. 2
b.
y = x + 6x + 1 y = x 2 − 3x − 8

Solution □ a. Substitute 5 x − 7 for y in the quadratic equation.

5x − 7 = x2 + 6 x + 1 Substitution
2
x + x+8 = 0 Standard form of a quadratic equation.
For the quadratic equation above a = 1 , b = 1 , and c = 8 .
Discriminant = b 2 − 4ac = (1) 2 − 4(1)(8) = −31 0
Since the discriminant is negative, the system of equations has no solution.

b. Substitute − x + 2 for y in the quadratic equation.

− x + 2 = x 2 − 3x − 8 Substitution
2
x − 2 x − 10 = 0 Standard form of a quadratic equation.
For the quadratic equation above a = 1 , b = −2 , and c = −10
Discriminant = b 2 − 4ac = (−2) 2 − 4(1)(−10) = 44 0
Since the discriminant is positive, the system of equations has two solutions.

Sum of Roots and Product of Roots

If r1 and r2 are roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , then
b c
r1 + r2 = sum of roots = − and r1 ⋅ r2 = product of roots = .
a a

Example 3 □ Find the sum and product of all values x that satisfy 2 x 2 − 5 x − 1 = 0 .

Solution □ Method 1
Use the quadratic formula to find the roots of the given equation.
−b b 2 − 4ac −(−5) (−5) 2 − 4(2)(−1) 5 25 + 8 5 33
x= = = =
2a 2(2) 4 4
5 + 33 5 − 33
The two roots are x = and x =
4 4
5 + 33 5 − 33 10 5
Sum of the roots = + = =
4 4 4 2
5 + 33 5 − 33 (5 + 33)(5 − 33)
Product of the roots = ( )( )=
4 4 16
25 − 5 33 + 5 33 − 33 8 1
= =− =−
16 16 2
Method 2
Use the sum and products formula.
b −5 5
r1 + r2 = sum of roots = − = − =
a 2 2
c −1
r1 ⋅ r2 = product of roots = =
a 2
Quadratic Functions 185

Exercises - Quadratic Formula and the Discriminant

1 4

( p − 1) x 2 − 2 x − ( p + 1) = 0 y = bx − 3
y = ax 2 − 7 x
In the quadratic equation above, p is a constant.
What are the solutions for x ? In the system of equations above, a and b are
constants. For which of the following values of
a and b does the system of equations have exactly
1 + 2 − p2 1 − 2 − p2 two real solutions?
A) and
p −1 p −1

1+ 2 p A) a = 3, b = −2
B) and −1
p −1 B) a = 5, b = 0
p +1 C) a = 7, b = 2
C) and −1
p −1
D) a = 9, b = 4
p +1 2 p +1
D) and
p −1 p −1

2 5
What is the sum of all values of x that satisfy What are the solutions to x 2 + 4 = −6 x ?
3 x 2 + 12 x − 29 = 0 ?
A) −3 13
A) −4
B) −3 5
B) −2
C) 2 C) −6 5

D) 4 D) −6 13

3 6

If the quadratic equation kx 2 + 6 x + 4 = 0 has Which of the following equations has no real
exactly one solution, what is the value of k ? solution?

3 A) 5 x 2 − 10 x = 6
A)
2 B) 4 x 2 + 8 x + 4 = 0
5
B) C) 3 x 2 − 5 x = −3
2
1
7 D) − x 2 + 2 x − 2 = 0
C) 3
4
9
D)
4
186 Chapter 11

11-6. Solving Systems Consisting Linear and Quadratic Equations

A system containing only quadratic equations or a combination of linear and quadratic equations
in the same two variables is called a quadratic system. The substitution and elimination methods
used to solve linear systems can also be used to solve quadratic systems algebraically. You can
use graphs to find the number of real solutions of a quadratic system. If the graphs of a system
of equations are a quadratic and a linear, the system will have 0, 1, or 2 solutions. If the graphs of
a system of equations are two quadratic equations, the system will have 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 solutions.

no solution one solution one solution two solutions two solutions

no solution one solution two solutions three solutions four solutions

Example 1 □ Solve the system of equations.

y = x2 − 5
x + y =1

Solution □ Rewrite x + y = 1 as y = 1 − x .
y = x2 − 5
1 − x = x2 − 5 Substitute 1 − x for y .
2
x + x−6 = 0 Simplify.
( x + 3)( x − 2) = 0 Factor.
x + 3 = 0 or x−2 = 0 Zero Product Property
x = −3 or x=2 Solve for x .
−3 + y = 1 or 2+ y =1 Substitute −3 and 2 for x in x + y = 1 .
y=4 or y = −1 Solve for y .

The solutions of the system of equations y

are (−3, 4) and (2, −1) . (−3, 4)
The equations are graphed in the
diagram at the right. As you can
see, the graphs have two points x
O (2, −1)
of intersection at (−3, 4) and (2, −1) .
Quadratic Functions 187

Exercises - Solving Systems Consisting Linear and Quadratic Equations

1 3
y y = f ( x)
V
16
(0, )
3
( − a, b) ( a, b)

y = g ( x)

x x
(−4,0) O (2,0) O

The function f and g , defined by f ( x) = 2 x 2 + 2

The xy - plane above shows two x- intercepts, and g ( x) = −2 x 2 + 18 , are graphed in the xy - plane
a y - intercept and vertex V of a parabola. If above. The two graphs intersect at the points (a, b)
the line passes through the points (2, 0) and V , and (−a, b) . What is the value of b ?
which of the following must be the y - intercept
of the line?
A) 6

A) 3 B) 8

7 C) 10
B)
2 D) 12
C) 4
9
D)
2
4

x 2 + y 2 = 14
2 x2 − y = 2

y = x2 + x If ( x, y ) is a solution to the system of equations

y = ax − 1
above, what is the value of x 2 ?

In the system of equations above, a 0 . If the

system of equations has exactly one real solution, A) 2
what is the value of a ? B) 3
C) 4
5
A) D) 5
2
B) 3
7
C)
2
D) 4
188 Chapter 11

Chapter 11 Practice Test

1 3
y y

B C
(0,6)

x
(−2,0) O (6,0) x
A(−1,0) O (3,0) D(8,0)

The graph of the quadratic function above shows

In the figure above, the vertex of the graph of
two x- intercepts and a y - intercept. Which of
the quadratic function is at (3, 0) . The points
the following equations represents the graph of
the quadratic function above? B and C lie on the parabola. If ABCD is a
rectangle with perimeter 38, which of the
following represents the equation of the parabola?
1
A) y = − ( x − 1) 2 + 9
2
2
A) y = ( x − 3) 2
1 5
B) y = − ( x − 2) 2 + 8
2
5
B) y = ( x − 3) 2
1 8
C) y = − ( x − 2) 2 + 9
2
3
C) y = ( x − 3) 2
1 4
D) y = − ( x − 3) 2 + 8
2
7
D) y = ( x − 3) 2
8

If ( x + y ) 2 = 324 and ( x − y ) 2 = 16 , what is the 4

value of xy ?
If (ax + b)(2 x − 5) = 12 x 2 + kx − 10 for all values
of x , what is the value of k ?
A) 33
B) 55 A) −26

C) 77 B) −10

D) 99 C) 24
D) 32
Quadratic Functions 189

7
Questions 5-8 refer to the following
information. What is the maximum height from the ground the
object will reach, to the nearest meter?
1
h = − gt 2 + v0 t + h0
2 A) 103
B) 112
The equation above describes the motion of an object
thrown upward into the air. In the equation, g is the C) 125
acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s 2 ) , t is the time D) 133
elapsed since the object was thrown upward, v0 is
the initial speed of the object, h0 is the initial height
from which the object was thrown, and h is the height
of the object above the ground t seconds after the
8
object was thrown.
How long will it take the object to hit the ground,
to the nearest second? (hint: Height of the object
is zero when the object hits the ground.)
5
Which of the following equations represents the A) 7
motion of the object, if the object was thrown
B) 8
upward from 40 meters above the ground with
an initial speed of 35 meters per second (m/s) ? C) 9
D) 10
2
A) h = −9.8t + 40t + 35

B) h = −9.8t 2 + 35t + 40

C) h = −4.9t 2 + 40t + 35

D) h = −4.9t 2 + 35t + 40
9

h = −16t 2 + h0

6 The equation above describes the height of an

object t seconds after it dropped from a height
How many seconds will it take the object to reach
of h0 feet above the ground. If a hiker dropped
its maximum height? (hint: The function has a
b a water bottle from a cliff 150 feet above the
maximum point at t = − .) ground, how many seconds will it take to hit the
2a ground? (Round your answer to the nearest
second.)
15
A)
7
A) 2
20 B) 3
B)
7
C) 4
25 D) 5
C)
7
30
D)
7
 CHAPTER 12
Composition, Recursion, and Exponential Functions

12-1 Composition of Functions

Given the two functions f and g , the composite function, denoted by f g , is defined
as ( f g )( x) = f g ( x) = f ( g ( x)) , read “ f of g of x .”

In order for a value of x to be in the domain of f g , two conditions must be satisfied:

1) x must be in the domain of g .
2) g ( x) must be in the domain of f .

Example 1 □ If f ( x) = x 2 + 1 and g ( x) = x − 2 , find the following.

a. ( f g )( x) b. ( g f )( x) c. ( f g )(3)

Solution □ a. ( f g )( x) = f ( g ( x))
= f ( x − 2) Substitute x − 2 for g ( x) .
2
= ( x − 2) + 1 Evaluate f when x is x − 2 .
= x2 − 4 x + 5 Simplify.

b. ( g f )( x) = g ( f ( x))
= g ( x 2 + 1) Substitute x 2 + 1 for g ( x) .
= ( x 2 + 1) − 2 Evaluate g when x is x 2 + 1 .
= x2 − 1 Simplify.

c. ( f g )(3) = f ( g (3))
= f (3 − 2) g (3) = 3 − 2 .
= f (1) Simplify.
2
= 1 +1 f (1) = 12 + 1
=2 Simplify.

Example 2 □ If f = {(−1, −3), (2,5), (4,1)} and g = {(−2, 2), (1,3), (6, −1)} , find the following.

a. ( f g )(−2) b. ( g f )(4) c. ( f g )(6)

Solution □ a. ( f g )(−2) = f ( g (−2))

= f (2) g (−2) = 2
=5 Simplify.

b. ( g f )(4) = g ( f (4))
= g (1) f (4) = 1
=3 Simplify.

c. ( f g )(6) = f ( g (6))
= f (−1) g (6) = −1
= −3 Simplify.
198 Chapter 12

Exercises - Operations on Functions and Composition of Functions

1 4

If f ( x) = x 2 − 3 x − 1 and g ( x) = 1 − x , 1 − 5x
If f ( x) = and g ( x) = 2 − x , what is the
what is the value of f g (−2) ? 2
value of f ( g (3)) ?
A) −3
B) −1 A) −7
C) 1 B) −2
D) 3 C) 2
D) 3

2 Questions 5 and 6 refer to the following

3 information.
If f = {(−4,12), ( − 2, 4), (2, 0), (3, )} and
2
g = {(−2,5), (0,1), (4, −7), (5, −9)} , what is x f ( x) g ( x)
the value of g f (2) ?
−2 −5 0
A) −9 0 6 4
B) −7 3 0 −5
C) 1
D) 5 The table above gives values of f and g at
selected values of x .

5
What is the value of f ( g (−2)) ?

3
A function f satisfies f (−1) = 8 and f (1) = −2 .
A function g satisfies g (2) = 5 and g (−1) = 1 .
What is the value of f ( g (−1)) ?

6
A) −2
What is the value of g ( f (3)) ?
B) 1
C) 5
D) 8
Composition, Recursion, and Exponential Functions 199

12-2 Recursive Formula

A recursive formula for a sequence describes how to find the n th term from the term(s) before it.
A recursive formula consists of two parts:
1. An initial condition that shows where the sequence starts.
2. A recursion equation that shows how to find each term from the term(s) before it.

The process of composing a function from itself repeatedly is a special type of recursion.
For example, the composition of function f f ( x) is a recursion.
The compound interest formula also involves recursion.

2
Example 1 □ A sequence is recursively defined by an = an −1 + . If a0 = 3 , what is the
n
value of a3 ?

2
Solution □ a1 = a0 + = 3+ 2 = 5 Substitute 1 for n and 3 for a0 .
1
2
a2 = a1 + = 5 + 1 = 6 Substitute 2 for n and 5 for a1 .
2
2 2 20
a3 = a2 + = 6 + = Substitute 3 for n and 6 for a2 .
3 3 3

Example 2 □ Let f ( x) = x 2 + 5 , find f f f (1) .

Solution □ f (1) = (1) 2 + 5 = 6

f f (1) = f ( 6) = ( 6) 2 + 5 = 11
f f f (1) = f ( 11) = ( 11) 2 + 5 = 16 = 4

Example 3 □ For next year’s vacation, Cabrera deposited $2,000 into a savings account
that pays 0.5% compounded monthly. In addition to this initial deposit,
on the first day of each month, he deposits $200 into the account. The amount
of money n months after he opened the account can be calculated by the
equation, An = (1 + 0.005) ⋅ An −1 + 200 .
According to the formula, what will be the amount in Cabrera’s savings
account three months after he started it?

Solution □ One month after, the amount will be:

A1 = (1 + 0.005) ⋅ A0 + 200 = (1.005) ⋅ 2000 + 200 = 2210
Two months after, the amount will be:
A2 = (1 + 0.005) ⋅ A1 + 200 = (1.005) ⋅ 2210 + 200 = 2421.05
Three months after, the amount will be:
A3 = (1 + 0.005) ⋅ A2 + 200 = (1.005) ⋅ 2421.05 + 200 = 2633.16
200 Chapter 12

Exercises - Recursive Formula

1 4
A sequence is recursively defined by If A0 is the initial amount deposited into a savings
2 account that earns at a fixed rate of r percent per
an = (an −1 ) + 2 . If a0 = 2 , what
year, and a constant amount of 12b is added to
is the value of a2 ?
the account each year, then amount An of the
savings n years after the initial deposit is made
A) 5 r
is given by the equation An = (1 + ) ⋅ An −1 + 12b .
B) 6 100
What is A3 , the amount you have in the savings
C) 8 three years after you made the initial deposit, if
D) 3 r = 5 , A0 = 12, 000 , and b = 400 ?

A) $23, 070.00
B) $26, 048.00
2 C) $29, 023.50
A sequence is recursively defined by D) $35, 274.68
f (an )
an +1 = an − . If a0 = 1 , f ( x) = x 2 − 3 x ,
g (an )
and g ( x) = 2 x − 3 , what is the value of a2 ?

A) −3 5

1 The number of gallons, Pn , of a pollutant in

B) − a lake at the end of each month is given by the
5
recursively defined formula Pn = 0.85 Pn −1 + 20 .
C) 2
If the initial amount P0 of a pollutant in the lake
3 is 400 gallons, what is P3 , the amount of pollutant
D)
2 in the lake at the end of the third month, to the
nearest gallon?

A) 297

3 B) 285
C) 273
If f ( x) = 2 x 2 − 1 , what is the value
D) 262
of f f f (2) ?

A) 10

B) 15

C) 21
D) 5
Composition, Recursion, and Exponential Functions 201

12-3. Exponential Functions and Graphs

An exponential function is a function of the form f ( x) = ab x , in which a 0, b 0 , and b 1 .

y y

Any function of the form f ( x) = ab x ,

(0,3) y = 2x in which a 0, b 0, and b 1, the
(0,3)
1 domain is the set of all real numbers
y = 3 ⋅ 2x y = ( )x 1
2 y = 3 ⋅ ( )x and the range is the set of positive real
(0,1) (0,1) 2 numbers.
x x
O O

If b 1, the graph rises as x increases. If 0 b 1, the graph falls as x increases.

The graph shows exponential growth. The graph shows exponential decay.

Example 1 □ In the diagram below, each exponential curve represents the population
of bacteria in a petri dish as a function of time, in hours. At time t = 0 ,
the population of Dish 1 is 2,000 and the population of Dish 2 is 3,000.
y
(4, 10,120)
10,000
Dish 1
Population of Bacteria

Dish 2
8,000
(4, 6, 220)
6,000

4,000

2,000

x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (hours)

a. At time t = 0 , the number of bacteria in Dish 2 is what percent more than

the number of bacteria in Dish 1?
b. Find the average growth rate of bacteria in Dish 1 and in Dish 2 from time
t = 0 to time t = 4 .

number of bacteria in Dish 2 − number of bacteria in Dish 1 at time t = 0

Solution □ a.
number of bacteria in Dish 2 at time t = 0
3, 000 − 2, 000 1 1
= = = 33 %
3, 000 3 3
1
At time t = 0 , the number of bacteria in Dish 2 is 33 % more than the
3
number of bacteria in Dish 1.
10,120 − 2, 000
b. Average groth rate of Dish 1 = = 2, 030 bacteria per hour
4−0
6, 220 − 3, 000
Average groth rate of Dish 2 = = 805 bacteria per hour
4−0
202 Chapter 12

Exercises - Exponential Functions and Graphs

1 2
During a decade of continuous drought, the water y
level of a lake has decreased by 10 percent each
30,000
year. Which of the following graphs could model

Value of Cars (in dollars)

the water level of the lake as a function of time? 25,000
Model A
20,000
A) y 15,000 (6, 12,000)
Model B
Water Level

10,000
5,000
x
x 2 4 6 8 10
O 5 10 Time (years)
Time (years)
In the graph above, each exponential curve
B) y represents the values, in dollars, of two different
cars as a function of time in years. At time t = 0 ,
Water Level

the price of model A was $30,000 and the price

of model B was $24,000. At time t = 6 , the price
of both models were $12,000.
x Based on the graphs above, which of the following
O 5 10 must be true?
Time (years)
I. At time t = 0 , the price of model A was
C) y 25% more than the price of model B .
Water Level

II. At time t = 0 , the price of model B was

20% less than the price of model A .
III. From time t = 0 to t = 6 , the average rate
x of decrease in the value of model A was
O 5 10 1.5 times the average rate of decrease in the
Time (years) value of model B .

D) y
A) I and II only
Water Level

B) I and III only

C) II and III only
x D) I, II, and III
O 5 10
Time (years)
3

If f ( x) = 12, 000(0.9) x and g ( x) = 14, 000(0.85) x ,

what is the value of g (2) − f (2) ?
Composition, Recursion, and Exponential Functions 203

12-4. Exponential Growth and Decay

Compound Interest Formulas
If initial amount P is invested at annual interest rate r , the investment will grow to final amount A
in t years. A = P(1 + r )t
We can use the same formula for the population or value of goods that is increasing or decreasing.
Exponential Growth and Doubling-Time Growth Formula
If a population is increasing at a constant rate r each year, the population at the end of t years
would be A = P(1 + r )t .
If an initial population of size P doubles every d years (or any other unit of time), the final
number A in t years is given by A = P(2)t / d .

Exponential Decay and Half-Life Decay Formula

If a population is decreasing at a constant rate r each year, the population at the end of t years
would be A = P(1 − r )t .
The half-life of a substance is the amount of time it takes for half of the substance to decay.
If an initial population of size P has a half-life of d years (or any other unit of time), the final
1
number A in t years is given by A = P( )t / d .
2

Example 1 □ a. Mark invests $1,500 at a rate of 6% interest compounded annually.

How much is the investment worth after 5 years?
b. The price of a new automobile is $28,000. If the value of the automobile
decreases 12% per year, what will be the price of the automobile after 5 years?
c. The population of a western town doubles in size every 12 years. If the
population of town is 8,000, what will the population be 18 years from now?
d. The half-life of carbon-14 is approximately 6000 years. How much of
800 g of this substance will remain after 30,000 years?

Solution □ a. A = P(1 + r )t Compound Interest Formula

5
= 1,500(1 + 0.06) Substitute P = 1500 , r = 0.06 , and t = 5 .
= 2, 007.34 Use a calculator.

b. A = P(1 − r )t Exponential Decay Formula

5
= 28, 000(1 − 0.12) Substitute P = 28,000 , r = 0.12 , and t = 5 .
≈ 14, 776.49 Use a calculator.

c. A = P(2)t / d Doubling-Time Growth Formula

18/12
= 8, 000 ⋅ 2 Substitute P = 8,000 , t = 18 , and d = 12 .
≈ 22, 627 Use a calculator.

1
d. A = P( )t / d Half-Life Decay Formula
2
1
A = 800( )30,000 / 6,000 P = 800 , t = 30,000 , and d = 6,000 .
2
= 25 Use a calculator.
204 Chapter 12

Exercises - Exponential Growth and Decay

1 4
The number of rabbits in a certain population A certain radioactive substance has a half-life
doubles every 40 days. If the population starts of 12 days. This means that every 12 days, half
with 12 rabbits, which of the following gives of the original amount of the substance decays.
the total number of rabbits in the population If there are 128 milligrams of the radioactive
after t days? substance today, how many milligrams will be
left after 48 days?
t
A) 12(2)( )
40 A) 4
40 B) 8
B) 12(2)( )
t C) 16
40
D) 32
C) 12(2) t
t
D) 12(2) 40

Questions 5 and 6 refer to the following

information.
2
Population P of a town is 80,000 this year. Evelyn deposited $3,000 into her bank account, which
If the population of the town decreases at a rate earns 4 percent interest compounded annually. She
of 4 percent each year, which of the following uses the expression $3, 000( x)t to find the value of the
expressions gives population P after t years? account after t years.

A) 80, 000(0.6)t 5

B) 80, 000(0.96)t What is the value of x in the expression?

C) 80, 000(0.96t )

D) 80, 000(1 − 0.04t )

3 6
A house bought ten years ago for $150,000 was Evelyn deposited the same amount into an account
sold for $240,000 this year. Which of the following that earns 5 percent interest rate compounded
equations can be used to solve the annual growth annually. How much more money than her original
rate r of the value of the house? deposit in the account with 4 percent interest rate
compounded annually will she have earned in 10
years?
r (Round your answer to the nearest dollar.)
A) 240, 000 = 150, 000(1 + )
10
B) 240, 000 = 150, 000(1 + 10r )

C) 240, 000 = 150, 000(1 + r )10

D) 240, 000 = 150, 000(r )10

Composition, Recursion, and Exponential Functions 205

Chapter 12 Practice Test

1 4

If f ( x) = 2 x and g ( x) = 2 x 2 , what is the value The half-life of a radioactive substance is the

amount of time it takes for half of the substance
of f ( g (1)) − g ( f (1)) ?
to decay. The table below shows the time (in years)
and the amount of substance left for a certain
A) −4 radioactive substance.

B) −2
Time (years) Amount (grams)
C) 2
D) 4 0 1, 200

14 850

28 600

42 425
2
56 300
If f ( x) = 625 − x 2 and g ( x) = 225 − x 2 ,
what is the value of f ( f (5)) − g (( g 5)) ? How much of the original amount of the substance,
to the nearest whole gram, will remain after 140
years?
A) 0
B) 5 A) 85
C) 10 B) 75
D) 20 C) 53
D) 38

3 5
The population of a certain town doubles every A radioactive substance decays at a rate of 18%
25 years. If the population of the town was 51,200 per year. If the initial amount of the substance is
in 1980, in what year was the population 6,400? 100 grams, which of the following functions
models the remaining amount of the substance, in
A) 1855 grams, after t years?
B) 1880
A) f (t ) = 100(0.18)t
C) 1905
D) 1930 B) f (t ) = 100(0.82)t

C) f (t ) = 100 − 100(0.18)t

D) f (t ) = 100 − 100(0.82)t
206 Chapter 12

6
r t
5, 000(1 + ) Questions 8 and 9 refer to the following
100 information.

The expression above gives the value of an y

investment, in dollars, that pays an annual 500
interest rate of r % compounded yearly.

Population of Insects
5,000 is the initial amount and t is the number 400
of years after the initial amount was deposited.
Which of the following expressions shows the 300
difference between the value of a 15 year
investment at 6% annual compound interest and 200
a 12 year investment at 6% annual compound
100
interest?
x
5 10 15 20 25
15
Time (days)
A) 5, 000 (1.06)12

The graph above shows the size of a certain insect

(1.06)15 population over 25 days. The population at time
B) 5, 000
(1.06)12 t = 0 was 100. A biologist used the equation
t
15
C) 5, 000 (1.06) − (1.06) 12 f (t ) = 100(2) d to model the population.

D) 5, 000 (1.06)15−12
8
What is the value of d in the equation?

7
The price P , in dollars, of a truck t years after
it was purchased is given by the function
t 9
1
P(t ) = 24, 000( ) 6 . To the nearest dollar, what
2 What was the population of the insect after 15
is the price of the truck 9 years after it was days, to the nearest whole number?
purchased?
 CHAPTER 13
Polynomial and Radical Functions

13-1. Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs

A polynomial function is a function of the form f ( x ) = an x n + an −1 x n −1 + + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 ,

in which the coefficients an , an −1 , , a2 , a1 , a0 are real numbers and n is a nonnegative integer.
The degree of a polynomial function is its greatest exponent of x . The graphs of several polynomial
functions are shown below. The maximum number of zeros, which are the x- intercepts, is equal to
the degree of the function.

Constant Function Linear Function Quadratic Function Cubic Function Quartic Function

y y y y y

x x x x x
O O O O O

f ( x) = 2 f ( x) = x + 1 f ( x) = x 2 − x − 2 f ( x) = x3 − 2 x 2 − x + 2 f ( x) = x 4 − x3 − 4 x 2 + 4 x
No real solution One real solution Two real solutions Three real solutions Four real solutions

A function f is increasing on an interval if the value

y
of f increases as x increases in the interval.
A function f is decreasing on an interval if the value (a, f (a ))
of f decreases as x increases in the interval. y = f ( x)
sing

decre
In the graph shown at the right, function f increases
increa

sing
asing

on the intervals (− , a ) and (b, ) , and decreases on the b

increa
x
interval (a, b) . At a point where the graph changes from a
increasing to decreasing, f has a local maximum value,
(b, f (b))
and at a point where the graph changes from decreasing
to increasing, f has a local minimum value.

y
Example 1 □ The complete graph of function f is shown
at the right.
y = f ( x)
a. Find the x- intercepts of f ( x) .
b. For what value of x is the value of f ( x) 1
x
at its maximum? O 1
c. Find the interval where f ( x) is strictly decreasing.

Solution □ a. The x- intercepts are −3 , 2 , and 4 .

b. The value of f ( x) is maximum at x = −1 .

c. f ( x) is strictly decreasing between −1 and 3 .

214 Chapter 13

Exercises - Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs

1 4

The graph of f ( x) = ax3 + x 2 − 18 x − 9 intersects If function f has four distinct zeros, which of
the x- axis at (3, 0) . What is the value of a ? the following could represent the complete graph
of f in the xy - plane?
A) −1 A) B)
y y
B) 0
C) 1
D) 2 x x
O O

2 C) D)
y y
In the xy - plane, the graph of function f has
x- intercepts at −7 , −5 , and 5 . Which of the
following could define f ?
x x
O O

A) f ( x) = ( x − 7)( x 2 − 25)

B) f ( x) = ( x − 7)( x 2 + 25)
5
C) f ( x) = ( x + 7)( x 2 − 25)
y
D) f ( x) = ( x + 7)( x 2 + 25)
y = f ( x)

3 1
x
O 1
y

1
x The complete graph of function f is shown on
O 1
the xy - plane above, for −5 x 5 . Which of
the following is/are true?
I. f is strictly decreasing for −5 x 0.
II. f (−3) = 1
What is the minimum value of the function graphed III. f is minimum at x = 5 .
on the xy - plane above, for −5 x 5 ?

A) I only
A) −4
B) II only
B) −3
C) −2 C) III only

D) − D) I and II only
Polynomial and Radical Functions 215

13-2. Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem

Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial f ( x) is divided by x − c , the remainder is f (c) .
Since Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder ,
f ( x) = ( x − c)q ( x) + f (c) , inwhich q ( x) is the quotient.

Factor Theorem
The polynomial f ( x) has x − c as a factor if and only if f (c) = 0 .

The following statements are equivalent for a polynomial f ( x) and a real number c :
c is a solution to the equation f ( x) = 0 .
c is a zero of f ( x) .
c is a root of f ( x) .
x − c is a factor of f ( x) .
f ( x) is divisible by x − c .
c is an x - intercept of the graph of f ( x) .

Example 1 □ Find the remainder of f ( x) = x3 + x 2 − 6 x − 7 divided by x + 2 .

Solution □ To find the remainder of f ( x) divided by x + 2 = x − (−2) ,

evaluate f (−2) . f (−2) = (−2)3 + (−2) 2 − 6(−2) − 7 = 1
By the remainder theorem the remainder is 1.

Example 2 □ Find the value of a if x − 3 is a factor of f ( x) = x3 − 11x + a .

Solution □ If x − 3 is a factor of f ( x) , then f (3) = 0

f (3) = (3)3 − 11(3) + a = 0 ⇒ −6 + a = 0 ⇒ a = 6

Example 3 □ Find the value of k if f ( x) = 3( x 2 + 3 x − 4) − 8( x − k ) is divisible by x .

Solution □ If f ( x) is divisible by x , since x = x − 0 , f (0) = 0 by the factor theorem.

f (0) = 3(02 + 3(0) − 4) − 8(0 − k ) = −12 + 8k = 0
12 3
8k = 12 ⇒ k = =
8 2

Example 4 □ Find the x- intercepts of f if f ( x) = 2 x 2 + x − 10 .

Solution □ f ( x) = 2 x 2 + x − 10 = (2 x + 5)( x − 2) Factor.

(2 x + 5)( x − 2) = 0 Let f ( x) = 0 .
2 x + 5 = 0 or x − 2 = 0 Zero Product Property
5
x = − or x = 2 Solve.
2
5
The x- intercepts of f are − and 2 .
2
216 Chapter 13

Exercises - Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs

1 4
If −1 and 1 are two real roots of the polynomial
x f ( x)
function f ( x) = ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d and (0,3) is
the y - intercept of graph of f , what is the value −4 −10
of b ?
−3 0

A) −3 −1 −4
B) −1 2 20
C) 2
D) 4 The function f is defined by a polynomial.
Some values of x and f ( x) are shown in the
table above. Which of the following must be
a factor of f ( x) ?

2
A) x + 4
What is the remainder of polynomial
B) x + 3
p ( x) = 81x5 − 121x3 − 36 divided by x + 1 ?
C) x + 1
A) −76 D) x − 2
B) −36
C) 4
D) 6 5

x3 − 8 x 2 + 3 x − 24 = 0

For what real value of x is the equation above

true?
3
If x − 2 is a factor of polynomial
p ( x) = a ( x3 − 2 x) + b( x 2 − 5) , which of the
following must be true?

A) a + b = 0
B) 2a − b = 0 6

C) 2a + b = 0 If x 0 , what is the solution to the equation

x − 8x2 = 9 ?
4
D) 4a − b = 0
Polynomial and Radical Functions 217

13-3. Radical Expressions

n
The symbol a is called a radical. Each part of a radical is given a name as indicated below.
radical sign
index n
a radicand

Definition of nth root

For any real numbers x or a , and any positive integer n , if x n = a , then x is an nth root of a .
n
If n is even, x = a . If n is odd, x = n a .

1 1
Definition of a 2 and a 3
1 1
For any nonnegative number a , a 2 = a . For any real number a , a 3 = 3 a .

Product and Quotient Property of Radicals

a a
For any nonnegative number a or b , ab = a b and = .
b b
3
3 a a
For any real number a or b , ab = 3 a 3 b and 3 = 3
if b 0.
b b

Example 1 □ Solve.

a. ( x − 5) 4 = 16 b. x3 + 1 = −26

Solution □ a. ( x − 5) 4 = 16
4
x−5 = 16 Definition of nth root, for when n is even.
x−5 = 2 4
16 = 4 24 = 2
x=5 2 Add 5 to each side.
x = 7 or x = 3 Answer

b. x3 + 1 = −26

x3 = −27 Subtract 1 from each side.

1 1
x = 3 −27 = (−27) 3 = ((−3)3 ) 3 Definition of nth root, for when n is odd.
= −3 Answer

Example 2 □ Simplify.

a. 50 6 b. 18a 2 b3

Solution □ a. 50 6 = 25 2 2 3 50 = 25 2 , 6= 2 3
= 5 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 = 10 3

b. 18a 2 b3 = 32 ⋅ 2 ⋅ a 2 ⋅ b 2 ⋅ b
= 32 ⋅ 2 ⋅ a 2 ⋅ b 2 ⋅ b ab = a b
= 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ a ⋅ b ⋅ b = 3ab 2b 32 = 3 , a2 = a , b2 = b
218 Chapter 13

A method used to eliminate radicals from a denominator is called rationalizing the denominator.
Binomials of the form a + b and a − b are called conjugates. The product of conjugates is always
an integer if a and b are integers. You can use conjugates to rationalize denominators.
Adding and Subtracting Radical Expressions
Radical expressions in which the radicands are alike can be added or subtracted in the same way that like
monomials are added or subtracted.
Multiplying Radical Expressions
Multiplying two radical expressions with different radicands is similar to multiplying binomials.

Example 3 □ Simplify.
1
a. b. ( 6 − 2)( 3 + 1)
2− 3

2 3
c. 50 − 18 + 8 d. 6− +
3 2

1 1 2+ 3
Solution □ a. = ⋅ The conjugate of 2 − 3 is 2 + 3 .
2− 3 2− 3 2+ 3
2+ 3
= 2 2
(a − b)(a + b) = a 2 − b 2
2 − ( 3)
2+ 3
= = 2+ 3
4−3

b. ( 6 − 2)( 3 + 1)
= 6 ⋅ 3 + 6 ⋅1 − 2 ⋅ 3 − 2 ⋅1 FOIL
= 2⋅ 3⋅ 3+ 6 − 6 − 2 6 = 2⋅ 3
=3 2− 2 =2 2

c. 50 − 18 + 8
= 25 ⋅ 2 − 9 ⋅ 2 + 4 ⋅ 2
= 25 2 − 9 2 + 4 2 ab = a b
= 5 2 −3 2 + 2 2
=4 2 Combine like radicals.

2 3
d. 6− +
3 2
2 3 3 2
= 6− ⋅ + ⋅ Rationalize the denominator.
3 3 2 2
6 6
= 6− + Simplify.
3 2
1 1
= 6(1 − + ) Factor.
3 2
7 6
=
6
Polynomial and Radical Functions 219

Exercises - Radical Expressions

1 4

−
1 Which of the following is equal to
Which of the following is equal to a 2 ?
8 + 18 − 32 ?

A) − a A) 2
1 B) 2 2
B)
a
C) 3 2
1
C) −
a D) 3

1
D)
a2

2 5

1 Which of the following is equal to

Which of the following is equal to ?
3− 2 2 (1 + 3)(2 − 3) ?

A) 3 − 2 A) 1 − 3
B) 3 + 2 B) 1 + 3
C) 3 + 2 2 C) −1 − 3
D) 3 + 4 2 D) −1 + 3

3 6

If ( x + 1)3 = −64 , what is the value of x ? 5

Which of the following is equal to b 3 ?

A) −6
B) −5 A) b ⋅ b

C) −4 1
B) b ⋅ b 3
D) −3
C) b ⋅ 3 b

D) b ⋅ 3 b 2
220 Chapter 13

13-4. Solving Radical Equations

An equation which contains a radical with a variable in the radicand is called a radical equation.
To solve such an equation, first isolate the radical on one side of the equation. Then square each side of the
equation to eliminate the radical.

Example 1 □ Solve each equation.

1
a. 5 − 2x = 3 b. 4 + x =7
2

Solution □ a. ( 5 − 2 x ) 2 = (3) 2 Square each side.

5 − 2x = 9
−2 x = 4 Subtract 5 from each side.
x = −2 Divide each side by −2 .

1
b. 4 + x =7 Original Equation
2
1
x =3 Subtract 3 from each side.
2
1 2
( x ) = (3) 2 Square each side.
2
1
x=9 Simplify.
2
x = 18 Multiply each side by 2.

When you square both sides of a radical equation, the resulting equation may have a solution that is not
a solution of the original equation. Such a solution is called an extraneous solution. Therefore, you must
check all the possible solutions in the original equation and disregard the extraneous solutions.

Example 2 □ Solve x+2 = x.

Solution □ a. x+2 = x Original equation

( x + 2) 2 = ( x) 2 Square each side.

2
x+2= x Simplify.
0 = x2 − x − 2 Subtract x and 2 from each side.
0 = ( x − 2)( x + 1) Factor.
x − 2 = 0 or x + 1 = 0 Zero Product Property
x = 2 or x = −1 Solve.

Check the results by substituting 2 and −1 for x in the original equation.

Check: x+2 = x x+2 = x
2+2 = 2 −1 + 2 = −1
4=2 1 = −1
2 = 2 √ True 1 −1 × False
Since −1 does not satisfy the original equation, 2 is the only solution.
Polynomial and Radical Functions 221

Exercises - Solving Radical Equations

1 4

11 − 2 x + 3 = 8 5 x − 12 = 3 2

What is the solution set of the equation above? What is the solution set of the equation above?

A) 0 A) 2
B) 3 B) 4
C) 6 C) 6
D) 9 D) 8

2 5
1
−3 x + 4 = 7 If a = 3 and 2 − 3 x = a , what is the value
3
of x ?
What is the solution set of the equation above?

A) −15
B) −12
C) −8
D) −6

3 6

x + 18 = x − 2 If k = 8 − 2 and 3
x − k = −2 , what is the value
2
What is the solution set of the equation above? of x ?

A) −2

B) 7

C) −2, 7

D) 2, −7
222 Chapter 13

13-5. Complex Numbers

Definition of i
i = −1 and i 2 = −1

For real numbers a and b , the expression a + bi is called a complex number.

Number a is called the real part and number b is called the imaginary part of the complex number a + bi .

To add or subtract complex numbers, combine the real parts and combine the imaginary parts.
(a + bi ) + (c + di ) = (a + c) + (b + d )i
(a + bi ) − (c + di ) = (a − c) + (b − d )i

Example 1 □ Simplify.

a. i 35 b. −5 ⋅ −10
c. (4 − 3i ) + (5 + 4i ) d. 2(−3 + i ) − 5(1 − i )

Solution □ a. i 35 = i ⋅ i 34 am ⋅ an = am+n
= i ⋅ (i 2 )17 (a m ) n = a mn
= i ⋅ (−1)17 i 2 = −1
= −i (−1)17 = −1

b. −5 ⋅ −10
= (i ⋅ 5)(i 10) −5 = 5 ⋅ −1 = i 5 , −10 = i 10
2
= i 50 Multiply.
= (−1)( 25 ⋅ 2) i 2 = −1 , 50 = 25 ⋅ 2
= −5 2 Simplify.

c. (4 − 3i ) + (5 + 4i )
= (4 + 5) + (−3i + 4i ) Combine the real parts and the imaginary parts.
= 9+i Simplify.

d. 2(−3 + i ) − 5(1 − i )
= −6 + 2i − 5 + 5i Multiply.
= −11 + 7i Simplify.

Example 2 □ Solve 3 x 2 + 75 = 0 .

Solution □ 3 x 2 + 75 = 0

3 x 2 = −75 Subtract 75 from each side.

2
x = −25 Divide each side by 3.
x= −25 Take the square root of each side.
x= 25 −1 Product Property of Radicals
x = 5i −1 = i
Polynomial and Radical Functions 223

To multiply two complex numbers, use the FOIL method and use the fact that i 2 = −1 .
(a + bi )(c + di ) = ac + adi + bci + bdi 2 = (ac − bd ) + (ad + bc)i
Imaginary numbers of the form a + bi and a − bi are called complex conjugates, and their product is
the real number a 2 + b 2 . This fact can be used to simplify the quotient of two imaginary numbers.
Definition of Equal Complex Numbers
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal.
a + bi = c + di if and only if a = c and b = d .

Example 3 □ Simplify.

a. (6 − i )(2 + 3i ) b. ( 3 + −2)( 3 − −2)

10 2 + 3i
c. d.
(1 + 3i ) 4 − 3i

Solution □ a. (6 − i )(2 + 3i )
= 12 + 18i − 2i − 3i 2 FOIL
= 12 + 16i − 3(−1) i 2 = −1
= 15 + 16i Simplify.

b. ( 3 − −2)( 3 + −2)
= ( 3 + i 2)( 3 − i 2) −2 = i 2
2 2
= ( 3) − (i 2) (a + b)(a − b) = a 2 − b 2
= 3 − 2i 2
=5 i 2 = −1

10
c.
(1 + 3i )
10 (1 − 3i )
= ⋅ Rationalize the denominator.
(1 + 3i ) (1 − 3i )
10(1 − 3i )
= (a + b)(a − b) = a 2 − b 2
1 − 9i 2
10 (1 − 3i )
= i 2 = −1
10
= 1 − 3i Simplify.

2 + 3i
d.
4 − 3i
2 + 3i 4 + 3i
= ⋅ Rationalize the denominator.
4 − 3i 4 + 3i
8 + 6i + 12i + 9i 2
= FOIL
16 − 9i 2
−1 + 18i
= i 2 = −1
25
224 Chapter 13

Exercises - Complex Numbers

1 4
Which of the following is equal Which of the following is equal
to −1 − −4 + −9 ? 1 1
to (5i − 3) − (4i + 5) ?
2 3
A) i
B) 2i 3 5
A) i−
2 2
C) 3i
7 7
D) 4i B) i−
6 3
7 19
C) i−
6 6
5 17
D) i−
2 6 6
Which of the following is equal
to −2 ⋅ −8 ?
5
A) −4i
If (4 + i ) 2 = a + bi , what is the value of a + b ?
B) 4i
C) −4
D) 4

3
Which of the following complex numbers is equal
3−i 6
to ?
3+i
3−i
If the expression is rewritten in the form
1 − 2i
9 3i
A) − a + bi , in which a and b are real numbers, what
10 5 is the value of a + b ?
9 3i
B) +
10 5
3 3i
C) −
5 5
4 3i
D) −
5 5
Polynomial and Radical Functions 225

Chapter 13 Practice Test

1 3

If the graph of f ( x) = 2 x3 + bx 2 + 4 x − 4 intersects What is the value of a if x + 2 is a factor

1 of f ( x) = −( x3 + 3 x 2 ) − 4( x − a ) ?
the x- axis at ( , 0), and (−2, k ) lies on the graph
2
of f , what is the value of k ? A) −2
B) −1
A) −4
C) 0
B) −2
D) 1
C) 0
D) 2

2 y

(0,3)
y

(3,0)
y = f ( x) x
O

1
x
O 1

x2 + y 2 = 9
y = −( x − 3) 2
x+ y =3
The function y = f ( x) is graphed on the xy - plane
above. If k is a constant such that the equation A system of three equations and their graphs on
f ( x) = k has one real solution, which of the the xy - plane are shown above. How many
solutions does the system have?
following could be the value of k ?

A) 1
A) −3
B) 2
B) −1
C) 3
C) 1
D) 4
D) 3
226 Chapter 13

5 8
Which of the following complex numbers is 2x + 6 = x + 3
(1 − i ) 2
equivalent to ?
1+ i What is the solution set of the equation above?

i 1 A) −3
A) − −
2 2
B) −1
i 1
B) − + C) −3, 2
2 2
C) −i − 1 D) −3, −1
D) −i + 1

9
What is the remainder when polynomial
6
1
3
p ( x) = 24 x3 − 36 x 2 + 14 is divided by x − ?
Which of the following is equal to a a? 2

2 A) 4
A) a 3 B) 6
4
C) 8
B) a3
5
D) 10
C) a3
7
D) a 3
10
The function f is defined by a polynomial. If
x + 2 , x + 1 , and x − 1 are factors of f , which
of the following table could define f ?
7

p ( x) = −2 x3 + 4 x 2 − 10 x A) B)
q( x) = x 2 − 2 x + 5 x f ( x) x f ( x)
−2 4 −2 0
The polynomials p ( x) and q ( x) are defined above. −1 0 −1 4
Which of the following polynomials is divisible by 1 0 1 0
x −1 ? 0 0
2 2

1
A) f ( x) = p ( x) − q ( x) C) D)
2
x f ( x) x f ( x)
1
B) g ( x) = − p ( x) − q ( x) −2 0 −2 0
2
1 −1 0 −1 0
C) h( x) = − p ( x) + q ( x) 1 4 1 0
2
1 2 0 2 4
D) k ( x) = p ( x) + q ( x)
2
 CHAPTER 14
Rational Expressions

14-1. Rational Expressions

A rational expression is an algebraic fraction whose numerator and denominator are polynomials.
Any value of a variable that makes the denominator of a rational expression zero must be excluded
from the domain of that variable.
Rule for Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions
a c ac a c ad
⋅ = and ÷ = , if the denominators are not zero.
b d bd b d bc
Rule for Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions
a b a+b a b a −b
+ = and − =
c c c c c c
The least common denominator (LCD) is the LCM of the denominators.
Use the following steps to add or subtract fractions with unlike denominators.
1. Find the LCD of the fractions.
2. Express each fraction as an equivalent fraction with the LCD as denominator.
3. Add or subtract the numerator, then simplify if necessary.

Example 1 □ Simplify.

x2 − 2 x − 8 4 x − 8 2 x2 − 8 x + 2 2 3
a. ⋅ b. ÷ c. +
3x − 6 x−4 4 x + 12 x + 3 x 2
2x

x2 − 2 x − 8 4 x − 8
Solution □ a. ⋅
3x − 6 x−4
( x − 4) ( x + 2) 4 ( x − 2)
= ⋅ Factor and cancel.
3 ( x − 2) ( x − 4)
4( x + 2)
= Simplify.
3

2 x2 − 8 x + 2 2 x2 − 8 x + 3 x+3 x+2
b. ÷ = ⋅ Multiply by , the reciprocal of .
4 x + 12 x + 3 4 x + 12 x + 2 x+2 x+3
2( x 2 − 4) x + 3
= ⋅ Factor 2 x 2 − 8 and 4 x + 12 .
4( x + 3) x + 2
1
2 ( x + 2) ( x − 2) x + 3
= ⋅ Factor x 2 − 4 and cancel.
2 x+2
4 ( x + 3)
x−2
= Simplify.
2
2 3 2 2 3 x
c. 2
+= 2⋅ + ⋅ The LCD is 2x 2 .
x 2x x 2 2 x x
4 3x
= 2+ 2 Simplify.
2x 2x
3x + 4
= Add the numerators.
2 x2
234 Chapter 14

1
The sum or difference of a polynomial and a fraction is called a mixed expression. An expression like 2 −
x+9
1
is called a mixed expression because it contains the sum of monomial 2 and the rational expression .
x+9
If a fraction has one or more fractions in the numerator or denominator, it is called a complex fraction.
To simplify a complex fraction, express the fraction as a quotient using the ÷ sign.
a
b = a ÷ c = a × d = ad , in which bcd 0 .
c b d b c bc
d

Example 2 □ Simplify.
3 5x
3 ft
x +1
a. 4 b. x − c. x − 3
2 x−3 15
6 in 2
3 x −9

3 3
3
ft 3 ft
12 in Convert feet to inches.
Solution □ a. 4 = 4 ⋅ Divide by common units.
2 2
6 in 6 in 1ft
3 3
3
15 12
⋅ 45
1
4 1
= = 1 Express each term as an improper fraction.
20 20
3 3
9 a
45 3 b = ad
= ⋅
1 20 4 c bc
d
27 3
= or 6 Simplify.
4 4

x + 1 x( x − 3) x + 1 x−3
b. x − = − The LCD is x − 3 . Multiply x by .
x−3 x−3 x−3 x−3
x( x − 3) − ( x + 1)
= Add the numerators.
x−3
x2 − 4 x − 1
= Simplify the numerator.
x−3

5x
c. x − 3 = 5 x ÷ 15 Rewrite as a division sentence.
15 x − 3 x2 − 9
2
x −9
5x x2 − 9 x2 − 9
= × Multiply by the reciprocal, .
x−3 15 15
1
5 x ( x + 3) ( x − 3) x( x + 3)
= × = Factor and simplify.
x−3 3 3
15
Rational Expressions 235

Exercises - Rational Expressions

1 4
If n 4 , which of the following is equivalent If x 1 , which of the following is equivalent
n 2
4n 1
to + ? 1−
n−4 4−n to x +1 ?
1
1+ 2
A) n x −1

n(n + 4) x −1
B) A)
n−4 x
n x +1
C) B)
n−4 x
n+4 x −1
D) C)
n−4 x2
x +1
D)
2 x2
If a 1 , which of the following is equivalent
a 1
to 2 − ? 5
a −1 a +1
If x 3 , which of the following is equivalent
1 x−3
A) to ?
a −1 1 1
−
1 x + 2 2x −1
B)
a +1
x−3
A)
2a − 1 ( x + 2)(2 x − 1)
C)
a2 −1
( x + 2)(2 x − 1)
1 B)
D) x−3
a2 −1
C) ( x + 2)(2 x − 1)

D) 2 x − 1
3
If y −1 and y 0 , which of the following is
2 6
y −1
equivalent to ?
1
1+ x 2 − xy x − y
y If ÷ 2 = ax 2 , what is the value of a ?
2x 3x
y −1
A)
y

B) y ( y − 1)

y
C)
y +1

D) y − 1
236 Chapter 14

14-2. Solving Rational Equations

Rational equations are equations that contain rational expressions.
To solve rational equations, multiply the LCD of all the fractions on both sides of the equation. This will
eliminate all of the fractions. Then solve the resulting equation.
You can also use cross products to solve rational equations, if both sides of the equation are single fractions.

Example 1 □ Solve each equation.

x x +1 1 x −1 x
a. − = . b. =
2 x + 5 4 x + 10 8 2x x+6

x x +1 1
Solution □ a. − = Factor.
2 x + 5 2(2 x + 5) 8
x x +1 The LCD is 8(2 x + 5) . Multiply each side
8(2 x + 5)( − )
2 x + 5 2(2 x + 5) by 8(2 x + 5) .

1
= 8(2 x + 5) ⋅
8
8 x − 4( x + 1) = 2 x + 5 Distributive Property
4x − 4 = 2x + 5 Simplify.
2x = 9 Simplify.
9
x= Solve for x .
2

x −1 x
b. = Both sides of the equation are single fractions.
2x x+6
( x − 1)( x + 6) = 2 x ⋅ x Cross multiply.
x2 + 5x − 6 = 2 x2 FOIL
x2 − 5x + 6 = 0 Make one side 0.
( x − 2)( x − 3) = 0 Factor.
x − 2 = 0 or x − 3 = 0 Zero Product Property
x = 2 or x = 3 Solve for x .

A rational equation is undefined when the denominator is equal to zero. Multiplying both sides
of a rational equation by the LCD can yield solutions with a denominator of zero. Such solutions
are called extraneous solutions, which must be excluded from solutions to the original equation.

9 x 5x + 8
Example 2 □ Solve − = 6.
x−2 x−2

9 x 5x + 8
Solution □ ( x − 2)( − ) = 6( x − 2) Multiply each side by x − 2 .
x−2 x−2
9 x − (5 x + 8) = 6 x − 12 Distributive Property
4 x − 8 = 6 x − 12 Simplify.
4 = 2x Simplify.
2=x Solve for x .
If we substitute 2 for x in the original equation, we get undefined expressions.
So, this equation has no solution.
Rational Expressions 237

Exercises - Solving Rational Equations

1 4
x x−2 3 1
= + =2
x −1 x +1 2
x − 3x 3− x

What is the solution set of the equation above? What is the solution set of the equation above?

A) −2 1
A) {− }
2
1
B) − B) {3}
2
1 1
C) C) {− , 3}
2 2
D) 2 1
D) {− , − 3}
2

2 5
x 4 1
−2 = If f ( x) = is undefined
x−3 x−2 2
( x − a ) − 4( x − a ) + 4
when x = 6 , what is the value of a ?
What is the solution set of the equation above?

A) {0}

B) {2}

C) {0, 2}

D) {0, 4}

6
3 1
g ( x) =
1 2 −4 ( x + 3) 2 − 24( x + 3) + 144
− = 2
x x − 2 x − 2x
For what value of x is function g above
What is the solution set of the equation above? undefined?

A) −2
B) 0
C) 2
D) There is no solution to the equation.
238 Chapter 14

14-3. Direct, Inverse, and Joint Variations

A direct variation is an equation of the form y = kx , in which k 0.
It is expressed as, y varies directly as x .
The graph of a direct variation is a straight line with slope k , and passes through the origin.
k
An inverse variation is an equation of the form xy = k or y = , in which x 0 .
x
It is expressed as, y varies inversely as x .

A joint variation is an equation of the form z = kxy , in which k 0.

It is expressed as, z varies jointly as x and y .

Example 1 □ a. If y varies directly as x , and y = 4 when x = 6 , find y when x = 18 .

1
b. If w varies inversely as x , and w = when x = 15 , find w when x = 25 .
3
c. If z varies jointly as x and y , and z = 18 when x = 2 and y = 3 , find z
2 5
when x = and y = .
3 8

Solution □ a. y = kx Direct variation formula

4 = k (6) Replace y with 4 and x with 2.
2
k= Solve for k .
3
2 2
y= x Direct variation formula with k =
3 3
2
y = (18) = 12 Replace x with 18 and solve for y .
3

k
b. w = Inverse variation formula
x
1 k 1
= Replace w with and x with 15.
3 15 3
k =5 Solve for k .
5
w= Inverse variation formula with k = 5
x
5 1
w= = Replace x with 25 and solve for w .
25 5

c. z = kxy Joint variation formula

18 = k (2)(3) Replace z with 18, x with 2, and y with 3.
k =3 Solve for k .
z = 3 xy Joint variation formula with k = 3
2 5 5 2 5
z = 3( )( ) = Replace x with , y with and solve for z .
3 8 4 3 8
Rational Expressions 239

Exercises - Direct, Inverse, and Joint Variations

1
Which of the following tables shows Questions 4 and 5 refer to the following
a relationship in which y is directly information.
proportional to x ? k
L= 2
d
A) x −2 0 2 B) x −2 0 2
The formula above shows the brightness of the light
y −1 1 3 y 5 0 −5 of an object, which varies inversely as the square of
the distance. L , measured in lumens, is the brightness
of the light and d , measured in meters, is the distance
C) D) from the object to the light source.
x −2 0 2 x −2 0 2
y −3 1 5 y 3 1 −1
4
At distance 2 meters from a light source, the
brightness of an object was measured at 9 lumens.
What is the value of k ?
2
A) 18
The distance it takes an automobile to stop varies
directly as the square of its speed. If the stopping B) 24
distance of a car traveling at 40 mph is 320 feet,
what is the stopping distance of a car traveling C) 32
at 50mph? D) 36

A) 360 ft
B) 420 ft
C) 500 ft 5
D) 580 ft The brightness of an object was measured d
meters away from a light source. The brightness
of the same object was measured 1.5d meters
from the light source. What is the ratio of
brightness of the object when it is close to the
3 light source to when it is farther away from the
light source?
If y varies inversely as x , and y = 12 when 9
x = 16 , what is the value of y when x = 100 ? A)
4
5
A) 1.2 B)
2
B) 3
7
C)
C) 4.8 4
D) 6.4 3
D)
2
240 Chapter 14

14-4. Solving Word Problems Using Rational Equations

Work Problems
You can use the following formula to solve work problems.
Work rate × Time = Work done
Work rate means the amount of job done over time.

Example 1 □ Roy can finish a certain job in 12 hours and Chuck can finish the same job
in 8 hours. How long will they take to finish the job together?

Solution □ Let x = the number of hours needed to do the job together.

1 1
Roy’s work rate is job per hour and Chuck’s work rate is job per hour.
12 8

Work rate × Time = Work done

1 1
Roy x x
12 12
1 1
Chuck x x
8 8

Roy’s part of the job + Chuck’s part of the job = Whole job
1 1
x + x =1 Translate wording into equation.
12 8
24 4
Solving the above equation, we get x = or 4 .
5 5
4
It will take them 4 hours to finish the job together.
5

Example 2 □ Pump A can fill a water tank in 6 hours and pump B can fill the same water tank in
10 hours. When the water tank was empty, both pumps were turned on for 2 hours
and then pump A was turned off. How much longer did pump B have to run before
the tank was filled?

Solution □ Let x = the number of hours needed for pump B to fill the tank after pump A was
turned off. Let x + 2 = total number of hours for pump B to finish the job.
1 1
Pump A’s work rate is job per hour and pump B’s work rate is job per hour.
6 10

Work rate × Time = Work done

1 1 1
Pump A 2 × 2 or
6 6 3
1 1
Pump B 2+ x (2 + x)
10 10

Pump A’s part of the job + Pump B’s part of the job = Whole job
1 1
+ (2 + x) = 1 Translate wording into equation.
3 10
14 2
Solving the above equation, we get x = or 4 .
3 3
2
It will take 4 hours for pump B to finish the job.
3
Rational Expressions 241

Exercises - Solving Word Problems Using Rational Equations

3
Three printers A, B, and C , working together
Questions 1 and 2 refer to the following
information. at their respective constant rates, can finish a job
in 4.5 hours. Printers A and B, working together,
1 1 1 can finish the same job in 6 hours. How many
+ = hours will it take printer C , working alone, to
4 6 x
finish the job?
Working alone, a painter can paint a house in four
days. Working alone, his assistant can paint the A) 12.5
same house in six days. Working together, they can
B) 14
finish painting the house in x days. The equation
above represents the situation described. C) 16.5
D) 18
1

1
Which of the following describes what
x
represents in the above equation? 4
Mike can do a job in 48 minutes. If his brother
A) The portion of the job that the painter can helps him, it takes them 32 minutes. How many
finish in one day. minutes does it take Mike’s brother to do the job
alone?
B) The portion of the job that the assistant can
finish in one day.
A) 72
C) The portion of the job that the painter and
assistant together can finish in one day. B) 80
D) The portion of the job that the painter and C) 96
assistant together can finish in four days. D) 102

2
5
How many days will it take them to finish painting
the house working together? James can do a job in 8 hours and Peter can do the
13
same job in 5 hours. If they finished of the job
4 25
A) 1 by working together, how long did they work
5
together?
2
B) 2
5 A) 1 hour 24 minutes
4 B) 1 hour 36 minutes
C) 2
5 C) 1 hour 48 minutes
1 D) 2 hours 8 minutes
D) 3
5
242 Chapter 14

Chapter 14 Practice Test

1 3
If a b , which of the following is equivalent (k + 1) 2
a b = 4k
to + ? k
a −b b−a
What is the solution set of the equation above?
A) 1 1
A) {− }
3
a+b
B) B) {−1}
a −b
a+b 1
C) C) {− ,1}
( a − b) 2 3
1
a 2 + b2 D) { , −1}
D) 3
( a − b) 2

4
3 x 2
− =
x x+2 x+2
2
What is the solution set of the equation above?
If x 0 and y0 , which of the following is
1 1
− A) {2, − 3}
x y
equivalent to ?
1 1 B) {−2, 3}
−
x2 y 2
C) {−2}
xy D) {3}
A)
x − y2
2

2 xy
B)
x − y2
2
5
xy x 4 20
C) + = 2
x+ y x + 1 x − 4 x − 3x − 4

What is the solution set of the equation above?

xy
D)
x− y
A) {−4}

B) {4}

C) {−4, 4}

D) There are no solutions to the equation.

Rational Expressions 243

6 9
If x 1 , which of the following is equivalent If x 0 , what is the solution to the equation
1 1 3 1
1+ + = ?
to x −1 ? 2 x 10 x 2
5
1
1−
x +1

x −1
A)
x +1
x +1
B)
x −1

x2 − 1
C)
x2 + 1
10
x2 + 1
D)
x2 − 1 ab ab 2 1
If a b and ÷ = − , what is the
a −b b−a 6
value of b ?
7
Working alone, Gary can load an empty truck in
3 hours. Working alone, his brother can load the
same truck in x hours. If Gary and his brother
worked together for t hours to load the empty
truck, which of the following equations can be
used to find out how much work was done during
t hours?
3
A) + xt
t
3 x
B) + 11
t t
1
C) 3t + xt a+
If 2 = 2 , what is the value of a ?
1 1 1
D) t+ t a−
3 x 2

8
5
f ( x) = 2
2( x − 2) − 3( x − 2) − 2

What is one possible value of x , if function f

is undefined?
 CHAPTER 15
Trigonometric Functions

15-1. Trigonometric Ratios of Acute Angles

A ratio of the lengths of sides of a right triangle is called a trigonometric ratio. The six trigonometric
ratios are sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent.
Their abbreviations are sin, cos, tan, csc, sec, and cot, respectively. The six trigonometric ratios of any
angle 0 90 , sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent, are defined as follows.
length of side opposite to a 1 c
sin = = csc = = B
length of hypotenuse c sin a
c
length of side adjacent to b 1 c a
cos = = sec = =
length of hypotenuse c cos b
A C
length of side opposite to a 1 b b
tan = = cot = =
length of side adjacent to b tan a

The sine and cosine are called cofunctions. In a right triangle ABC , A and B are complementary,
that is, m A + m B = 90 . Thus any trigonometric function of an acute angle is equal to the cofunction
of the complement of the angle.

Complementary Angle Theorem

sin = cos(90 − ) cos = sin(90 − )

If sin A = cos B , then m A + m B = 90 .

Trigonometric Identities
sin
tan = sin 2 + cos 2 =1
cos
B

Example 1 □ In the right triangle shown at the right,

2
find cos and tan if sin = .
3 A C

Solution □ sin 2 + cos 2 = 1 Trigonometric identity

2 2
( ) 2 + cos 2 = 1 Substitute for sin .
3 3
2 4 5
cos 2 = 1 − ( ) 2 = 1 − =
3 9 9
5 5 5
cos = = =
9 9 3
sin 2/3 2 2 5 2 5
tan = = = = =
cos 5 /3 5 5 5 5

4
Example 2 □ In a right triangle, is an acute angle. If sin = , what is cos(90 − ) ?
9

Solution □ By the complementary angle property of sine and cosine,

4
cos(90 − ) = sin = .
9
252 Chapter 15

Exercises - Trigonometric Ratios of Acute Angles

4
Questions 1- 3 refer to the following
information.
In the triangle shown below AB = BC = 10
and AC = 12 .
B x y

10 10 Note: Figures not drawn to scale.

In the figures above y x 90 and

A C cos x = sin y . If x = 3a − 14 and y = 50 − a ,
12
what is the value of a ?
1
What is the value of cos ? A) 16
B) 21
A) 0.4 C) 24
B) 0.6 D) 27
C) 0.8
D) 1.2

5
2
What is the value of sin ? B

c
a
A) 0.4
B) 0.6 C A
b
C) 0.8
D) 1.2 Given the right triangle ABC above, which of the
a
following is equal to ?
c
3
What is the value of tan ? I. sin A
II. cos B
3
A) III. tan A
4
4 A) I only
B)
3 B) II only
5 C) I and II only
C)
4
D) II and III only
5
D)
3
Trigonometric Functions 253

15-2. The Radian Measure of an Angle

B
One radian is the measure of a central angle whose
intercepted arc has a length equal to the circle’s radius. r r
In the figure at the right, if length of the arc AB = OA ,
then m AOB = 1 radian .
Since the circumference of the circle is 2π r and O r A
a complete revolution has degree measure 360 , 1 radian
2π radians = 360 , or π radians = 180 .
The conversion formula π radians = 180 can be used
to convert radians to degrees and vice versa. The measure of a central angle is
1 radian, if the length of the arc AB
180 π is equal to the radius of the circle.
1 radian = ≈ 57.3 and 1 = radians
π 180

On a coordinate plane, an angle may be drawn by two rays that share a fixed endpoint at the origin.
The beginning ray, called the initial side of the angle and the final position, is called the terminal side
of the angle. An angle is in standard position if the vertex is located at the origin and the initial side lies
along the positive x- axis. Counterclockwise rotations produce positive angles and clockwise rotations
produce negative angles. When two angles have the same initial side and the same terminal side, they
are called coterminal angles.

y y y terminal
terminal side
135 initial
side 60
side
x x x
O initial O O initial
side terminal −300
side
side −150

positive angle in negative angle in an angle of 60 is coterminal

standard position standard position with an angle of − 300

You can find an angle that is coterminal to a given angle by adding or subtracting integer multiples of
360 or 2π radians. In fact, the sine and cosine functions repeat their values every 360 or 2π radians,
and tangent functions repeat their values every 180 or π radians.

Periodic Properties of the Trigonometric Functions

sin( 360 ) = sin cos( 360 ) = cos tan( 180 ) = tan

Example 1 □ Change the degree measure to radian measure and change the radian measure
to degree measure.
2π
a. 45 b. radians
3
π π
Solution □ a. 45 = 45 ⋅ radians = radians
180 4
2π 2π 180
b. radians = radians( ) = 120
3 3 π radians
254 Chapter 15

Exercises - The Radian Measure of an Angle

1 3
y
y
A
P (1,1)

x x
O Q O D B

In the xy - plane above, O is the center of the

π
circle and the measure of AOD is . If the
3
In the xy - plane above, O is the center of the radius of circle O is 6 what is the length of AD ?
circle, and the measure of POQ is kπ radians.
What is the value of k ? A) 3

B) 3 2
1
A) C) 4.5
6
D) 3 3
1
B)
4
1
C)
3
4
1
D) y
2
A(3, 4)

x
2 O D B

π
Which of the following is equal to cos( ) ?
8 In the figure above, what is the value of
cos AOD ?
3π
A) cos( )
8
3
A)
7π 5
B) cos( )
8
3
B)
3π 4
C) sin( )
8 4
C)
7π 5
D) sin( )
8 4
D)
3
Trigonometric Functions 255

y
15-3. Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle
P ( x, y )
Suppose P ( x, y ) is a point on the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 and r
y
is an angle in standard position with terminal side OP , as x
shown at the right. We define sine of and cosine of as x O
y x
sin = cos = .
r r

y
The circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 is called the unit circle. This circle is ( x, y ) = (cos ,sin )
the easiest one to work with because sin and cos are 1
y
simply the y - coordinates and the x- coordinates of the
x
points where the terminal side of intersects the circle. x O
y y x x
sin = = = y cos = = = x .
r 1 r 1

π
Angles in standard position whose measures are multiples of 30 ( radians ) or multiples
6
π
of 45 ( radians ) are called familiar angles. To obtain the trigonometric values of sine, cosine,
4
and tangent of the familiar angles, use 30 -60 -90 triangle ratio or the 45 -45 -90 triangle ratio.

y y y

2
2 2
3
1 45 2 60
30
x x x
O 3 O 2 O 1

y 1 y 2 y 3
sin 30 = = sin 45 = = sin 60 = =
r 2 r 2 r 2
x 3 x 2 x 1
cos30 = = cos 45 = = cos30 = =
r 2 r 2 r 2

The reference angle associated with is the acute angle formed by the x- axis and the terminal side of
the angle . A reference angle can be used to evaluate trigonometric functions for angles greater than 90 .

y y y

135 210
45
x x x
O 30 O O
300
60

The reference angle The reference angle The reference angle

for 135 is 45 . for 210 is 30 . for 300 is 60 .
256 Chapter 15

Familiar Angles in a Coordinate Plane

π 5π 7π 11π
Angles with a reference angle of 30 (= ) are 150 (= ) , 210 (= ) , and 330 (= ).
6 6 6 6
Use the 30 -60 -90 triangle ratio to find the trigonometric values of these angles and put the
appropriate signs. On the unit circle, sin = y is positive in quadrant I and II and cos = x is
positive in quadrant I and IV.

1 y 1
sin150 = sin 30 =
2 2
3 3 1 3 1 3
cos150 = − P(− , ) P( , ) cos30 =
2 2 r =1 2 2
2 2
3 30 3
tan150 = − 150 tan 30 =
3 3
x
1 1
sin 210 = − 210 330 sin 330 = −
2 2
3 3 1 3 1 3
cos 210 = − P(− ,− ) P( ,− ) cos330 =
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3
tan 210 = tan 330 = −
3 3

π 2π 4π 5π
Angles with a reference angle of 60 (= ) are 120 (= ) , 240 (= ) , and 300 (= ).
3 3 3 3
Use the 30 -60 -90 triangle ratio to find the trigonometric values of these angles and put the
appropriate signs. On the unit circle, sin = y is positive in quadrant I and II and cos = x is
positive in quadrant I and IV.

y
3 1 3 1 3 3
sin120 = P(− , ) P( , ) sin 60 =
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
cos120 = − cos 60 =
2 2
120 60
tan120 = − 3 tan 60 = 3
r =1
x
3 3
sin 240 = − sin 300 = −
2 2
240 300
1 1
cos 240 = − cos300 =
2 2
1 3 1 3
tan 240 = 3 P(− , − ) P( , − ) tan 300 = − 3
2 2 2 2
Trigonometric Functions 257

π 3π 5π 7π
Angles with a reference angle of 45 (= ) , 225 (=
) are 135 (= ) , and 315 (= )’
4 4 4 4
Use the 45 -45 -90 triangle ratio to find the trigonometric values of these angles and put the
appropriate signs. On the unit circle, sin = y is positive in quadrant I and II and cos = x is
positive in quadrant I and IV.

y
2 2
sin135 = sin 45 =
2 2 2 2 2 2
P(− , ) P( , )
2 2 2 r =1 2 2 2
cos135 = − cos 45 =
2 2
135 45
tan135 = −1 tan 45 = 1
x
2 2
sin 225 = − sin 315 = −
2 225 315 2
2 2
cos 225 = − cos315 =
2 2 2 2 2 2
P(− ,− ) P( ,− )
2 2 2 2
tan 225 = 1 tan 315 = −1

π 3π
For the angles 0 , 90 = , 180 = π , and 270 = , sin is equal to the y value of the
2 2
point P ( x, y ) and cos is equal to the x value of the point P ( x, y ) . The points P(1, 0) , P(0,1) ,
π
P(−1, 0) , and P(0, −1) on the unit circle corresponds to =0 =0, = 90 = , = 180 = π ,
2
3π
and = 270 = respectively.
2

sin 90 = y = 1 cos90 = x = 0
y
tan 90 = = undefined y
x
P (0,1)

90
r =1
sin180 = y = 0 sin 0 = y = 0
P (−1,0)
180 0 x
cos180 = x = −1 cos 0 = x = 1
P (1,0)
y y
tan180 = =0 tan 0 = =0
x 270 x

P (0, −1)
sin 270 = y = −1 cos 270 = x = 0
y
tan 270 = = undefined
x
258 Chapter 15

Exercises - The Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle

Questions 1 and 2 refer to the following Questions 3 and 4 refer to the following
information. information.

y y

P (−1, 3)
kπ
a
x
x O Q
O Q
P (− 3, −1)

In the xy - plane above, O is the center of the

In the xy - plane above, O is the center of the circle, and the measure of the angle shown is kπ
radians.
circle, and the measure of POQ is a .

1 3
What is the cosine of a ? What is the value of k ?

1 5
A) − A)
2 6

B) 3 7
B)
6
1
C) −
3 4
C)
3
3
D) 5
2 D)
3

2 4
What is the cosine of (a + 180) ? What is the value of tan(kπ ) ?

A) − 3 A) − 3

3 B) −1
B) −
2 1
C) −
1 3
C)
2 1
D)
1 3
D)
3
Trigonometric Functions 259

Chapter 15 Practice Test

1
Questions 1 and 2 refer to the following
B information.
y
1 3
P(− , )
2 2

A C kπ

Note: Figure not drawn to scale. x

O Q

3
In the right triangle shown above, if tan = ,
4
what is sin ?
In the xy - plane above, O is the center of the
1 circle, and the measure of POQ is kπ radians.
A)
3
3
1
B)
2 What is the value of k ?
4
C) 1
5 A)
3
3
D) 1
5 B)
2
2
C)
2 3
3
B D)
4

s
4

C A What is cos(k + 1)π ?

s

In the isosceles right triangle shown above, what 1

A)
is tan A ? 3
1
A) s B)
2
1
B) 3
s C)
2
C) 1
D) 3
s
D)
2
260 Chapter 15

5 7
B In triangle ABC , the measure of C is 90 ,
AC = 24 , and BC = 10 . What is the value of
sin A ?

A D C

In triangle ABC above, AC BD . Which

of the following does not represent the area
of triangle ABC ?

1
A) ( AB cos A + BC cos C )( AB cos ABD)
2 8
1 B
B) ( AB cos A + BC cos C )( BC sin C )
2
1
C) ( AB sin ABD + BC sin CBD)( AB sin A)
2 x
C A
1
D) ( AB sin ABD + BC sin CBD)( BC cos C )
2 In the right triangle ABC above, the cosine of x
3
is . If BC = 12 , what is the length of AC ?
5
6

20

x x
A C
24

In the isosceles triangle above, what is the value

9
of sin x ?
If sin(5 x − 10) = cos(3 x + 16) , what is the value
of x ?
1
A)
2
3
B)
5
2
C)
3
4
D)
5