INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Unit 1

Overview of Data Communication & Networking:

The information is shared when we communicate. This sharing can be local or over long distances. Data refers to
information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using it. Data
Communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a
wire cable, also Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information. A communication service
enables the exchange of information between users at different locations. The communicating devices must be a
part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software
(programs).

Communication services & applications are everywhere. Some examples are given below:

Figure 1 data communicaton

Introduction to Data Communications:

In Data Communications, data generally are defined as information that is stored in digital form. Data
communication is the process of transferring digital information between two or more points. Information is
defined as knowledge or intelligence.

Data communications can be summarized as the transmission, reception, and processing of digital information.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up
of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data
communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.

2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing any errors. The
data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered data.

3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay; such a data
delivery is called real time transmission of data.

4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of data being
transmitted.

Components of data communication systems:

The essential components of a data communication system are:

Figure 2 Data communication system

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fibre-
optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. A Protocol is a necessity in data
communications without which the communicating entities are like two persons trying to talk to each
other in a different language without know the other language.

Data representation:

Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce information.

There may be different forms in which data may be represented. Some of the forms of data used in
communications are as follows:

1. Text

 Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case.

 It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode

2. Numbers

 Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9.

 It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode

3. Images

 An image is worth a thousand words‖ is a very famous saying. In computers images are digitally stored.
 A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a picture or image is a matrix of
pixel elements.
 The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon the type of image (black n white or color)
each pixel would require different number of bits to represent the value of a pixel.
 The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called resolution) and the bit pattern used
to indicate the value of each pixel.
 Example: if an image is purely black and white (two color) each pixel can be represented by a value either
0 or 1, so an image made up of 10 x 10 pixel elements would require only 100 bits in memory to be
stored.
 On the other hand an image that includes gray may require 2 bits to represent every pixel value (00 -
black, 01 – dark gray, 10 5 – light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10 pixel image would now require
200 bits of memory to be stored.
 Commonly used Image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc

4. Audio

 Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and broadcasted. Example: What we
hear on the radio is a source of data or information.
 Audio data is continuous, not discrete.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

6. Video
 Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie

Standards Organizations for Data Communications

An association of organizations, governments, manufacturers and users form the standards organizations and are
responsible for developing, coordinating and maintaining the standards. The intent is that all data
communications equipment manufacturers and users comply with these standards. The primary standards
organizations for data communication are:

1. International Standard Organization (ISO)

ISO is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of subjects. It is comprised
mainly of members from the standards committee of various governments throughout the world. It is
even responsible for developing models which provide a high level of system compatibility, quality
enhancement, improved productivity and reduced costs. The ISO is also responsible for endorsing and
coordinating the work of the other standards organizations.
2. International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector (ITU-T)
ITU-T is one of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union based in
Geneva, Switzerland. It has developed three sets of specifications: the V series for modem interfacing and
data transmission over telephone lines, the X series for data transmission over public digital networks,
email and directory services; membership consists of government authorities and representatives from
many countries and it is the present standards organization for the United Nations.
3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
IEEE is an international professional organization founded in the United States and is comprised of
electronics, computer and communications engineers. It is currently the world’s largest professional
society with over 200,000 members. It develops communication and information processing standards
with the underlying goal of advancing theory, creativity, and product quality in any field related to
electrical engineering.
4. Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)

TIA is the leading trade association in the communications and information technology industry. It
facilitates business development opportunities through market development, trade promotion, trade
shows, and standards development. It represents manufacturers of communications and information
technology products and also facilitates the convergence of new communications networks.

5. Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

IAB earlier known as Internet Activities Board is a committee created by ARPA (Advanced Research
Projects Agency) to analyse the activities of ARPANET whose purpose is to accelerate the advancement of
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

technologies useful for the U.S. military. IAB is a technical advisory group of the Internet Society and its
responsibilities are:

i. Oversees the architecture protocols and procedures used by the Internet.

ii. Manages the processes used to create Internet Standards and also serves as an appeal board for
complaints regarding improper execution of standardization process.
iii. Responsible for the administration of the various Internet-assigned numbers
iv. Acts as a representative for Internet Society's interest in liaison relationships with other
organizations.
v. Acts as a source of advice and guidance to the board of trustees and officers of the Internet
Society concerning various aspects of the Internet and its technologies.
6. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

The IETF is a large international community of network designers, operators, vendors and researchers
concerned with the evolution of the Internet architecture and smooth operation of the Internet.

7. Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)

The IRTF promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future Internet by creating focused,
long-term and small research groups working on topics related to Internet protocols, applications,
architecture and technology.

Layered Network Architecture

To reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are organized as a series of layers or levels, each one
builds upon one below it. The basic idea of layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces. Each
layer adds to the services provided by the lower layers in such a manner that the highest layer is provided with a
full set of services to manage communications and run the applications. The benefits of the layered models are
modularity and clear interfaces, i.e. open architecture and comparability between the different providers'
components. A basic principle is to ensure the independence of layers by defining services provided by each layer
to the next higher layer without defining how the services are to be performed. This permits changes in a layer
without affecting other layers. The basic elements of a layered model are services, protocols and interfaces.

A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer.

The protocol is a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange information with a peer entity. These rules concern
both the contents and the order of the messages used. Between the layers, service interfaces are defined. The
messages from one layer to another are sent through those interfaces.

In an n-layer architecture, layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another machine. The
rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the layer-n protocol. A protocol is an
agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to proceed. Five-layer architecture is
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

shown below; the entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called peers. In other
words, it is the peers that communicate using protocols. In reality, no data is transferred from layer n on one
machine to layer n on another machine. Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer
immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached. Below layer-1 is the physical layer through which actual
communication occurs.

Protocols

Protocols

Protocols

Figure 3 peer to peer communication

With layered architectures, communications between two corresponding layers require a unit of data called a
protocol data unit (PDU). A PDU can be a header added at the beginning of a message or a trailer appended to
the end of a message. Data flows downward through the layers in the source system and upwards at the
destination address.

As data passes from one layer into another, headers and trailers are added and removed from the PDU. This
process of adding or removing PDU information is called encapsulation/decapsulation. Between each pair of
adjacent layers, there is an interface. The interface defines which primitives’ operations and services the lower
layer offers to the upper layer adjacent to it. A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture. A list
of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a protocol stack.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to develop an architecture for
computer communication and the OSI model is the result of this effort. In 1984, the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an international standard for communications
architecture. The term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform to the reference
model and associated standards. The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

application programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to another application
programme located on another network. The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information
between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems. The seven
layers are:

Figure 4 OSI Model

The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow
of data from end to end through the network. The upper four layers of the OSI model (application, presentation
and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications. Data is Encapsulated
with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the layers before network transit.

Unit 2

Data Communications Circuits

The underlying purpose of a digital communications circuit is to provide a transmission path between locations
and to transfer digital information from one station (node, where computers or other digital equipment are
located) to another using electronic circuits. Data communications circuits utilize electronic communications
equipment and facilities to interconnect digital computer equipment. Communication facilities are physical
means of interconnecting stations and are provided to data communications users through public telephone
networks (PTN), public data networks (PDN), and a multitude of private data communications systems.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Figure 5 The following figure shows a simple two-station data communications circuit. The main components are:

Source: - This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are mainframe computers, personal
computers, workstations etc. The source equipment provides a means for humans to enter data into the system.

Transmitter: - A transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a way as to produce
electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of transmission system. For example, a modem
takes a digital bit stream from an attached device such as a personal computer and transforms that bit stream
into an analogue signal that can be handled by the telephone network.

Transmission medium: - The transmission medium carries the encoded signals from the transmitter to the
receiver. Different types of transmission media include free-space radio transmission (i.e. all forms of wireless
transmission) and physical facilities such as metallic and optical fibre cables.

Receiver: - The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission medium and converts it into a form that can be
handled by the destination device. For example, a modem will Serial and parallel Data Transmission will accept an
analogue signal coming from a network or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream.

Destination: - Takes the incoming data from the receiver and can be any kind of digital equipment like the source.

Serial and Parallel Data Transmission

There are two methods of transmitting digital data namely parallel and serial transmissions. In parallel data
transmission, all bits of the binary data are transmitted simultaneously. For example, to transmit an 8-bit binary
number in parallel from one unit to another, eight transmission lines are required. Each bit requires a separate
data path. All bits of a word are transmitted at the same time. This method of transmission can move a significant
amount of data in a given time. Its disadvantage is the large number of interconnecting cables between the two
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

units. For large binary words, cabling becomes complex and expensive. This is particularly true if the distance
between the two units is great. Long multiwire cables are not only expensive but also require special interfacing
to minimize noise and distortion problems. Serial data transmission is the process of transmitting binary words a
bit at a time. Since the bits time-share the transmission medium, only one interconnecting lead is required.

Figure 6 Serial and Parallel Data Transmission

While serial data transmission is much simpler and less expensive because of the use of a single interconnecting
line, it is a very slow method of data transmission. Serial data transmission is useful in systems where high speed
is not a requirement. Parallel communication is used for short-distance data communications within a computer,
and serial transmission is used for long-distance data communications.

Data communications Circuit Arrangements

A data communications circuit can be described in terms of circuit configuration and transmission mode.

Circuit Configurations

Data communications networks can be generally categorized as either two-point or multipoint. A two-point
configuration involves only two locations or stations, whereas a multipoint configuration involves three or more
stations.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

A two-point circuit involves the transfer of digital information between a mainframe computer and a personal
computer, two mainframe computers or two data communications networks. A multi-point network is generally
used to interconnect a single mainframe computer (host) to many personal computers or to interconnect many
personal computers and the capacity of the channel is either Spatially shared: Devices can use the link
simultaneously or Timeshare: Users take turns

Transmission Modes

There are four modes of transmission for data communications circuits:

 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

In simplex mode (SX), the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices
on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Commercial radio broadcasting is an example. Simplex lines are
also called receive-only, transmit-only or one-way-only lines.

In half-duplex (HDX) mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is
no need for communication in both directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized
for each direction. Citizens band (CB) radio is an example where push to talk (PTT) is to be pressed or depressed
while sending and transmitting.

In full-duplex mode (FDX) (called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. One common
example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. The full-duplex mode is used when
communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of the channel must be divided between
the two directions.

In full/full duplex (F/FDX) mode, transmission is possible in both directions at the same time but not between
the same two stations (i.e. station 1 transmitting to station 2 while receiving from station 3). F/FDX is possible
only on multipoint circuits. The postal system can be given as a person can be sending a letter to one address and
receive a letter from another address at the same time.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Unit 3

Data Communications Networks

Any group of computers connected can be called a data communications network, and the process of sharing
resources between computers over a data communications network is called networking. The most important
considerations of a data communications network are performance, transmission rate, reliability and security.

Network Components, Functions, and Features

The major components of a network are end stations, applications and a network that will support traffic
between the end stations. Computer networks all share common devices, functions, and features, including
servers, clients, transmission media, shared data, shared printers and other peripherals, hardware and software
resources, network interface card (NIC), local operating system (LOS) and the network operating system (NOS).

Servers: Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs and the network operating system. Servers
provide access to network resources to all the users of the network and different kinds of servers are present.
Examples include file servers, print servers, mail servers, communication servers etc.

Clients: Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network resources. Client computers
are the customers (users) of the network, as they request and receive service from the servers.

Shared Data: Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients, such as data files, printer access programs,
and e-mail.

Shared Printers and other peripherals: these are hardware resources provided to the users of the network by
servers. Resources provided include data files, printers, software, or any other items used by the clients on the
network.

Network interface card: Every computer in the network has a special expansion card called a network interface
card (NIS), which prepares and sends data, receives data, and controls data flow between the computer and the
network. While transmitting, NIC passes frames of data onto the physical layer and on the receiver side, the NIC
processes bits received from the physical layer and processes the message based on its contents.

Local operating system: A local operating system allows personal computers to access files, print to a local
printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located on the computer. Examples are MS-
DOS, PC-DOS, UNIX, Macintosh, OS/2, Windows 95, 98, XP and Linux.

Network operating system: the NOS is a program that runs on computers and servers that allows the computers
to communicate over a network. The NOS provides services to clients such as log-in features, password
authentication, printer access, network administration functions and data file sharing.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Network Models

Computer networks can be represented with two basic network models: peer-to-peer client/server and dedicated
client/server. The client/server method specifies how two computers can communicate with software over a
network.

Peer-to-peer client/server network: Here, all the computers share their resources, such as hard drives, printers
and so on with all the other computers on the network. Individual resources like disk drives, CD-ROM drives, and
even printers are transformed into shared, collective resources that are accessible from every PC. Unlike client-
server networks, where network information is stored on a centralized file server PC and made available to tens,
hundreds, or thousands of client PCs, the information stored across peer-to-peer networks is uniquely
decentralized. Because peer-to-peer PCs have hard disk drives that are accessible by all computers, each PC acts
as both a client (information requestor) and a server (information provider). The peer-to-peer network is an
appropriate choice when there are fewer than 10 users on the network, security is not an issue and all the users
are located in the same general area.

The advantages of peer-to-peer over client-server NOSs include:

 No need for a network administrator

 The network is fast/inexpensive to set up & maintain
 Each PC can make backup copies of its data to other PCs for security.
 The easiest type of network to build, peer-to-peer is perfect for both home and office
use.

Dedicated client/server network: Here, one computer is designated as a server and the rest of the computers are
clients. Dedicated Server Architecture can improve the efficiency of client-server systems by using one server for
each application that exists within an organization. The designated servers store all the networks shared files and
applications programs and function only as servers and are not used as a client or workstation. Client

computers can access the servers and have shared files transferred to them over the transmission medium. In
some client/server networks, client computers submit jobs to one of the servers and once they process the jobs,
the results are sent back to the client computer.

In general, the dedicated client/server model is preferable to the peer-to-peer client/server model for general-
purpose data networks.

Network Topologies

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices, i.e. how the computers, cables, and
other components within a data communications network are interconnected, both physically and logically. The
physical topology describes how the network is laid out, and the logical topology describes how the data flow
through the network. The two most basic topologies are point-to-point and multipoint. A point-to-point topology
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

usually connects two mainframe computers for high-speed digital information. A multipoint topology connects
three or more stations through a single transmission medium and some examples are star, bus, ring, mesh and
hybrid.

Star topology: A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected
directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch,
or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all
functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow.

Advantages

i. easily expand without disruption to the network

ii. cable failure affects only a single user
iii. easy to troubleshoot and isolate programs

Disadvantages

i. Requires more cables

ii. a central connecting device allows for a single point of
failure
iii. more difficult to implement

Bus topology: Bus networks use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, (the backbone) functions
as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device wanting
to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices
see, but only the intended recipient accepts and processes the message. The bus topology is the simplest and most
common method of interconnecting computers. The two ends of the transmission line never touch to form a
complete loop. A bus topology is also known as a multidrop or linear bus or horizontal bus.

Ring topology: In a ring network (sometimes called a loop), every device has exactly two neighbours for
communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise"). All the stations are interconnected in tandem (series) to form a closed loop or circle.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Transmissions are unidirectional and must propagate through all the stations in the loop. Each computer acts like
a repeater and the ring topology is similar to bus or star topologies.

Mesh topology: The mesh topology incorporates a unique network design in which each computer on the
network connects to every other, creating a point-to-point connection between every device on the network.
Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths
from source to destination. A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. A
disadvantage is that a mesh network with n nodes must have n(n-1)/2 links and each node must have n-1 I/O
ports (links).

Hybrid topology: This topology (sometimes called mixed topology) is simply combining two or more of the
traditional topologies to form a larger, more complex topology. The main aim is to be able to share the
advantages of different topologies.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Network Classifications

One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. Common
examples of area network types are:

 LAN - Local Area Network

 WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
 WAN - Wide Area Network
 MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
 SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area
Network
 CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes Cluster Area Network
 PAN - Personal Area Network
 DAN - Desk Area Network
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Local area network: A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of
buildings. LANs use a network operating system to provide two-way communications at bit rates in the range of
10 Mbps to 100 Mbps. In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and
managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily
Ethernet and Token Ring.

Advantages of LAN:

 Share resources efficiently

 Individual workstation might survive
network failure if it doesn’t rely on others
 Component evolution independent of
system evolution
 Support heterogeneous
hardware/software
 Access to other LANs and WANs
 High transfer rates with low error rates

Figure 7 A Local Area Network interconnecting another Local Area Network, the internet and a mainframe computer

Metropolitan area network: A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several
blocks of buildings to entire cities. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. A MAN might be a single
network like the cable television network or it usually interconnects several local area networks (LANs) using a
high-capacity backbone technology, such as fibre-optical links and provides up-link services to wide area
networks and the Internet. MANs typically operate at speeds of 1.5 Mbps to 10 Mbps and range from five miles
to a few hundred miles in length. Examples of MANs are FDDI (fibre-distributed data interface) and ATM
(asynchronous transfer mode).

Wide area network: Wide area networks are the oldest type of data communications network that provide
relatively slow-speed, long-distance transmission of data, voice and video information over relatively large and
widely dispersed geographical areas, such as a country or entire continent. WANs interconnect routers in
different locations. A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not
owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management.
WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over longer distances.

Global area network: A GAN provides connections between countries around the entire globe. The Internet is a
good example and is essentially a network comprised of other networks that interconnect virtually every country
in the world. GANs operate from 1.5 Mbps to 100 Gbps and cover thousands of miles.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Campus Area Network: - a network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university or
local business campus.

Storage Area Network: - connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fibre Channel.

System Area Network: - Links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a cluster
configuration. Also known as Cluster Area Network.

Building backbone: - It is a network connection that normally carries traffic between departmental LANs within a
single company. It consists of a switch or router to provide connectivity to other networks such as campus
backbones, enterprise backbones, MANs, WANs etc

Campus backbone: - It is a network connection used to carry traffic to and from LANs located in various buildings
on campus. It normally uses optical fibre cables for the transmission media between buildings and operates at
relatively high transmission rates.

Enterprise networks: - These include some or all of the above networks and components connected in a cohesive
and manageable fashion.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Unit 4

Alternate Protocol Suites

The protocols other than OSI that are in widespread use are TCP/IP and the Cisco three-layer hierarchical model.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model because it wanted a network that
could survive any conditions, even a nuclear war. The transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
{commonly known as internet suite} model is a set of communication protocols that allow communication across
multiple diverse networks. TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol comprised of either three or four layers. The three-
layer version of TCP/IP contains the network, transport and application layers. Four-layer version specifies the
host to the network layer.

The designers of TCP/IP felt that the higher-level protocols should include the session and presentation layer
details. They simply created an application layer that handles high-level protocols, issues of representation,
encoding, and dialogue control. The TCP/IP combines all application-related issues into one layer and assures this
data is properly packaged for the next layer.

The TCP/IP transport layer deals with the quality-of-service issues of reliability, flow control, and error correction.
One of its protocols, the transmission control protocol (TCP), provides excellent and flexible ways to create
reliable, well-flowing, low-error network communications. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. The other
protocol is User Datagram Protocol (UDP) which is a connection-less protocol.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

The purpose of the Internet layer is to send source packets from any network on the internetwork and have them
arrive at the destination independent of the path and networks they took to get there. The specific protocol that
governs this layer is called the Internet protocol (IP). Best path determination and packet switching occur at this
layer.

The network access layer also called the host-to-network layer is concerned with all of the issues of physically
delivering data packets using frames or cells.

Differences between OSI and TCP/IP

 TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer
 TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer
 TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers
 TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP
 the model gains credibility just because of its protocols.

In contrast, typically networks aren't built on the OSI protocol, even though the OSI model is used as a guide.

Cisco Three-Layer Model

Cisco has defined a hierarchical model known as the hierarchical internetworking model.

This model simplifies the task of building a reliable, scalable, and less expensive hierarchical network because
rather than focusing on packet construction; it focuses on the three functional areas, or layers, of your network.

Core layer: This layer is considered the backbone of the network and includes high-end switches and high-speed
cables such as fibre cables. This layer of the network does not route traffic at the LAN. In addition, no packet
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

manipulation is done by devices in this layer. Rather, this layer is concerned with speed and ensures reliable
delivery of packets.

Distribution layer: This layer includes LAN-based routers and layer 3 switches. This layer ensures that packets are
properly routed between subnets and VLANs in your enterprise. This layer is also called the Workgroup layer. It
also provides policy-based network connectivity, including:

 Packet filtering (firewalling): Processes packets and regulates the transmission of packets based on their
source and destination information to create network borders.
 QoS: The router or layer 3 switches can read packets and prioritize delivery, based on policies set.
 Access Layer Aggregation Point: The layer serves as the aggregation point for the desktop layer switches.
 Control Broadcast and Multicast: The layer serves as the boundary for broadcast and multicast domains.
 Application Gateways: The layer allows you to create protocol gateways to and from different network
architectures.
 The distribution layer also performs queuing and provides packet manipulation of the network traffic.

Access layer: This layer includes hubs and switches. This layer is also called the desktop layer because it focuses
on connecting client nodes, such as workstations to the network.

This layer ensures that packets are delivered to end-user computers. At the access layer, you can:

 Enable MAC address filtering: It is possible to program a switch to allow only certain systems to access
the connected LANs.
 Create separate collision domains: A switch can create separate collision domains for each connected
node to improve performance.
 Share bandwidth: You can allow the same network connection to handle all data.
 Handle switch bandwidth: You can move data from one network to another to perform load balancin

The benefits of the Cisco hierarchical model include:

 High Performance: You can design high-performance networks, where only certain layers are susceptible
to congestion.
 Efficient management & troubleshooting: Allows you to efficiently organize network management and
isolate causes of network trouble.
 Policy creation: You can easily create policies and specify filters and rules.
 Scalability: You can grow the network easily by dividing your network into functional areas.
 Behaviour prediction: When planning or managing a network, the model allows you to determine what
will happen to the network when new stresses are placed on it.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Unit 5

The principle of multiprogramming

What is multiprogramming?

Multiprogramming is a rudimentary form of parallel processing in which several programs run at the same time
on a uniprocessor system. However, because there is only one processor, there is no true simultaneous execution
of different programs. Instead, the operating system (OS) executes part of one program, then part of another,
and so on. In this sense, multiprogramming can be thought of as pseudo-parallelism. To the user, it appears that
multiple programs are executing at the same time, but that is not what is happening.

Before the introduction of multiprogramming, single-processor computers could run only one program at a time.
Once the program was launched, it ran to completion, unless it was interrupted or the application ceded control.
Only after the first program finished running could the processor execute the next program in the queue. This
meant that the CPU sat idle during I/O operations, even if other programs were waiting, resulting in application
delays and underutilized processor resources.

Multiprogramming addresses this issue by allowing multiple programs to load into memory and run each one in
rotation as CPU resources become available. For example, when Program A starts, the operating system assigns
CPU resources to that program until the program launches into its I/O operations. Then, the OS assigns CPU
resources to Program B, which is already loaded into memory. If Program B launches into I/O operations and
Program A is still running its I/O operations, the OS will assign CPU resources to Program C; otherwise, it will
assign them back to Program A.

The operating system is responsible for ensuring that CPU resources are properly allocated and reallocated to
each program as resources become available, working around the various program's I/O operations. To achieve
this, the OS uses a technique called context switching, which ensures that a program's state is preserved in
memory and can be readily accessed as the OS switches between programs and CPU assignments.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Multi-Access

Multiple access is a technique that lets multiple users share the allotted spectrum most effectively.

Since the spectrum is limited, sharing is necessary to improve the overall capacity over a geographical area. This is
carried out by permitting the available bandwidth to be used simultaneously by different users. In computer
networks and telecommunications, the multiple access method permits various terminals to connect to the same
multi-point transmission medium to transmit over it and share its capacity.

A few examples of shared physical media include bus networks, wireless networks, star networks, ring networks,
half-duplex point-to-point links, etc.

A cellular system splits any allocated area into cells in which a mobile unit in every cell can communicate with a
base station.

The key objective in the cellular system design is to offer increased channel capacity. This is to manage as many
calls as possible in a particular bandwidth with an adequate standard of quality of service.

Multiple access techniques permit multiple access to a channel. A channel represents a system resource assigned
to a given user that enables the user to establish communication with other users in the network.

Depending on the channel type, specific multiple-access techniques can be used for communication. The channel
types and the associated multiple access techniques are as follows:

Frequency Channels [Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)] – The frequency band is split into small
frequency channels, and different channels are assigned to different users. One example is the case of FM radio
where multiple users can transmit simultaneously; however, on different frequency channels.

Time-slot Within Frequency Bands [Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)] – Every user is permitted to transmit
only in specific time slots using a common frequency band. Various users can transmit at the same frequency
band at different times.

Distinct Codes [Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)] – Users can transmit simultaneously using the same
frequency band, but with the help of different codes so that they can be decoded to recognize a specific user.

Multi-Processing

Multi-processing refers to the ability of a system to support more than one processor at the same time.
Applications in a multi-processing system are broken into smaller routines that run independently. The operating
system allocates these threads to the processors improving the performance of the system.

In a symmetric multi-processing, a single OS instance controls two or more identical processors connected to a
single shared main memory. Most multi-processing PC motherboards utilize symmetric multiprocessing.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

On the other hand, asymmetric multi-processing designates system tasks to be performed by some processors
and applications on others. This is generally not as efficient as symmetric processing because under certain
conditions a single processor might be completely engaged while the other is idle.

Satellite computer

A computer located remotely from the host computer or under the control of the host. It can function as a slave
to the master computer or perform offline tasks.

It forms part of a computing system but is generally much less capable than the mainframe. It is located at a
distance from the main system and serves auxiliary functions such as remote data entry or printing. It is now
often nearly synonymous with the terminal.

Definition: A programmable machine that relieves a primary processor of such time-consuming operations as
compiling, editing, and controlling input/output devices.

Multiplexer

The multiplexer is a combinational logic circuit designed to switch one of several input lines to a
single common output line.

Multiplexing is the generic term used to describe the operation of sending one or more analogue or digital signals
over a common transmission line at different times or speeds and as such, the device we use to do just that is
called the multiplexer.

The multiplexer, shortened to “MUX” or “MPX”, is a combinational logic circuit designed to switch one of several
input lines through to a single common output line by the application of a control signal. Multiplexers operate like
very fast acting multiple position rotary switches connecting or controlling multiple input lines called “channels”
one at a time to the output.

Multiplexers, or MUXs, can be either digital circuits made from high-speed logic gates used to switch digital or
binary data or they can be analogue types using transistors, MOSFET or relays to switch one of the voltage or
current inputs through to a single output.

The most basic type of multiplexer device is that of a one-way rotary switch as shown
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Figure 9 Basic Multiplexing Switch

The rotary switch, also called a wafer switch as each layer of the switch is known as a wafer, is a mechanical
device whose input is selected by rotating a shaft. In other words, the rotary switch is a manual switch that you
can use to select individual data or signal lines simply by turning its inputs “ON” or “OFF”. So how can we select
each data input automatically using a digital device?

In digital electronics, multiplexers are also known as data selectors because they can “select” each input line, and
are constructed from individual Analogue Switches encased in a single IC package as opposed to the “mechanical”
type selectors such as normal conventional switches and relays.

They are used as one method of reducing the number of logic gates required in a circuit design or when a single
data line or data bus is required to carry two or more different digital signals. For example, a single 8-channel
multiplexer.

Generally, the selection of each input line in a multiplexer is controlled by an additional set of inputs called
control lines and according to the binary condition of these control inputs, either “HIGH” or “LOW” the
appropriate data input is connected directly to the output. Normally, a multiplexer has an even number of 2n
data input lines and many “control” inputs that correspond with the number of data inputs.

Note that multiplexers are different in operation to Encoders. Encoders can switch an n-bit input pattern to
multiple output lines that represent the binary coded (BCD) output equivalent of the active input.

We can build a simple 2-line to 1-line (2-to-1) multiplexer from basic logic NAND gates as shown.

2-input Multiplexer Design

The input A of this simple 2-1 line multiplexer circuit constructed from standard NAND
gates acts to control which input ( I0 or I1 ) gets passed to the output at Q.

From the truth table above, we can see that when the data select input, A is LOW at
logic 0, input I1 passes its data through the NAND gate multiplexer circuit to the output,
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

while input I0 is blocked. When the data select A is HIGH at logic 1, the reverse happens and now input I0 passes
data to the output Q while input I1 is blocked.

So by the application of either a logic “0” or a logic “1” at A, we can select the appropriate input, I0 or I1 with the
circuit acting a bit like a single pole double throw (SPDT) switch.

As we only have one control line, (A) then we can only switch 21 inputs and in this simple example, the 2-input
multiplexer connects one of two 1-bit sources to a common output, producing a 2-to-1-line multiplexer. We can
confirm this in the following Boolean expression.

and for our 2-input multiplexer circuit above, this can be simplified too:

We can increase the number of data inputs to be selected further simply by following the same procedure and
larger multiplexer circuits can be implemented using smaller 2-to-1 multiplexers as their basic building blocks. So
for a 4-input multiplexer, we would therefore require two data select lines as 4-inputs represent 22 data control
lines giving a circuit with four inputs, I0, I1, I2, and I3 and two data select lines A and B as shown.

4-to-1 Channel Multiplexer

The Boolean expression for this 4-to-1 Multiplexer above with

inputs A to D and data select lines a, and b is given as:

In this example at any one instant in time only ONE of the four
analogue switches is closed, connecting only one of the input lines A
to D to the single output at Q. As to which switch is closed depends
upon the addressing input code on lines “a” and “b“.

So for this example to select input B to the output at Q, the binary input address would need to be “a” = logic “1”
and “b” = logic “0”. Thus we can show the selection of the data through the multiplexer as a function of the data
selects bits as shown.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Multiplexer Input Line Selection

Adding more control address lines, (n) will allow the multiplexer to control more inputs as it can switch 2n inputs
but each control line configuration will connect only ONE input to the output.

Then the implementation of the Boolean expression above using individual logic gates would require the use of
seven individual gates consisting of AND, OR and NOT gates as shown.

4 Channel Multiplexer using Logic Gates

The symbol used in logic diagrams to identify a multiplexer is as follows:

Multiplexer Symbol

Multiplexer device symbol

Multiplexers are not limited to just switching several different input lines or channels to one common single
output. Some types can switch their inputs to multiple outputs and have arrangements or 4-to-2, 8-to-3 or even
16-to-4 etc configurations an example of a simple Dual channel 4 input multiplexer (4-to-2) is given below:

4-to-2 Channel Multiplexer

 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Here in this example, the 4 input channels are switched to 2 individual output lines but larger arrangements are
also possible. This simple 4-to-2 configuration could be used, for example, to switch audio signals for stereo pre-
amplifiers or mixers.

Adjustable Amplifier Gain

As well as sending parallel data in a serial format down a single transmission line or connection, another possible
use of multi-channel multiplexers is in digital audio applications as mixers or where the gain of an analogue
amplifier can be controlled digitally, for example.

Digitally Adjustable Amplifier Gain

Here, the voltage gain of the inverting operational amplifier is dependent upon the ratio between the input
resistor, RIN and its feedback resistor, Rƒ as determined in the Op-amp.

A single 4-channel (Quad) SPST switch configured as a 4-to-1 channel multiplexer is connected in series with the
resistors to select any feedback resistor to vary the value of Rƒ. The combination of these resistors will determine
the overall voltage gain of the amplifier, (Av). Then the voltage gain of the amplifier can be adjusted digitally by
simply selecting the appropriate resistor combination.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Digital multiplexers are sometimes also referred to as “Data Selectors” as they select the data to be sent to the
output line and are commonly used in communications or high-speed network switchings circuits such as LANs
and Ethernet applications.

Some multiplexer ICs have a single inverting buffer (NOT Gate) connected to the output to give a positive logic
output (logic “1”, HIGH) on one terminal and a complimentary negative logic output (logic “0”, LOW) on another
different terminal.

It is possible to make simple multiplexer circuits from standard AND and OR gates as we have seen above, but
commonly multiplexers/data selectors are available as standard i.c. packages such as the common TTL 74LS151 8-
input to 1 line multiplexer or the TTL 74LS153 Dual 4-input to 1 line multiplexer. Multiplexer circuits with a much
higher number of inputs can be obtained by cascading together two or more smaller devices.

Multiplexer Summary

Then we can see that Multiplexers are switching circuits that just switch or route signals through themselves, and
being a combinational circuit they are memoryless as there is no signal feedback path. The multiplexer is a very
useful electronic circuit that has uses in many different applications such as signal routing, data communications
and data bus control applications.

When used with a demultiplexer, parallel data can be transmitted in serial form via a single data link such as a
fibre-optic cable or telephone line and converted back into parallel data once again. The advantage is that only
one serial data line is required instead of multiple parallel data lines. Therefore, multiplexers are sometimes
referred to as “data selectors”, as they select the data to the line.

Multiplexers can also be used to switch either analogue, digital or video signals, with the switching current in
analogue power circuits limited to below 10mA to 20mA per channel to reduce heat dissipation.

In the next tutorial about combinational logic devices, we will look at the reverse of the Multiplexer called the
Demultiplexer which takes a single input line and connects it to multiple output lines.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Unit 6

Time-sharing and real-time

A time-sharing operating system allows multiple users to simultaneously access the same computer system from
different locations. That means if you and your friends want to work on the same system from your homes, then
time-sharing systems can fulfil your wish.

In the above figure, User 2 is in the active state means the processor is currently executing this user’s program.
Moreover, only one user can be in the active state at a time. User 5 is in the ready state means the user’s process
is ready to execute and is waiting for the processor. More than one user can be in the ready state at a time. User
1, user 3, user 4, and User 6 are waiting meaning these users’ processes are waiting for some I/O operation. More
than one user can be waiting at a time.

A time-sharing operating system uses the concept of multiprogramming and CPU scheduling. The operating
system performs multiple tasks through multiprogramming by continuously switching the processor between
them.

For example, if there are three processes in the system, P1, P2, and P3, the operating system will make the
processor execute each process for a short time until an I/O request. This short time during which the user has
the CPU's attention is referred to as a time slice, time slot, or quantum. It is usually in the range of 10 to 100
milliseconds. In this way, each process gets the processor for some time, and this cycle is repeated until all the
processes are completed. The order in which the process will get the CPU is decided through CPU scheduling.

One more vital point to note is that the switching of the processes by the processor is so fast that we can’t tell
which process is currently executing. It feels like all processes are getting executed simultaneously.

Some examples are UNIX, Multics, Linux, Windows 2000 server, Windows NT server, TOPS-10 (DEC), or TOPS-20
(DEC).

Now, let’s discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the time-sharing operating system.

Advantages
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

The advantages of the time-sharing operating system are-

i. It provides a quick response.

ii. It reduces the CPU idle time.
iii. It avoids duplication of the software.
iv. It provides equal opportunity for each process.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of the time-sharing operating system are-

i. The user’s programs and data are not secure.

ii. It has the problem of data communication.
iii. It has the problem of reliability.

Now, let’s discuss the real-time operating system.

Real-Time OS

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is used in those environments where we want the result of a task in a fixed
time interval. It is mostly used in embedded systems where the results of the computations are used to influence
a process while it is running.

When an event occurs outside of the computer, it is communicated to the computer via a sensor that is used to
monitor the event. The sensor generates a signal, which the operating system interprets as an interrupt. When an
interrupt is received, the operating system invokes a specific process or set of processes to handle the interrupt.
Unless a higher priority interrupt occurs during execution, this process is entirely uninterrupted.

If the system does not provide the result in a fixed time interval, it is considered a system failure.

The below figure shows the position of RTOS in the computer-

The RTOS is widely used in real-world applications like scientific work, robotics, airline traffic control
system, medical system, industrial control system etc.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

There are three types of real-time operating systems. These are-

1. Hard Real-Time Operating System- In hard real-time operating systems, critical tasks must be executed within
the deadline. If the deadline is not met, it may result in critical failures. Examples of hard RTOS are- aeroplane
sensors and autopilot systems, spacecraft, and planetary rovers.
2. Soft Real-Time Operating System- In soft real-time operating systems, if the deadline for the execution of a
task is missed, then the consequences are not critical. Some delay is allowed in the execution. Some examples
of soft RTOS are- audio and video delivery software for entertainment.
3. Firm Real-Time Operating System- Following the deadline is essential in firm real-time operating systems. If
the deadline is missed, it may not have critical consequences but undesired effects. Examples of firm RTOS
are- financial forecast systems and robotic assembly lines.

Advantages

The advantages of the real-time sharing operating system are-

i. It provides more utilization of devices and systems.

ii. It takes less time to shift from one task to another.
iii. It focuses on only one application at a time.
iv. Since the program's size is small, RTOS can be used in embedded systems.
v. These systems are error-free.
vi. These systems manage memory efficiently.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of the real-time sharing operating system are-

i. It allows very few processes to execute simultaneously.

ii. Sometimes, the system resources are not good and expensive.
iii. The algorithms used are pretty complex.
iv. Specific device drivers and interrupt signals are needed.
v. They perform minimal task switching.

Linked computer
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

A network of computers and other electronic equipment is connected to create a communication system
between other communication points/systems.

computer bus

A computer bus is also known as a local bus, data bus, or address bus, a bus is a link between components or
devices linked to a computer. A bus, for instance, carries data through the motherboard between a CPU (Central
Processing Unit) and the system memory.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Unit 7

ARPANET

ARPANET's full form is Advanced Research Projects Agency NET. ARPANET was the very first network that was
created using a distributed form of control. It was also considered to be one of the first networks to implement
the protocols of TCP/IP. The creation of ARPANET paved the way for the beginning of the web and the internet
with the help of these technologies.

The basic idea behind the creation of ARPANET was to communicate with all the scientific users that existed in
any university or institute. In this article, students will be able to learn what is ARPANET along with some other
details.

History of ARPANET

The introduction of ARPANET happened in 1969 by the Advanced Research Projects Agency also known as ARPA
which was a part of the US Department of Defence. The establishment of ARPANET took place with the help of
PCs that different colleges had. Technology helped in sharing information as well as messages amongst the
computers. It was meant for playing for long separation diversions. The individuals were made to share the
experiences that they had. In the year 1980, the newly upgraded ARPANET was given to the military network such
as the Defence Data Network.

The formation of this technology could be seen as a particular breakthrough for other current algorithms and
ideas to take place on the Internet. It is also seen as the predecessor of the modern-day internet that people use
these days. It was considered to be the first completely functional and operational packet-switching system of
computer networks as well as the first successful network in the world. It also implemented the TCP/IP model of
reference.

The main objective of creating ARPANET was to accommodate all the different research equipment with packet-
switching technology. It also allowed the resources to be shared with the contractors of the Department of
Defence. The network was used for connecting all the research centres along with several government locations
and military bases as well. Soon, ARPANET became quite popular amongst all the researchers due to its
collaboration with services such as electronic mail and much more.

Characteristics of ARPANET in Computer Networks

1. ARPANET is a Wide Area Network or WAN. The development of ARPANET was done by the Advanced
Research Project Agency in the year 1969.
2. The design of ARPANET was created to service something as big as a particular nuclear tank.
3. Before the creation of ARPANET, all the networks had a telephonic connection and they operated using the
principle of circuit switching. However, this made the network pretty vulnerable. Even if a single line was lost,
it would lead to the termination of all the conversations that were taking place.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

4. ARPANET was the first technology to use the principle of packet switching. The testing was done on host
computers and the scope of a subnet.
5. This subnet was a datagram subnet. Every single subnet included certain minicomputers that were called
Interface Message Processors or IMPs.
6. Every single node related to the network had a particular connection with the IMP as well as a host that was
connected using the short wire.
7. The host was able to send certain messages of up to 8063 bits to the IMP. The IMP would then break these
messages into separate packets and then independently forward these packets towards the main destination.
8. The subnet used in ARPANET was the 1st electronic store-and-forward kind of packet-switching network.
Hence, the packets were stored properly before they would be forwarded.
9. The creation of software for ARPANET was then split into two different parts named the host and subnet.
10. The TCP/IP model was then invented along with its protocol in the year 1974. This was done to handle
different forms of communications that happened over internetwork since more networks were starting to
connect to ARPANET. With the creation of this model, the LAN connections with ARPANET became a lot
easier.
11. During 1980, there were many LAN Connections made to ARPANET. Hence, finding hosts became pretty
expensive and difficult as well. Hence, the creation of DNS or the Domain Naming System took place. This
event happened to organize all the machines into different domains and map the hostnames into the IP
Addresses.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Q&A

Question 1

1. Define time slice. 1 mark

Ans: The short time for which the CPU is allotted to a process is known as its time slice. It is also known as time
slot or quantum.

2. What is the crucial difference between time-sharing and real-time operating systems? 7 marks
Ans: Multiple users can interact with computer systems simultaneously using time-sharing operating systems,
which switch the CPU between them. On the other hand, a real-time operating system is more likely to
complete a single task at a time and deliver services on time.
3. Is Windows a time-sharing operating system? 7 marks
Ans: Yes, Windows is a time-sharing operating system. All Windows systems support multitasking. Windows 7
and later and all Windows server versions can do this via Remote Desktop. Some versions of Windows have
time-sharing capabilities but are disabled due to licensing restrictions.

Question 2
4. What are the seven layers of the OSI model? Explain any 2 out of it 10 marks

Ans:

5. Define OSI Model

Ans: The OSI model divides the problem of moving information between computers over a network medium
into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems. 1 mark
6. List all the Data transmission modes and explain 1 4 marks
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Ans: simplex mode (SX), the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Commercial radio broadcasting is an example.
Simplex lines are also called receive-only, transmit-only or one-way-only lines.
In half-duplex (HDX) mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there
is no need for communication in both directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction. Citizens band (CB) radio is an example where push to talk (PTT) is to be pressed or
depressed while sending and transmitting.
In full-duplex mode (FDX) (called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. One
common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. The full-duplex mode is used when
communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of the channel must be divided
between the two directions.
In full/full duplex (F/FDX) mode, transmission is possible in both directions at the same time but not between
the same two stations (i.e. station 1 transmitting to station 2 while receiving from station 3). F/FDX is possible
only on multipoint circuits. The postal system can be given as a person can be sending a letter to one address
and receive a letter from another address at the same time.

Question 3
7. Explain 3 Transmission Modes Using Diagrams 10 marks
There are four modes of transmission for data communications circuits:
Ans:

8. Name 5 out of the computer networking components and explain any 2 5 marks
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Ans: Servers: Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs and the network operating system.
Servers provide access to network resources to all the users of the network and different kinds of servers are
present. Examples include file servers, print servers, mail servers, communication servers etc.
Clients: Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network resources. Client
computers are the customers (users) of the network, as they request and receive service from the servers.
Shared Data: Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients, such as data files, printer access
programs, and e-mail.
Shared Printers and other peripherals: these are hardware resources provided to the users of the network by
servers. Resources provided include data files, printers, software, or any other items used by the clients on the
network.
Network interface card: Every computer in the network has a special expansion card called a network
interface card (NIS), which prepares and sends data, receives data, and controls data flow between the
computer and the network. While transmitting, NIC passes frames of data onto the physical layer and on the
receiver side, the NIC processes bits received from the physical layer and processes the message based on its
contents.
Local operating system: A local operating system allows personal computers to access files, print to a local
printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located on the computer. Examples are MS-
DOS, PC-DOS, UNIX, Macintosh, OS/2, Windows 95, 98, XP and Linux.
Network operating system: the NOS is a program that runs on computers and servers that allows the
computers to communicate over a network. The NOS provides services to clients such as log-in features,
password authentication, printer access, network administration functions and data file sharing.

Question 4
9. List and Explain the data communication Component 10 marks
Ans:
o Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
o Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
o Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
o Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fibre-optic cable, and radio waves.
o Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

10. What are the advantages of peer-to-peer over client-server NOSs? 5 marks
Ans:
 No need for a network administrator
 The network is fast/inexpensive to set up & maintain
 Each PC can make backup copies of its data to other PCs for security.
 The easiest type of network to build, peer-to-peer is perfect for both home and office use.

Question 5
11. Explain star topology and state the advantages and disadvantages over other network topologies
Ans: Star topology: A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals)
connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on a star network passes through
the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator
manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. 10 marks

Advantages
i.easily expands without disruption to the network
ii. cable failure affects only a single user
iii. easy to troubleshoot and isolate programs
Disadvantages
i.Requires more cables
ii. A central connecting device allows for a single
point of failure
iii. more difficult to implement

12. List 5 types of network classifications and explain 1 using a detailed diagram 5 marks

Ans:

 LAN - Local Area Network

 WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
 WAN - Wide Area Network
 MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
 SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area
Network
 CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes Cluster Area Network
 PAN - Personal Area Network
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

 DAN - Desk Area Network

Local area network: A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of
buildings. LANs use a network operating system to provide two-way communications at bit rates in the range of
10 Mbps to 100 Mbps. In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and
managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily
Ethernet and Token Ring.

Advantages of LAN:

 Share resources efficiently

 Individual workstation might survive
network failure if it doesn’t rely on others
 Component evolution independent of
system evolution
 Support heterogeneous
hardware/software
 Access to other LANs and WANs
 High transfer rates with low error rates

Figure 7 A Local Area Network interconnecting another Local Area Network, the internet and a mainframe computer

Metropolitan area network: A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several
blocks of buildings to entire cities. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. A MAN might be a single
network like the cable television network or it usually interconnects many local area networks (LANs) using a high-
capacity backbone technology, such as fibre-optical links and provides up-link services to wide area networks and
the Internet. MANs typically operate at speeds of 1.5 Mbps to 10 Mbps and range from five miles to a few
hundred miles in length. Examples of MANs are FDDI (fibre-distributed data interface) and ATM (asynchronous
transfer mode).
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

Wide area network: Wide area networks are the oldest type of data communications network that provide
relatively slow-speed, long-distance transmission of data, voice and video information over relatively large and
widely dispersed geographical areas, such as a country or entire continent. WANs interconnect routers in different
locations. A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by
any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to
use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over longer distances.

Global area network: A GAN provides connections between countries around the entire globe. The Internet is a
good example and is essentially a network comprised of other networks that interconnect virtually every country
in the world. GANs operate from 1.5 Mbps to 100 Gbps and cover thousands of miles.

Campus Area Network: - a network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university or
local business campus.

Storage Area Network: - connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fibre Channel.

System Area Network: - Links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration.
Also known as Cluster Area Network.

Building backbone: - It is a network connection that normally carries traffic between departmental LANs within a
single company. It consists of a switch or router to provide connectivity to other networks such as campus
backbones, enterprise backbones, MANs, WANs etc

Campus backbone: - It is a network connection used to carry traffic to and from LANs located in various buildings
on campus. It normally uses optical fibre cables for the transmission media between buildings and operates at
relatively high transmission rates.

Enterprise networks: - These include some or all of the above networks and components connected in a cohesive
and manageable fashion.

Question 6

13. State the advantages of LAN 5 marks

Ans: Advantages of LAN:

 Share resources efficiently

 Individual workstation might survive network failure if it doesn’t rely on others
 Component evolution independent of system evolution
 Support heterogeneous hardware/software
 Access to other LANs and WANs
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

 High transfer rates with low error rates

14. What is the difference btw the OSI and TCP/IP? 3 marks
Ans:
 TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer
 TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer
 TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers
 TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP
 the model gains credibility just because of its protocols.
15. Define satellite computer 1mark

Ans: Definition: A programmable machine that relieves a primary processor of such time-consuming operations as
compiling, editing, and controlling input/output devices.

16. State the advantages and disadvantages of a real-time sharing system.

Ans: Advantages 3 marks

The advantages of the real-sharing operating system are-

vii. It provides more utilization of devices and systems.

viii. It takes less time to shift from one task to another.
ix. It focuses on only one application at a time.
x. Since the program's size is small, RTOS can be used in embedded systems.
xi. These systems are error-free.
xii. These systems manage memory efficiently.

Disadvantages 3 marks

The disadvantages of the real-sharing operating system are-

vi. It allows very few processes to execute simultaneously.

vii. Sometimes, the system resources are not good and expensive.
viii. The algorithms used are pretty complex.
ix. Specific device drivers and interrupt signals are needed.
x. They perform minimal task switching.