EARTH MATERIALS Folded Rocks: Ontario 1B Years Ago:

Mineralogy: differentiating minerals (streak, color, shape, etc) Anticline: Up & down folding (A-shaped) Grenville Mountains from Rodinia center & erode to Peneplain
Mineral Exploration: ores, prospect, develop & green economy Syncline: Bowl-shaped 500M years later
The Rock Cycle: sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic rocks + uses Angle of Dip: Angle downward from horizontal Rodinia breaks up-Laurentia independent, MOR break these
Rock: nat forming, consolidated material of grains of 1+ minerals Archbishop Ussher, 1581-1656: said in 1625 that “Earth formed continents, some continents drift near equator
Mineral: inorganic, nat occuring, crystalline solid with specific at 9 am on October 26th, 4004 B.C”, and based on counting Iapetus Ocean opens 600M years ago, then 480M years ago
chemical composition. (building block of rocks) generations in the Bible starts to close again
Feldspar: most common mineral in continental crust, common The father of modern geology: James Hutton 1726-97: Epicontinental Seaways wash/flood over N.A. (deposition of sed.
mineral in oceanic crust Recognized unconformities, proposed concept of rock layers happen)
Rockhounding: hobby of collecting minerals uniformitarianism (present is key to past), came into conflict Epicontinental Seas: water bodies on top of continental crust
Streak: colour of powder by rubbing mineral on a ‘streak plate’ with Abram Werner and ‘diluvialism’ and ‘catastrophism’ Great Unconformity: gap between precambrian & paleozoic rocks
Crystallography: study of crystal shapes Charles Lyell 1830's: calculated that at least 12,000 years was Niagara Escarpment:
Mineral Cleavage: shape of mineral when broken needed to carve Niagara Gorge, which is 12 km of headward Long cliff from erosion/faulting; paleozoic layer. Glacial & fluid
Lustre: the way that light is reflected (Talc has a pearly lustre, erosion from the edge of the Niagara Escarpment erosion cuts Niagara edge off, receding towards the sound
“Vitreous” lustre reflects white light like glass) Arthur Holmes (1890-1965): pioneer of ‘absolute’ dating Fluid Erosion: water cutting & removing softer parts of rock
Hardness: scratchability, Mohs Hardness Scale (radiometric dating) using isotopes, and 1913 publishes “The 300M Years Ago - Pangea:
Silicate Minerals: contain silicon, oxygen and accounts for 90% Age of the Earth” Maritime Canada added to Laurentia (out of Africa), and
of all minerals. SiO2 + other elements (most important group) Louis Agassiz (1807-73) and Charles Darwin (1809-82) Gondwana collides with Eastern NA
Non-silicate Minerals: carbonates, evaporites, ores Catastrophism, Creationism vs. Uniformitarianism, Evolution Appalachian Orogeny: Series of mountain-building events
Life Cycle of a Mine (5 Steps): exploration, discovery, Catastrophism: earth’s features result of sudden, violent events occurring ~480-300M years ago
development, production, reclamation Creationism: universe originates from divine creation from Foreland Basins: where crust is flexing downward adjacent a
Placer Deposits: concentrated at the surface (ex: Marmoration religious texts mountain range
Iron deposit found due to airborne survey) Uniformitarianism: same natural laws/processes in present have Intracratonic Basins: where there is down-welling mantle in
Hydrothermal Alteration: hot water deep underground changes always operated in past, used to interpret Earth’s geo. history middle of continents
rocks, forming new minerals Evolution: genetic changes overtime, leading to new species Formation of Pangea
Magma cools to make igneous rocks through natural selection and other stuff Terranes: far-travelled displaced crust
Intrusive = underground, Extrusive = erupts William Thomson; Lord Kelvin (1824-1907): cooling rate of Logan’s Line: boundary b/w 2 geological provinces
Metamorphism: Buried rocks face heat and pressure molten earth through conduction & radiation (24-40M years) Maritime Canada Formation: Volcanic arcs get plastered onto
Magma changes during melting and crystallization John Joly (1857-1933): rate of delivery of salt to the ocean (said side of Laurentia, Microcontinent Avalonia squishes volcanic arc,
Melting is partial, magma differs from the original rock 90-100M years). total salts in ocean / rate of addition = age Gondwana squishes it all together
Magma usually has more silica than the source rock PRECAMBRIAN Pangea Breaks Up
Mafic minerals crystallize at higher temps than felsic minerals HADEAN (4.567 Ga): no oceans, granite, continents West side becomes an Active Plate Margin. Atlantic Ocean opens
Extreme separation creates pegmatites with big crystals Magma Ocean: early earth covered in molten rock; undergoing B.C. & Alaska added to NA as it pushes west
Pegmatites: rich in lithium, rare earths, and mica meteorite bombardment Fusulinids only found in China & sliver of western Canada (part of
Weathering: breaks rocks from big to small particles via weather Element Segregation: heavy elements (metals) sank to core; light China stuck with us) (Fusulinids: Single-celled fossils)
Transportation: transports particles across surface of the land (silicates) floated to crust QUATERNARY
Deposition: particles come to rest (deposited in a new place) Outgassing: volatile elements released - starts dense, then Ice age last 2.5M years. Ice covers 35-40% of Northern
Lithification: deposited sediments harden overtime back to rock condense into ocean Hemisphere perhaps 50 times in last 2.5M years
Clasts/Fragments: made from mechanical breakdown of rocks Crust/Water: crust absorbs water on contact with ocean Plate tectonics kickstarted glaciation of Antarctica by lowering
Conglomerate and breccia are clastic rocks 1st continent was small volcano arc global temperatures
Rounded clasts are smoothened from repeated impact by waves Oceanic crust + water = continental crust Silicate Weathering: mountain terrane generates sediment that
Ichnofossils and Fossils: Evidence of life Magma + water = Wet magma (forming andesite, granite; silica- reacts with water & carbon dioxide driving climate change
Provenance: Source of sediment grains rich, hard to subduct) Laurentide Ice Sheet: formed repeatedly during last 2.5 million
Chemical weathering: breakdown of minerals by water Magma evolves each time it melts/recrystallizes; leads to lower years. Last glaciation was between 70-10000 years ago
Biochemical Rocks: formed from life processes (ex: dolostone) density & thicker crust (Basalt + water → andesite + partial Holocene: interglacial period we live in now
Chemical Rocks: formed from chemical processes (ex: chert) melting → granite) During last ice age, global sea level lowers by about 110m to the
Evaporites: rocks made by evaporation of seawater (ex: lithium) Oldest rocks ~ 4.03B years ago edge of the continental shelf
Stratigraphy: using “layers” to reconstruct sequence of events Gneiss says there is already functioning rock cycle; Shale → slate Fjord: long, deep, narrow body of water reaches far inland
Metamorphic Rock: form by change without melting, used for → phyllite → schist → gneiss Pre-glacial surface of NA was covered with “regolith”
studying paleotectonics, mineral deposits, building stones Shield: a landform (landform exposing cratons) Glacial Erratic Boulder: rocks that aren’t where they should be
Three types of metamorphism: Craton: rocks older than 600 Ma Glacial Till: ice flows over sediment
Contact: heat from nearby magma changes the rock Terrane Accretion: continents grow by collecting terrane Geology of NA consists of 3 substrate types: hard crystalline
Regional: heat + pressure from deep burial (under mountain) overtime (big snowball) rocks, softer sedimentary rocks, very soft sediments
Hydrothermal: dot water adds/removes elements Supercontinent Assembly: cratons collide to form (snowballs Drumlin: long/oval hill left by glacier (tells us speed of ice flow)
Metamorphic Grade: how intense the heat/pressure was stack on each other) Moraines: mounds of sediment at the ice terminus
Gneiss: high-grade rock formed deep in the crust Decoration: cover rocks (sediments) that accumulate over Soft beds: Fast flowing lobs lubricated by sediment
Mylonite: formed from intense shearing continents; possibly contribute to continental growth; Paleozoic Moraine ridges track position of ice sheet margin and show
Migmatite: gneiss starting to melt cover rocks drape over carton dynamic ice flow
GEOLOGIC TIME STAGES OF CONTINENTAL ASSEMBLY Glaciolacustrine environments appear against the margin where
Relative Age: age relative to something 0) Original Cratons >2.5 Ga: form from accretion process crust has been glacioisostatically depressed
Absolute Age: age relative to earth Granite-Greenstone Belts: bands of ocean floor separated by Glaciolacustrine Deposits: Sediments deposited into lakes that
Strata: layers of sedimentary rocks piled upon each other; bands of volcanic material (arc) come from glaciers
accumulate in basins; basins accommodate strata when they 1 & 2) Artica & Nena & Trans Hudson Orogen ~2-1.8 Ga: first Glacioisostatic Depression: Heavy glaciers melt, releasing
deepen by caving in of crust supercontinents Artica (2B yrs ago). Superior craton collide with pressure on Earth’s crust = rise back up (leads to land sinking or
Disconformities: break in sedimentation (marks pauses within Churchill craton = Trans-Hudson orogeny. Labrador added after depressions forming).
continuous strata) 2B yrs. Meteorite impacts hit Sudbury 1.8B yrs Glacioisostatic Rebound: Glaciers accumulate, push down on
Unconformities: mark episodes of uplift, erosion, and non- Cratonization: growth process builds continents crust causing it to sink like memory foam
deposition Bolide: large meteor (10-15km diameter) GEOSCIENCE and THE ANTHROPOCENE
Index Fossils: indication of certain time periods; identifies 3) ~1 Ga: Rodinia forms (S.A. & N.A. collide) Anthropocene era not an “era” because not enough time passed
disconformities; best when more specific to time Grenville Orogeny: NA (Laurentia) collides with SA (Amazonia) Epoch of Man: Living on built landscape, changes how land
Biostratigraphy: study of rock layers (strata) based on the fossils Himalayan Orogeny: Grenville is eroded version of Himalayan migrates (natural land soft & absorbing, hits concrete and we deal
they contain mountains with runoff)
Lithostratigraphy: study of rock layers based on their physical Index Minerals: meta. minerals act as paleothermometers Total anthropogenic sediment input into oceans is about 17x
and chemical characteristics (like rock type, color, texture) Garnet: index minerals that form at depths over 25km natural levels
Law of Superposition: old rocks on bottom, young strata on top CMBBZ: really old big fault that makes earthquakes still Original anthropocene started in 1700s with Industrial
Law of Cross-Cutting Relations + Law of Intrusions: something Stromatolites: layers of bacteria from organisms 3B years ago Revolution & Steam Engine
that cuts across some other feature is younger, and tells us that Cambrian Explosion: rapid diversification, hard-bodied animals, GSSP (Global Stratotype Section & Point):
granite is younger than strata first appearance of organisms we evolved from, Burgess Shale International agreed point that defines start of stage on
Law of Original Horizontality: strata are originally horizontal, has lots of organisms there geologic time scale
changes in horizontalness are from later folding, faulting PHANEROZOIC defined in one place, globally recognizable, well dated,
Law of Lateral Continuity: strata originally lateral until edges of 4 Layer Model: preserved & accessible
basin, and if strata interrupted laterally, then some event caused 4th: Built landscape & historic fill materials Megacities: population over 10 million
it (erosion, faulting, intrusion) 3rd: Glacial sediments (<2M yrs ago) Urban Shadow: broader region affected by urban resource usage
Structural Geology: shape of strata are rocks orientation 2nd: Phanerozoic/Palezoic cover rocks (600 - 2M yrs ago) Lloyd’s City Risk Index: analyzes how different threats affect
Folds: Ductile “wrinkling” of rock layers. 1st: Precambrian basement (>1000M yrs ago) economies of 301 major cities worldwide
Faults: Brittle breaks across where rocks slide Baseflow: Groundwater
 Greenbelt: 2 phases of environmental shock; deforestation and Radon:
urbanization is odorless (does not smell like rotten eggs)
Flashy Streamflow: streams rise & fall quick inhaling it can lead to lung cancer
Greenfields: areas of uncontaminated land (agriculture suited) combination of smoking and high radon
Brownfields: contaminated places (factory land, cities) levels is more dangerous than either alone
Frenchman’s Bay Problem: excess nutrients cause algal bloom & the gas seeps in from the underlying soil into
eutrophication some houses
Eutrophication: too much algal growth destroys water quality Cone of depression refers to the lowering of the
for higher organisms groundwater surface when pumping
Creek Problem: destroying ecosystems & natural creeks, Terranes are accreted fragments of crust added
replacing it with man made ones (not good at mitigating, at active margins
sedimentation, nutrients & flow) Rocks forming Rocky Mountains are older than
Geotextiles: fabric-like materials used in construction & mountains itself
landscaping to improve soil stability, drainage, filtration, The NA craton does extend beyond the Canadian
erosion control Shield
Remediating Brownfields: Great Unconformity in southern Ontario lies
Phase 1: fire maps (help identify where chemicals are to between Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks
avoid release) Permafrost is ground that is permanently frozen
Phase 2: geophysical investigation of contaminated sites A fiord is a glacially-eroded coastal valley
(expensive) West Interior Sedimentary Basin formed during
Phase 3: cost benefit analysis collisional event
Maritime Canada gets
Recharge Area: water is absorbed into ground A good index fossil evolves quickly and is
Confined & Unconfined Aquifers: permeable layers which water widespread built of far travelled crust
can filter through (confined more protected from surface (terranes)
contamination)
Aquifer: underground layer of sediment that holds groundwater
Aquitards: sediment is impermeable & water cannot move
through quickly
Water Table: upper surface of groundwater
Leachate Plume: Contaminated liquid that spreads underground
from landfill/waste site
LNAPL: Light non-aqueous phase liquids
LNAPLs float on water
DNAPL: Dense non-aqueous phase liquids
DNAPLs are more dense than LNAPLs
Acid Mine drainage (AMD): Another type of contamination that
happens near mines
Tailing: Crushed up bits of rocks/waste (sulphide) + water that
contaminated groundwater/bad chem. Gas.
Tailing Ponds: Man made reservoirs that prevent tailings from
getting into groundwater
Talik: unfrozen water
PAST EXAM NOTES 0: Initial formation of Undeformed
Western margin of NA plate is an active plate margin continental crust
For fossil hunt, visit the Paleozoic limestones of southern Ontario 1: original NA continent,
Tectonic construction of NA has taken more than 4000M yrs Arctica, which started
Some of oldest rocks in world are found in Northwest Territories forming 2.5B yrs ago from
smaller continents and was Normal Extension
Burgess Shale gives glimpse into life during Cambrian explosion
completed 1.9B yrs ago when Fault
Modern Canada landscape is result of Quaternary ice ages
Archean cratons (Slave, Nain
Ophiolites in Newfoundland provide evidence for the closure of Hanging
provinces) were welded
the Iapetus Ocean Footwall Block Wall Block
5 together by Trans-Hudson
North American craton is exposed in the Grand Canyon 1 Orogen and others
Compression
Reverse Fault
Much of eastern Canada contains ‘African’ rocks from the 2: added to NA during
Footwall
breakup of Pangea formation of Nena 1.8B yrs
Block Hanging
Site remediation refers to cleaning up polluted sites ago after Penokean Orogeny
The term Cordillera refers to the western mountains of NA
3 3: added during formation of
Wall Block

Canada's geology spans more than just the last 1 billion years Rodinia 1.3B yrs ago during Strike-Slip
Flashy river is caused by watershed hardening from urbanization Grenville Orogeny Fault
Geological epoch we currently live in is the Holocene epoch 4: added during formation of
2 Pangea 600M-300M yrs ago
FALSE: at Wiarton, ON polluted water from an industrial landfill
5: added after breakup of
site entered the town’s drinking water with deadly effect
4 Pangea 250M yrs ago
Hydrograph depicts changing discharge of river through time
Graben
A water well in an aquitard does not yield a lot of water
NA grows in 5 stages, each
An unconfined aquifer is not overlain by a confining layer
part associated with
BC’s coastline is prone to tsunamis during earthquakes
supercontinent
Greenstone Belts are made of metamorphosed ocean floor basalt
Moraines are formed during glacial (not interglacial) periods
Grenville Orogeny did not record the final assembly of Pangea
Greenstone belts record ancient oceans
‘Erratic’ boulders were carried by glaciers, not floodwaters
The Acasta gneiss contains zircons
A drumlin is a glacial landform
Polluted sites across Great Lakes are called ‘Areas of Concern’
Precambrian is a longer time period than the Cambrian
Permeable materials do allow water to move through
Eastern edge of NA plate is not along coast near Newfoundland
Southern Ontario is moving westward by 3.7 cm a year, and is
rising slowly by a few millimeters because of glacial rebound
Earthquakes in Southern Ontario are not ‘extraplate earthquakes’
Earthquake damage is worse on soft, wet soils
Shatter cones are not found in Toronto, Kingston, or Guelph
Ataratiri is now known as the West Don Lands
Groundwater protection zones protect aquifers, not aquitards
The dip is the direction and angle at which a rock tilts
 Greenbelt: 2 phases of environmental shock; deforestation and PAST EXAM NOTES Radon:
urbanization Western margin of NA plate is an active plate margin is odorless (does not smell like rotten eggs)
Flashy Streamflow: streams rise & fall quick For fossil hunt, visit the Paleozoic limestones of southern Ontario inhaling it can lead to lung cancer
Greenfields: areas of uncontaminated land (agriculture suited) Tectonic construction of NA has taken more than 4000M yrs combination of smoking and high radon levels is more
Brownfields: contaminated places (factory land, cities) Some of oldest rocks in world are found in Northwest Territories dangerous than either alone
Frenchman’s Bay Problem: excess nutrients cause algal bloom & Burgess Shale gives glimpse into life during Cambrian explosion the gas seeps in from the underlying soil into some houses
eutrophication Modern Canada landscape is result of Quaternary ice ages Cone of depression refers to the lowering of the groundwater
Eutrophication: too much algal growth destroys water quality Ophiolites in Newfoundland provide evidence for the closure of surface when pumping
for higher organisms the Iapetus Ocean Terranes are accreted fragments of crust added at active margins
Creek Problem: destroying ecosystems & natural creeks, North American craton is exposed in the Grand Canyon Rocks forming Rocky Mountains are older than mountains itself
replacing it with man made ones (not good at mitigating, Much of eastern Canada contains ‘African’ rocks from the The NA craton does extend beyond the Canadian Shield
sedimentation, nutrients & flow) breakup of Pangea Great Unconformity in southern Ontario lies between
Geotextiles: fabric-like materials used in construction & Site remediation refers to cleaning up polluted sites Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks
landscaping to improve soil stability, drainage, filtration, The term Cordillera refers to the western mountains of NA Permafrost is ground that is permanently frozen
erosion control Canada's geology spans more than just the last 1 billion years A fiord is a glacially-eroded coastal valley
Remediating Brownfields: Flashy river is caused by watershed hardening from urbanization West Interior Sedimentary Basin formed during collisional event
Phase 1: fire maps (help identify where chemicals are to Geological epoch we currently live in is the Holocene epoch A good index fossil evolves quickly and is widespread
avoid release) FALSE: at Wiarton, ON polluted water from an industrial landfill
Phase 2: geophysical investigation of contaminated sites site entered the town’s drinking water with deadly effect
(expensive) Hydrograph depicts changing discharge of river through time
Phase 3: cost benefit analysis A water well in an aquitard does not yield a lot of water
Recharge Area: water is absorbed into ground An unconfined aquifer is not overlain by a confining layer
Confined & Unconfined Aquifers: permeable layers which water BC’s coastline is prone to tsunamis during earthquakes
can filter through (confined more protected from surface Greenstone Belts are made of metamorphosed ocean floor basalt
contamination) Moraines are formed during glacial (not interglacial) periods
Aquifer: underground layer of sediment that holds groundwater Grenville Orogeny did not record the final assembly of Pangea
Aquitards: sediment is impermeable & water cannot move Greenstone belts record ancient oceans
through quickly ‘Erratic’ boulders were carried by glaciers, not floodwaters
Water Table: upper surface of groundwater The Acasta gneiss contains zircons
Leachate Plume: Contaminated liquid that spreads underground A drumlin is a glacial landform
from landfill/waste site Polluted sites across Great Lakes are called ‘Areas of Concern’
LNAPL: Light non-aqueous phase liquids Precambrian is a longer time period than the Cambrian
LNAPLs float on water Permeable materials do allow water to move through
DNAPL: Dense non-aqueous phase liquids Eastern edge of NA plate is not along coast near Newfoundland
DNAPLs are more dense than LNAPLs Southern Ontario is moving westward by 3.7 cm a year, and is
Acid Mine drainage (AMD): Another type of contamination that rising slowly by a few millimeters because of glacial rebound
happens near mines Earthquakes in Southern Ontario are not ‘extraplate earthquakes’
Tailing: Crushed up bits of rocks/waste (sulphide) + water that Earthquake damage is worse on soft, wet soils
contaminated groundwater/bad chem. Gas. Shatter cones are not found in Toronto, Kingston, or Guelph
Tailing Ponds: Man made reservoirs that prevent tailings from Ataratiri is now known as the West Don Lands
getting into groundwater Groundwater protection zones protect aquifers, not aquitards
Talik: unfrozen water The dip is the direction and angle at which a rock tilts

Undeformed 0: Initial formation of

continental crust
1: original NA continent,
Arctica, which started
forming 2.5B yrs ago from
Normal Extension
smaller continents and was
Fault
completed 1.9B yrs ago when
Hanging Archean cratons (Slave, Nain
Footwall Block Wall Block provinces) were welded
Compression 5 together by Trans-Hudson
Reverse Fault 1 Orogen and others
Footwall 2: added to NA during
Block Hanging
formation of Nena 1.8B yrs
Wall Block
ago after Penokean Orogeny
3 3: added during formation of
Strike-Slip
Rodinia 1.3B yrs ago during
Fault
Grenville Orogeny
4: added during formation of
2 Pangea 600M-300M yrs ago
5: added after breakup of
Graben 4 Pangea 250M yrs ago
Maritime Canada gets
NA grows in 5 stages, each
built of far travelled crust
part associated with
supercontinent (terranes)