Linear Applications
Linear Applications
Course of Algebra II
Pr. Abdelbaki Merouani
Chapter 2
LINEAR APPLICATIONS
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(b) For all u = (x, y) ∈ R2 and for all λ ∈ K:
Imf = {f (u); u ∈ R3 }
= {f (x, y, z); (x, y, z) ∈ R3 }
= {(2y + z, 2x + z, x − y); (x, y, z) ∈ R3 }
= {(0, 2x, x) + (2y, 0, −y) + (z, z, 0); (x, y, z) ∈ R3 }
= {(0, 2, 1)x + y(2, 0, −1) + z(1, 1, 0); (x, y, z) ∈ R3 }
2. It is easy to verify that v1 (0, 2, 1), v2 (2, 0, −1), v3 (1, 1, 0) are linearly dependent, so
dim(Imf ) ≤ 3, which proves that Imf ̸= R3 , and f is not surjective.
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2.2.2 Kernel of a Linear Application
Definition 16. Given f : E → F as a linear application, the kernel of f is the subset of E
consisting of the preimages of the zero vector in the space F .
It is denoted by ker(f ) = {u ∈ E | f (u) = 0F }.
In other words, u ∈ ker(f ) if and only if f (u) = 0F .
so α1 u1 + α2 u2 ∈ ker(f ).
Solution.
2y +z = 0 (1)
2x + z = 0 (2)
= 0 (3)
x−y
2. From the third equation, we get x = y. Substituting into equation (2), we obtain
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2.3 Rank of an Application. Rank Theorem
Definition 17. Let E and F be two finite-dimensional K-vector spaces, and f ∈ L(E, F ).
The rank of f , denoted rg(f ), is the natural number defined by:
rg(f ) = dim(Im(f ))
f : R2 [X] → R2
P 7→ f (P ) = (P (0), P (2))
We want to determine the rank of f .
Using the Rank Theorem,
ker f = {P ∈ R2 [X] | f (P ) = 0}
ker f = {P ∈ R2 [X] | (P (0), P (2)) = (0, 0)}
ker f = {P = aX 2 + bX + c | (c, 4a + 2b + c) = (0, 0)}
ker f = {P = aX 2 + bX + c | c = 0, 4a + 2b + c = 0}
ker f = {P = aX 2 + bX | c = 0, b = −2a}
ker f = {aX 2 − 2aX | a ∈ R}
ker f = Span{X 2 − 2X}
dim(ker f ) = 1
rg f = 2
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Example 18. 1. The map
f : R2 → R2
u = (x, y) 7→ f (u) = (x + y, x − y)
is an isomorphism (injective + surjective).
2. The map
f : R2 → R
u = (x, y) 7→ f (u) = 2y
is not an isomorphism (f (1, 3) = f (2, 3) but (1, 3) ̸= (2, 3)).
Proposition 11. Let f be a linear map from E to F with dim E = dim F = n. Then the
following equivalences hold:
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2.5 Solved Exercises
Exercise 1. Consider the function f defined from R2 to R2 as follows:
3. Is f bijective?
Solution
f (u + v) = f ((x, y) + (x0 , y0 )) = f (x + x0 , y + y0 )
= (2(x + x0 ) − 4(y + y0 ), (x + x0 ) − 2(y + y0 ))
= (2x − 4y, x − 2y) + (2x0 − 4y0 , x0 − 2y0 )
= f (u) + f (v)
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Exercise 2. Let f : R3 → R3 be defined by f (u) = f (x, y, z) = (−2x + y + z, 4y, x − 2y + z).
1. Show that f is linear.
3. Calculate Im f .
Solution
1. For all u = (x, y, z) and v = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) in R3 :
f (u + v) = f ((x, y, z) + (x0 , y0 , z0 )) = f (x + x0 , y + y0 , z + z0 )
2. The kernel:
3. The image:
Im f = {f (u) | u ∈ R3 }
Im f = {(−2x + y + z, 4y, x − 2y + z) | (x, y, z) ∈ R3 }
Im f = {(−2, 4, 1), (1, 0, 1)}
And dim Im f = 2.
Exercise 3. In the vector space R[X] of polynomials, consider the "shift" application D :
R[X] → R[X] such that D(P (X)) = P (X + 1).
1. Is the application D linear?
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Solution
1. For any pair P, Q of R[X] and any pair α, β of real numbers, we have
= αD(P ) + βD(Q)
Thus, D is a linear map.
2. Any polynomial can be written as the image of another under D. Let Q(X) = b0 +
b1 X + . . . + bn X n . Consider the polynomial P (X) = Q(X − 1). Then Q(X) =
P (X + 1) = D(P ). The image of the shift operation is thus the entire space of
polynomials Im D = R[X]. Therefore, D is surjective.
4. The shift application D is both surjective and injective, making it bijective and an
isomorphism. The reciprocal function of D is given by the inverse shift D−1 : R[X] →
R[X] defined as D−1 (Q(X)) = P (X − 1).
Exercise 4. Let E = C 1 (R) be the vector space of continuously differentiable functions, and
φ be a linear map φ : E = C 1 (R) → E = C 1 (R) such that φ(f ) = f ′ .
3. Is φ injective? surjective?
Solution
2. On the other hand, if g is a C 1 (R) function, it has a primitive F , which is also C 1 (R).
We then have φ(F ) = F ′ = g, showing that the image of the differentiation operation
is the space of continuously differentiable functions, i.e., Im φ = E.
Correction
1. Let x ∈ ker(f ). This means that f (x) = 0, so f 2 (x) = f (f (x)) = f (0) = 0, which
shows that x ∈ ker(f 2 ). Thus, ker(f ) ⊆ ker(f 2 ).
2. Let y ∈ Im(f 2 ). This means that there exists x ∈ E such that y = f 2 (x) = f (f (x)).
So, y is the image of an element under f , hence y ∈ Im(f ). Thus, Im(f 2 ) ⊆ Im(f ).
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2.6 Exercices Supplémentaires
Exercise 6. Determine if the following functions are linear:
1. f : R2 → R2
(x, y) 7→ (3x + y, x − y)
2. f : R3 → R3
(x, y, z) 7→ (xy, −x, y)
3. f : R3 → R3
(x, y, z) 7→ (3x + y + z, y − z, x + y)
4. f : R3 [X] → R3
P 7→ (P (−1), P (0), P (1))
f : R3 → R2
u 7→ f (u) = (x + y + z, 2x + y − z)
2. Determine ker f .
Exercise 8. Let E = R[X], the vector space of polynomials of degree less than or equal to
n, and f : E → E defined by
f (P ) = P + (1 − X)P ′
2. Let
E = {u ∈ R3 | f (u) = 2u}
F = {u ∈ R3 | f (u) = −u}
Show that E and F are subspaces.
4. Does E ⊕ F = R3 ?
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Exercise 10. Let f be an endomorphism of a vector space E.
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