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 Preface
vii

neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of language. We ­describe the major structures of

the brain, explain how the brain processes and produces language, and discuss sen-
sitive periods in neuroanatomical and neurophysiological development. In Chapter 4,
we describe the many reasons different people study language development. We in-
troduce some major approaches to studying language development as well as some
major language-development theories; we reference these approaches and theories
subsequently in several places in the text. We conclude Chapter 4 by describing how
theories of language development contribute to practice in several areas.
Chapters 5 through 8 provide a developmental account of language acquisi-
tion for four age groups (infancy—Chapter 5; toddlerhood—Chapter 6; preschool
age—Chapter 7; and school age and beyond—Chapter 8). More specifically, in each
of these four chapters, we describe the major language-development milestones
children achieve during the period in question; examine achievements in language
form, content, and use; explain some of the intra- and inter-individual differences
in language development; and discuss methods researchers and clinicians use to
measure language development.
In Chapter 9 we explore language differences. We detail the connection be-
tween language and culture, explain how languages evolve and change, describe
bilingualism and second language acquisition, and explain some theories of second
language acquisition and their implications for practice.
Finally, in Chapter 10, we examine language disorders in childhood. We define
the term language disorder, explain who identifies and treats children with language
disorders, discuss the major types of language disorders, and describe how practi-
tioners treat language disorders.

Key Features of the Text

Each chapter bridges language-development theory and practice by providing stu-
dents with a theoretical and scientific foundation to the study of language develop-
ment. We emphasize the relevance of the material to students’ current and future
experiences in clinical, educational, and research settings.

Multicultural Considerations
Current perspectives emphasize the importance of taking into account multicul-
tural considerations in understanding language development. This text promotes
students’ awareness of the way in which culture interacts with language develop-
ment for children from diverse backgrounds within and beyond the many types of
communities in the United States.

Research Foundations
Current initiatives in the educational, social science, and health communities emphasize
the use of evidence-based practices. Such practices emphasize the importance of re-
search results to making educational and clinical decisions. In keeping with this prem-
ise, we emphasize the research foundations of the study of language development, and
use the most current empirical findings to describe children’s language achievements.

Multidisciplinary Focus
The study of language development is constantly evolving and being influenced by
many diverse disciplines; this multidimensional and multidisciplinary foundation
attracts many students to the study of language development. We introduce exciting
innovations in theory and practice from many diverse areas of research.
viii www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

Easy-to-Read Format
Language Development from Theory to Practice is presented in a way that promotes
student learning. First, the chapters are infused with figures, tables, and photographs
to contextualize abstract and complex information. Second, important terms are
highlighted for easy learning and reference. Third, discussion questions are integrat-
ed throughout to provide opportunities to pause and consider important informa-
tion. All these features create opportunities for students to actively engage with the
material in the text.

Pedagogical Elements
The text includes many pedagogical elements:
• Learning outcomes to organize each chapter
• Discussion questions interspersed throughout each chapter
• Video clips relevant to chapter material
• Chapter summaries
• Self-check, multiple-choice quizzes
• Activities that allow students to engage with language Beyond the Book
• Boxed inserts:
• Developmental Timeline: We present milestones for language development,
observable features of these milestones, and approximate ages for the
milestones.
• Language Diversity and Differences: We introduce cultural differences in
language development and describe the observable features of these differ-
ences. We also discuss educational and clinical implications with regard to
cultural differences.
• Research Paradigms: We provide descriptions of various research paradigms
used to inform our understanding of language development.
• Theory to Practice: We discuss some implications of different theoretical per-
spectives for educational and clinical practice.

Acknowledgments
We extend our thanks to our family members, friends, and colleagues who support-
ed us throughout this revision. Among these persons are the Pence family, the Pow-
ell family, the Turnbull family, and the Justice and Mykel families. We are indebted
to them for their interest in and support of this text.
We are grateful to a number of experts who reviewed this manuscript: Eileen
Abrahamsen, Old Dominion University; Karin M. Boerger, University of Colorado–
Boulder; Julie Dalmasso, Western Illinois University; Martin Fujiki, Brigham Young
University; and Shannon Hall-Mills, Florida State University.
Brief Contents
Chapter 1 Language Development: An Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Building Blocks of Language 32
Chapter 3 Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology of
Language 65
Chapter 4 The Science and Theory of Language
Development 94
Chapter 5 Infancy: Let the Language Achievements
Begin 122
Chapter 6 Toddlerhood: Exploring the World and
Experimenting with Language 158
Chapter 7 Preschool: Building Literacy on
Language 195
Chapter 8 School-Age Years and Beyond: Developing
Later Language 227
Chapter 9 Language Diversity 262
Chapter 10 Language Disorders in Children 290

Glossary 319
References 331
Name Index 354
Subject Index 360

ix
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
1 Language Development: An Introduction 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES 1
WHAT IS LANGUAGE? 2
Language Defined 2
Language as a Module of Human Cognition 5
HOW DOES LANGUAGE RELATE TO SPEECH, HEARING, AND
COMMUNICATION? 6
Speech 7
Hearing 10
Communication 12
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR DOMAINS OF LANGUAGE? 16
Form, Content, and Use 16
Components of Form, Content, and Use 17
WHAT ARE SOME REMARKABLE FEATURES OF LANGUAGE? 20
Acquisition Rate 20
Universality 21
Species Specificity 22
Semanticity 22
Productivity 22
WHAT ARE LANGUAGE DIFFERENCES AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS? 23
Language Differences 23
Language Disorders 28
SUMMARY 30
BEYOND THE BOOK 31

2 Building Blocks of Language 32

LEARNING OUTCOMES 32
WHAT IS PHONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT? 33
Phonological Building Blocks 34
Influences on Phonological Development 37
WHAT IS MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT? 38
Morphological Building Blocks 38
Influences on Morphological Development 40
WHAT IS SYNTACTIC DEVELOPMENT? 43
Syntactic Building Blocks 43
Influences on Syntactic Development 48
WHAT IS SEMANTIC DEVELOPMENT? 51
Semantic Building Blocks 51
Influences on Semantic Development 56

xi
xii www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

WHAT IS PRAGMATIC DEVELOPMENT? 57

Pragmatic Building Blocks 57
Influences on Pragmatic Development 62
SUMMARY 63
BEYOND THE BOOK 64

  3 Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology of

Language 65
LEARNING OUTCOMES 65
WHAT ARE NEUROANATOMY AND NEUROPHYSIOLOGY? 66
Terminology 69
Neuroscience Basics 70
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN
BRAIN? 74
Cerebrum 75
Brainstem 80
Cerebellum 81
HOW DOES THE HUMAN BRAIN PROCESS AND PRODUCE LANGUAGE? 81
Semantics 82
Syntax and Morphology 83
Phonology 84
Pragmatics 85
WHAT ARE NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL AND NEUROANATOMICAL SENSITIVE
PERIODS? 86
Sensitive Periods Defined 86
Neuroanatomical and Neurophysiological Concepts Related to Sensitive
Periods 87
Sensitive Periods and Language Acquisition 88
SUMMARY 92
BEYOND THE BOOK 92

4 The Science and Theory of Language

Development 94
LEARNING OUTCOMES 94
WHO STUDIES LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND WHY? 95
Basic Research 97
Applied Research 98
WHAT ARE SOME MAJOR APPROACHES TO STUDYING LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT? 99
Approaches to Studying Speech Perception 100
Approaches to Studying Language Production 101
Approaches to Studying Language Comprehension 105
WHAT ARE SOME MAJOR LANGUAGE-DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES? 106
Questions Language Theories Should Answer 106
Major Language-Development Theories 107
Nurture-Inspired Theory 110
Nature-Inspired Theories 111
Interactionist Theories 113
 Contents
xiii

HOW DO LANGUAGE-DEVELOPMENT THEORIES INFLUENCE

PRACTICE? 116
Linkage of Theory to Practice 116
Instruction in English as a Second Language: Theory and Practice 117
Practices Language Theories May Inform 118
Evidence-Based Practice: Linking Theory, Science, and Practice 119
SUMMARY 120
BEYOND THE BOOK 121

5 Infancy: Let the Language Achievements

Begin 122
LEARNING OUTCOMES 122
WHAT MAJOR LANGUAGE-DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OCCUR IN
INFANCY? 123
Infant Speech Perception 123
Awareness of Actions and Intentions 127
Category Formation 128
Early Vocalizations 129
Additional Milestones 134
WHAT ARE SOME OF THE EARLY FOUNDATIONS FOR LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT? 134
Infant-Directed Speech 135
Joint Reference and Attention 136
Daily Routines of Infancy 139
Caregiver Responsiveness 140
WHAT MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANGUAGE FORM, CONTENT, AND USE
CHARACTERIZE INFANCY? 141
Language Form 142
Language Content 143
Language Use 143
WHAT FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO INFANTS’ INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENTS IN
LANGUAGE? 144
Intraindividual Differences 144
Interindividual Differences 145
HOW DO RESEARCHERS AND CLINICIANS MEASURE LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY? 147
Researchers 147
Clinicians 154
SUMMARY 156
BEYOND THE BOOK 157

6 Toddlerhood: Exploring the World and

Experimenting with Language 158
LEARNING OUTCOMES 158
WHAT MAJOR LANGUAGE-DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OCCUR IN
TODDLERHOOD? 159
First Words 159
Gestures 160
Theory of Mind 162
xiv www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

WHAT MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANGUAGE FORM, CONTENT, AND USE

CHARACTERIZE TODDLERHOOD? 163
Language Form 165
Language Content 174
Language Use 180
WHAT FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO TODDLERS’ INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENTS IN
LANGUAGE? 181
Intraindividual Differences 182
Interindividual Differences 182
HOW DO RESEARCHERS AND CLINICIANS MEASURE LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT IN TODDLERHOOD? 184
Researchers 184
Clinicians 190
SUMMARY 194
BEYOND THE BOOK 194

7 Preschool: Building Literacy on Language 195

LEARNING OUTCOMES 195
WHAT MAJOR LANGUAGE-DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OCCUR IN THE
PRESCHOOL PERIOD? 196
Decontextualized Language 196
Theory of Mind 197
Emergent Literacy 198
WHAT MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANGUAGE FORM, CONTENT, AND USE
CHARACTERIZE THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD? 203
Language Form 204
Language Content 206
Language Use 210
WHAT FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO PRESCHOOLERS’ INDIVIDUAL
ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANGUAGE? 215
Intraindividual Differences 215
Interindividual Differences 216
Effects of Peers and Siblings 217
HOW DO RESEARCHERS AND CLINICIANS MEASURE LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD? 219
Researchers 219
Clinicians 223
SUMMARY 225
BEYOND THE BOOK 226

8 School-Age Years and Beyond: Developing Later

Language 227
LEARNING OUTCOMES 227
WHAT MAJOR LANGUAGE-DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES OCCUR IN THE
SCHOOL-AGE YEARS AND BEYOND? 228
Shifting Sources of Language Input 228
Acquisition of Metalinguistic Competence 231
 Contents
xv

WHAT MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANGUAGE FORM, CONTENT, AND USE

CHARACTERIZE THE SCHOOL-AGE YEARS AND BEYOND? 236
Language Form 236
Language Content 241
Language Use 246
WHAT FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN’S, ADOLESCENTS’,
AND ADULTS’ INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENTS IN LANGUAGE? 251
Language and Gender 251
Language and Aging 254
HOW DO RESEARCHERS AND CLINICIANS MEASURE LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT IN THE SCHOOL-AGE YEARS AND BEYOND? 255
Assessment Types 255
Assessment of Language Form 255
Assessment of Language Content 257
Assessment of Language Use 259
SUMMARY 261
BEYOND THE BOOK 261

  9 Language Diversity 262

LEARNING OUTCOMES 262
WHAT IS THE CONNECTION BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE? 263
The Interrelatedness of Language and Culture 263
Infant-Directed Speech 264
HOW DO LANGUAGES EVOLVE AND CHANGE? 265
Dialects 265
Pidgins 273
Creoles 273
WHAT ARE BILINGUALISM AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION? 273
Bilingualism and Multilingualism 274
Second Language Acquisition 278
WHAT ARE SOME THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND
THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE? 282
Nurture-Inspired Theories 283
Nature-Inspired Theories 283
Interactionist Theories 284
Other Theories 287
What Practices Does Research Support for EL Students? 287
SUMMARY 289
BEYOND THE BOOK 289

  10 Language Disorders in Children 290

LEARNING OUTCOMES 290
WHAT IS A LANGUAGE DISORDER? 291
Distinguishing Between Language Disorders and Language Differences 291
Prevalence 292
WHO IDENTIFIES AND TREATS CHILDREN WITH LANGUAGE DISORDERS? 295
Speech–Language Pathologists 295
Psychologists 296
General Educators 296
xvi www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

Special Educators 297

Early Interventionists 298
Audiologists 298
Otorhinolaryngologist 299
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TYPES OF CHILD LANGUAGE DISORDERS? 300
Specific Language Impairment 300
Autism Spectrum Disorder 302
Intellectual Disability 304
Traumatic Brain Injury 306
Hearing Loss 307
Identification and Treatment of Language Disorders 312
Treatment of Language Disorders 315
SUMMARY 317
BEYOND THE BOOK 317

Glossary 319
References 331
Name Index 354
Subject Index 360
 1
Language
Development
An Introduction

Learning Outcomes
After completion of this chapter, the reader will be
able to:
1. Define the term language.
© Robert Kneschke/Shutterstock
2. Describe how language relates to speech,
hearing, and communication.
3. Describe the major domains of language.
4. Identify several remarkable features of
language.
5. Discuss the distinction between language
differences and language disorders.

1 1
2 www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

H undreds of scientists worldwide study the remarkable phenomenon of chil-

dren’s language acquisition. Each year, these scholars publish the results of
numerous studies on children’s language development in scientific journals,
pursuing answers to such questions as:
• Does the language a child is learning (e.g., Chinese vs. English) influence the
rate of language development?
• How do caregivers’ interactions with their child affect the timing of their child’s
first word?
• Do children who show early delays in language development typically catch up
with their peers?
• Do children learning a signed language develop language similarly to children
learning a spoken language?
• Why do children with autism have such difficulties developing language skills?
These questions provide the student of language development a glimpse into
many of the interesting topics language scientists focus on in their work around
the world. These questions also suggest how important language research is to
informing the everyday practices and activities of parents, teachers, psychologists,
and other professionals invested in helping children achieve their fullest language
development potential. That these questions have yet to be fully answered, shows
that the study of language development is a constantly evolving and complex area
of science in which practitioners have many more questions than answers.
In this chapter, we provide a general introduction to the study of language
development and consider five major topics. In the first section, we answer the
question “What is language?”, and present a definition of language that we build on
throughout this text. In the second section, we discuss differences among speech,
hearing, and communication—three aspects of human development and behavior
that are closely related but are nonetheless distinct capacities. In the third section,
we address the five major domains of language, a topic we introduce here and dis-
cuss more fully in Chapter 2. In the fourth section, we examine several remarkable
features of language, and in the fifth section, we describe differences in and disor-
ders of language development—two topics we explore more comprehensively in
Chapters 9 and 10.

WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
Language Defined
You probably have an intuitive sense of what language is because it is a human
behavior you have acquired to a sophisticated level and use regularly for various
purposes. In fact, you are using your language abilities as you read and analyze the
content of this chapter. However, if you take a moment to define language more
explicitly, you may find the task challenging. If you were to ask 10 classmates for
a definition of language, each would likely respond differently. The same outcome
would probably occur if you questioned 10 language researchers.
You are also most likely aware that language is a basic and essential human
behavior that develops early in life. You probably recognize that language involves
words and sentences and both expression (language production) and comprehen-
sion (language understanding). In addition, you know language is a process of
the brain that helps people communicate their thoughts to other individuals, al-
though you may be somewhat unclear about how language differs from speech and
communication.
However, to be as specific as possible about what language is and is not,
let’s look at the official definition of the term language the American Speech-
Language-Hearing Association (1982) uses:
 Chapter 1 Language Development 3

The relationship between a

word and its referent is arbi-
trary. English speakers use
the word happy to represent
an internal feeling of happi-
ness, but any word would do.

© Paul Hakimata/Fotolia
Language is a “complex and dynamic system of conventional symbols that
is used in various modes for thought and communication.”
Next, we delineate in more detail the specific characteristics of language identified
in this definition:
1. Language Is a System of Symbols. The first characteristic of language war-
ranting discussion is that it is a code, consisting of a system of symbols called
morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest units of language that carry meaning; we
combine them to create words. Some words consist of a single morpheme (e.g.,
school), but many words comprise two or more morphemes, such as schools (two
morphemes—school + -s) and preschools (three morphemes—pre- + school + -s).
These symbols can exist in spoken or written format, a point we’ll return to shortly.
The term code refers to the translation of one type of information into another
type of information; this involves the use of symbols. For humans to develop the
capacity to use language thousands of years ago, perhaps the most important pre-
requisite was the human ability to use symbols, such as representing a specific
concept with a specific sound (Christianson & Kirby, 2003). In language, we create
words by using morphemes to represent myriad aspects of the world around our
language community. For instance, as English speakers, we can represent an inter-
nal feeling of happiness by using the single word happy. When we use the word
happy in a conversation with other people to describe our feelings, we use the
word to translate our feelings. Although we can share feelings and ideas through
other means—such as gesture, facial expression, and posture—words are much
more specific and provide a uniquely powerful tool for communicating.
One important characteristic of language code is that the relationship between
a word and its referent (the aspect of the world to which the word refers) is arbi-
trary. For example, although English speakers recognize that happy refers to a spe-
cific feeling, any other word (e.g., sprit, nopic, or grendy) would do. Likewise, one
way English speakers can denote plurality is to attach the morpheme -s to words
(e.g., pens, dogs). Because the relationship between the plural morpheme -s and its
plural marking is arbitrary, English speakers could denote plurality in various other
ways. In contrast, the code we use to organize words into sentences is not arbitrary;
rather, we must follow specific rules for organizing thoughts into words and sen-
tences, as we discuss next.
4 www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

2. The System of Language Is Conventional. The second characteristic of lan-

guage is that the system of symbols is conventional, so the members of a com-
munity or culture can share it. The term conventional means users of a language
abide by accepted rules. For instance, speakers of English agree to use the word
dog (and related words and synonyms, such as pup, puppy, and canine) to refer
to those companionable creatures, rather than other potential words, such as boop
or ming. Speakers of Spanish use a different word to refer to this concept (perro),
as do users of American Sign Language. Adhering to specific conventions allows
all members of a language community to use language with one another as a tool
for expression. A language community is a group of people who use a common
language. In fact, somewhere in the history of the human species, a single language
probably emerged within a social community of about 100 hominids (Cartwright,
2000). Some experts contend that language emerged within this community as a
type of grooming behavior, essentially an efficient way to share socially useful in-
formation (Christiansen & Kirby, 2003). Accordingly, the numerous languages of the
world emerged from this single community of language users.
Language communities emerge for many reasons. Some form as a result of geo-
graphic circumstances, as in the case of Ukrainian, the language people speak in
Ukraine, a country in the western region of the former Soviet Union. Alternatively,
a language community may emerge for sociological reasons, as in the case of He-
brew, which many persons of Jewish faith share, or American Sign Language, which
persons in the U.S. Deaf community use. A language community can organize for
economic reasons as well. For instance, the World Trade Organization (WTO), a
global group that coordinates and regulates trade among 161 countries (as of April,
2015), conducts its activities in English, French, and Spanish.
3. The Language System Is Dynamic. The third characteristic of language is
that it is dynamic. This means language is in a state of activity and change, both
within an individual who is acquiring language and within a community that uses
a certain language. Let’s consider first the case of the individual. As we discuss
throughout this book, the acquisition of language begins at birth, or even before
birth, in utero, and is in a state of change across the lifespan. Even as adults, our
language skills are dynamic. As one example, we might seek to learn a second
language. As another example, as we age, some aspects of our language skill de-
cline. We might, for example, have increased difficulty finding the names for things
(Capuron et al., 2011), which is a normal part of aging.
The language a community uses is also very dynamic. When the first edition
of this book was published, in 2008, there was no such word as selfie (or selfie
stick, for that matter). Sometime during the last eight years, this word entered the
English language and is now in our vocabulary. In any language, words come
and go and other changes happen as well, as we discuss more thoroughly in
Chapter 9.
4. Language Is a Tool for Human Communication. The final and perhaps
most important characteristic of language requiring discussion is that it exists as
a tool for communication. Communication is the process of sharing information,
such as thoughts, feelings, and ideas, among two or more persons. Although other
Learn More species are able to communicate, such as dogs, primates, birds, dolphins, and ants,
About 1.1 the innate and specialized capacity of humans to use language as a tool to com-
As you watch the video municate is what makes the human species unique. For instance, although some
titled “What Is Language?” primates may communicate alarms to one another using calls, these alarm calls
consider the different seem to be general and do not symbolically represent a given predator (e.g., eagle)
features of language and (Christiansen & Kirby, 2003). Experts therefore argue that “language is the most
how language differs from distinctive feature that distinguishes humans from other animals” (Wang & Minett,
other systems of communi- 2005, p. 263). Language itself is what supports the highly complex communication
cation. https://www.youtube. enjoyed by the human species, such as your ability to comprehend and learn from
com/watch?v=GenkKxTk7bw the complex matter contained within this text.
 Chapter 1 Language Development 5

Language as a Module of Human Cognition

Beyond its role in supporting human communication, language is a cognitive tool
that helps humans to develop the “picture of the world that we use for thinking”
(Bickerton, 1995). This “picture of the world” includes not only symbolic repre-
sentations of linguistic concepts (e.g., big, fly, crazy) that are organized in a vast
network, but also the formal syntactic or grammatical rules that organize these
concepts into orderly, surface-level representations. According to this proposition,
first and foremost, language is a representational tool people use for thinking,
and, second, this tool permits people to communicate their thoughts to other
individuals.
Language probably emerged in the human species for the latter reason: to pro-
vide an efficient and effective means for communication within a community. In
other words, language emerged as a cultural and social evolution, rather than a
biological evolution: Our need and interest to communicate with others gave rise
to the complexity of language over time (Christiansen & Kirby, 2003). Some experts
suggest that language emerged in the human species because of increases in the
size of human communities (e.g., from about 50 members in a group to more than
100 members), and therefore increases in the complexity of social dynamics (Dun-
bar & Aiello, 1993). With time, the neural circuitry of the human brain responded
to the adaptive advantage of using language not only as a social tool but also as
an inner representational tool, emerging as a specialized part of the human mind
(Christiansen & Kirby, 2003).
The human brain uses language as a representational tool to store informa-
tion and to carry out many cognitive processes such as reasoning, hypothesizing,
memorizing, planning, and problem solving. These processes are sometimes called
higher-level language skills to differentiate them from more basic-level language
abilities. When applied to mathematical and scientific tasks, these higher-level abil-
ities may be called mathematical reasoning and scientific reasoning; however, it
is important to acknowledge the role of language in mathematical and scientific
reasoning tasks. For instance, suppose you are asked to complete the following
mathematical reasoning task:
The average cost of a smart phone in the United States in 2015 is about $250. As-
suming the prices of consumer goods decline about 3% per year, how much, on
average, would a smart phone cost in 2020?
You would have difficultly generating an answer without using language as a tool.
Although some persons may contend that they think in images and not in words,
certain thoughts—such as “My trust in you has been shattered forever by your un-
faithfulness”—are impossible to view as images and require language to be invoked
as a representational tool (Bickerton, 1995, p. 22).
As we consider the definition of language, particularly its relation to cognition,
Discussion Point we need to explore the concept of modularity. We introduce this concept here, and
Too many people in the world are discuss it more thoroughly in Chapter 4. Modularity is a cognitive science theory
without food. We need a solution about how the human mind is organized within the structures of the brain (Braisby
to the global food-shortage prob-
lem. Try to reason through a solu-
& Gellatly, 2012). Questions about modularity concern whether the human brain
tion to this problem without using contains a set of highly specific modules—regions of the brain developed to pro-
language. Is it possible? Can an cess specific types of information—or whether the human brain is itself a general-
individual engage in complex rea- ized module in which all parts work together to process information. A module is
soning without language? a specialized problem-solving device in the brain that responds to information of a
restricted type. Because of the specificity of such modules, they are termed domain
specific, meaning they can process only very specific types of information, such as
depth perception within the visual system. Some cognitive theorists contend that
the brain consists of very large domain-general modules, which carry out very
general tasks like memory and reasoning, as well as domain-specific modules that
execute very specific types of tasks.
6 www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

With respect to language, some language theorists argue that the human brain
contains a large number of language-specific modules, tightly clustered and highly
interconnected, each of which processes specific types of linguistic information
(see Curtiss, 2012). Such theorists contend that during human evolution, the neural
circuitry of the brain became highly specialized in several regions to handle the
task of developing and using language (Cartwright, 2000). In fact, researchers have
long known that specific regions of the brain are associated with specific language
abilities. For instance, people who sustain damage to certain areas of the left frontal
lobe, such as during a stroke, often exhibit difficulty with basic grammar. These
people may omit grammatical markers and speak with a “telegraphic” quality (e.g.,
“Tommy go store now”), which suggests this region of the brain governs aspects of
grammar (Shapiro & Caramazza, 2003). The results of brain-imaging studies of the
workings of undamaged brains also indicate that various regions of the brain cor-
respond to highly specific aspects of language (Okada et al., 2013), a concept we
elaborate on in Chapter 3.
Studies of children with language impairment (a group we discuss more
thoroughly in Chapter 10) also provide some support for the notion of language
modularity. Typically developing in all areas except for language, children with a
condition called specific language impairment (SLI) exhibit problems in very pre-
cise aspects of grammar, such as marking verb tense. Verb tense marking includes,
for instance, inflecting verbs with –ed to create the past tense, as in “Juan brushed
his teeth.” At ages 4 and 5 years, children with SLI have significant problems with
past-tense marking (typically omitting it; Clahsen, Rothweiler, Sterner, & Chilla,
2014), even when other aspects of language development are proceeding normally.
Across any number of languages, including English, German, and Swedish, this is a
prominent marker of children with SLI (e.g., Clahsen et al., 2014). That verb struc-
tures are so clearly impaired in children with SLI suggests that, perhaps, there is a
particular module of the brain that processes verb structures and that this is the site
of disturbance in cases of SLI.
The concept of language modularity is not without its critics. Some theorists
argue that language emerges in response to an individual’s culture rather than in re-
sponse to any specific internal architecture. Others argue that language is processed
by a general neural network that operates on all aspects of language and that the
hypothesized language modules lack “neurological reality” (Bickerton, 1995, p. 76).
Bickerton, in a well-reasoned critique of modularity theory as it applies to language,
showed that the results of research on disordered language due to developmental
disability (e.g., cognitive impairment) and brain injury have failed to support the
modularity concept. For instance, Bickerton reviewed studies of persons with dam-
age to a specific area of the brain purportedly linked to grammar problems, noting
that these individuals showed diverse patterns of syntactic impairment. Because
1.1 the same module was likely damaged in these individuals, the expectation would
Check Your be little variability in their impairment. At the same time, it is also important to rec-
Understanding ognize that, even if language processes are modular, this does not mean language
Click here to gauge your functions specific to a given module (or area of the brain) cannot be subsumed by
understanding of the another area of the brain when injury occurs. We’ll discuss the notion of brain plas-
concepts in this section. ticity in Chapter 3. Undoubtedly, researchers in the next several decades will better
elucidate how language is represented in the neural architecture of the brain.

How Does Language Relate to Speech,

Hearing, and Communication?
Language, speech, hearing, and communication together represent basic and inter-
related human abilities. Although simple forms of communication such as gesturing
do not necessarily require language, speech, and hearing, more advanced forms of
communication—particularly speaking and listening—require them.
 Chapter 1 Language Development 7

Often, the terms language, speech, hearing, and communication are used syn-
Discussion Point onymously, but in fact they describe substantially different processes. We previously
Speech, hearing, communica- defined language as the rule-governed, code-based tool a person uses to represent
tion, and language are distinct
thoughts and ideas. Once individuals formulate thoughts and ideas, they can com-
processes, although people often
use the terms interchangeably. municate them to other people using speech or a manual sign system; otherwise,
Before reading further, consider individuals can choose to keep thoughts and ideas to themselves (inner language)
your definition for each, focusing or can write them down (written language).
on what differentiates the four Speech describes the neuromuscular process by which humans turn language
processes.
into a sound signal and transmit it through the air (or another medium such as a
telephone line) to a receiver. Hearing is the sensory system that allows speech to
enter into and be processed by the human brain. We described communication pre-
viously as the process of sharing information among individuals. Communication in
the form of a spoken conversation between two persons involves language, hear-
ing, and speech; in contrast, communication between two persons in an Internet
chat room involves only language.

Speech
Speech is the voluntary neuromuscular behavior that allows humans to express lan-
guage and is essential for spoken communication. In spoken communication, after
people formulate ideas in the brain using language, they must then transmit the
message by using speech. Speech involves the precise activation of muscles in four
systems: respiration, phonation, resonation, and articulation. These four systems
represent the remarkable coordination of a breath of air as it is inspired into and
then expired from the lungs to travel up through the trachea, or windpipe (respi-
ration). Within the trachea, the breath of air moves through the vocal cords, which
are set into vibration to create one’s voice (phonation). Then the breath of air pro-
ceeds into the oral and nasal cavities, where it resonates (resonation). Finally, the
breath of air is manipulated by the oral articulators—including the tongue, teeth,
lips, and jaw (articulation)—to emerge as a series of speech sounds that are com-
bined into words, phrases, and sentences. Figure 1.1 illustrates these four systems.
When and how humans first began to use speech is the subject of considerable
popular, philosophical, and scientific debate; estimates range from 2 million years
ago with Homo erectus to only 35,000 years ago with Homo sapiens (Cartwright,
2000; Wang & Minett, 2005). Anatomically modern humans (based on remains

Nasal cavity
Resonation
Oral cavity

Teeth
Tongue Lips Articulation
Jaw (Mandible)

Right lung Vocal cords Phonation

Trachea

Respiration
Left lung

Figure 1.1
Systems involved with speech production.
Adapted from: Justice, Laura M., Communication Sciences & Disorders: An Introduction, 1st Ed., ©2006.
Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.
8 www.pearsonhighered.com/pence3e

found in Ethiopia) existed about 160,000 years ago, and it is believed that speech
and language emerged sometime between 160,000 and 50,000 years ago when the
human species experienced a “cultural explosion” (Wang & Minett, 2005). Although
this continues to be debated, it is likely that speech became the mode for language
expression because of its advantages over other modalities, such as gesturing or
grunting (Christiansen & Kirby, 2003). Whereas gesturing requires a direct line of
sight, speech enables communication in the dark, around corners, and from rela-
tively far distances; speech also allows one to communicate when the hands are oc-
cupied, as when one is carrying an infant or working manually. In addition, speech
allows an individual to communicate with a larger number of persons, which be-
came necessary as the group size of early humans increased from small bands of
hunter-gatherers of a dozen or so individuals, to larger organized communities of
more than 100 members (Cartwright, 2000). Finally, and possibly most important,
speech provides the medium for sharing language.

Model of Speech Production

We provide here a relatively basic model of speech production to show how speech
moves from the brain to the articulators. A model is a way to represent an unknown
event on the basis of the best current evidence governing the event. Models of
speech production provide a theoretical description of how an individual can move
from a cognitive representation (“I forgot to bring paper . . . I’ll have to borrow a
piece … I see she has an extra one in her notebook”) to a clearly articulated spo-
ken product (“May I borrow a piece of paper?”).
Figure 1.2 presents a basic model of speech production involving three stages.
The first stage is a perceptual event: The speech production process is initiated with
a mental, abstract representation of the speech stream to be produced. This abstract
representation is the language code, which provides a perceptual target of what is
to be produced by speech. At the perceptual level, the code is represented by the
phoneme. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that can signal a difference in
meaning; we combine phonemes to produce syllables and words. For instance, the
word mama comprises four phonemes, whereas the word my comprises two. In
written form, phonemic representations are usually bounded by slashes; thus, the
four phonemes in mama are /m/ /a/ /m/ /a/, and the two phonemes in my are /m/
/aI/. Conventionally, phonemes are represented by the symbols of the International

Perceptual Target
Abstract representation of speech sound stream is produced: / // // // /

Motor Schema
Neurological brain systems produce a rough plan of the abstract
representation. General instructions are fed forward in syllable chunks to
muscle groups involved with speech: / / / /

Speech Output
Air pressure is modulated as respiratory flow is sent forward. Articulators
and oral cavity are manipulated to produce / /.

Feedback

Figure 1.2
Model of speech production.
Source: Justice, Laura M., Communication Sciences & Disorders: An Introduction, 1st Ed., ©2006.
Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.
Another Random Scribd Document
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the fight; all on himself the burden of the uneven contest falls.
Strong heroes cannot stand before his blows, and in the homes of
Connaught women weep the slain who come not back. This is the
vision that I see, and this the prophecy of Feidelm, Cruachan’s
woman-seer.”
Then all her pride and courage fled from Meave, and fearfully she
asked the woman-seer, “What is the name by which this youth is
known?”
And Feidelm said: “To all the world the youth’s name will be
known, Cuchulain son of Sualtach, of the Feats; but in the North,
because he guards their homes as a good watch-dog guards the
scattered flocks upon the mountain-side, men call him lovingly, ‘The
Hound of Ulster.’”
Then to her fairy-dwelling Feidelm returned, and Meave went to
her tent again.
 CHAPTER III

The Boy-Corps of King Conor

N
ow all that she had heard that night so troubled Meave that
she thought not well to proceed upon her hosting at that
time. She lay upon her bed and pondered long upon the fairy
woman’s words, and more and more she wondered who this youth
might be, the lad of mighty feats whom all men called “The Hound
of Ulster.” When daylight came, she sent a message to the captains
of her host, commanding them to tarry yet a day, till she should
learn further about the youth who stood upon her path and seemed
a threatening terror to her hosts. Then like a king and queen they
robed themselves and sat within their tents, Ailill and she, and sent
a herald forth commanding Fergus and the chief of Ulster’s exiles to
appear before them, to tell them of Cuchulain.
When they were gathered, Fergus, Cormac son of Conor and the
rest, Ailill addressed them. “We hear strange tales of one of Ulster’s
chiefs, a youthful hero whom men call the “Hound.” From you, O
chiefs of Ulster, we would learn all you can tell about this famous
lad. What age hath he? and wherefore hath he gained this name?
and have his deeds become known to you?”
“His deeds are known to us, indeed,” Fergus replied, “For all the
land of Ulster rings with this young hero’s renown.”
“Shall we find him hard to deal with?” then said Meave. “Last
night I met a fairy-maid, who told me to beware, for among the
warriors of the North, this lad would trouble us the most.”
“He will trouble you the most, indeed,” said Cormac and Fergus
with one voice. “You will not find a warrior in your path that is so
hard to deal with, not a hero that is fiercer, nor a raven more greedy
of prey, nor a lion that is more dangerous than he. You will not find
another man to equal him, whether of his age or of a greater age,
so strong and terrible and brave is he, nor is his match in Erin either
for his beauty or his prowess or in all deeds and feats of skill.”
“I care not for all this,” said haughty Meave; “not these the things
I fear; for, after all, whatever you may say, Cuchulain, like another, is
but one; he can be wounded like a common man, he will die like any
other, he can be captured like any warrior. Besides, his age is but
that of a grown-up girl; his deeds of manhood come not yet.”
“Not so indeed,” said Fergus and they all. “It would be strange if
he to-day were not the equal of any grown-up man or many men;
for even when he was in his fifth year, he surpassed all the
chieftain’s sons of Emain Macha at their play; when he was but
seven he took arms, and slew his man; when he was a stripling he
went to perfect himself in feats of championship with Scáth, the
woman-warrior of Alba; and now to-day when he is nearly
seventeen years old, his strength must be equal to the strength of
many men.”
“Tell us,” said Meave, “who is this warrior-lad; tell us also of his
boyish feats and how the name of ‘Ulster’s Hound’ came to be his.”
“I will tell you,” said Fergus; “for Cuchulain is my own foster-son
and Conor’s; though they say, and I myself believe it, that he is of
the offspring of the gods, and that Lugh of the Long Arms, God of
Light, is guardian to the boy. But Sualtach is his father, a warrior of
Ulster, and the child was reared by the seaside northward on
Murthemne’s plain, which is his own possession. At my knees he was
brought up, and Amergin the poet was his tutor; the sister of King
Conor nourished him with Conall the Victorious in her home. For at
his birth Morann the judge prophesied of his future renown. ‘His
praise,’ he said, ‘will be in all men’s mouths, his deeds will be
recounted by kings and great men, warriors and charioteers, poets
and sages. All men will love him; he will give combat for Ulster
against her enemies; he will decide your quarrels; he will avenge
your wrongs. Welcome the little stranger who is here.’”
 And Meave and Ailill said, “That is a brave account to give of a
young child; no wonder is it that Ulster prides herself in him; but tell
us now, Fergus, for eager are we all to hear, the feats of Cuchulain
as a little boy.”
 Cuchulain sets out for Emain Macha

“I will tell you that,” said Fergus. “When he was yet a tiny boy, not
much past four years old, some one in passing by Murthemne told
him a long tale of the boy-corps of King Conor in Emain Macha; that
the King had established it for all the sons of nobles and of chiefs, to
train them up in strength and bravery. He told him that the King had
set apart a playing-ground for the boys, close to his own fort, and
there every day they practised games of skill, and feats of arms, and
wrestled and threw each other. He told him, too, that the King took
so much interest in the boy-corps, that scarce a day passed by that
he did not spend some time in watching the pastimes of the lads, for
he looked to them to be his future men-of-war and leaders of his
hosts. He told the little boy that when they had proved themselves
fit by skill and aptness for a higher grade, the King bestowed on
them a set of war-gear suited to their age, small spears and javelins,
a slender sword, and all equipment like a champion. Now when the
boy heard this, a great longing arose within his little mind to see the
boy-corps and join in their sports and practising for war. ‘I would
wrestle, too,’ he said, ‘and I am sure that I could throw my fellow.’
But I and his guardians,” said Fergus, “objected that he was yet too
young, and that when he was ten years old it would be soon enough
to test his strength against the older boys. For to send a boy of four
years old or five to take his part among lads of ten or twelve we
thought not well, for we feared that harm would come to him,
knowing that he must ever, since his babyhood, be in the midst of all
that was going on. Therefore, we said, ‘Wait, my child, until some
grown warrior can go with thee, to protect thee from the rough
practice of the elder boys and bid them have a care for thee, or else
till Conor the King, thy fosterer, himself calls thee hither under his
proper charge.’ But the lad said to his mother, that it was too long to
wait, and that even on this instant he would set off; ‘And all you
have to do, mother, is to set me on my way, for I know not which
way Emain lies.’ ‘A long and weary way for a young boy it is to
Emain,’ said his mother, ‘for the range of the Slieve Fuad Mountains
must be crossed.’ ‘Point me but out the general direction,’ he replied.
‘Over there, to the north-west, lies the palace of the king.’ ‘Let me
but get my things, and I am off,’ he said.
“These were the things that the child took in his hand. His hurley
of brass and his ball of silver in one hand, his throwing javelin and
his toy spear in the other. Away he went then, and as he went, this
would he do to make the way seem short. He would place his ball on
the ground and strike it with his hurley, driving it before him ever so
far; then he flung the hurley after it, driving that as far again; then,
always running on, he threw his javelin, and last of all his spear.
Then he would make a playful rush after them, pick up the hurley,
ball, and javelin as he ran, while, before ever the spear’s tip touched
the earth, he had caught it by the other end. Thus on he ran, scarce
feeling tired, so engrossed was he in the game.
“At last Cuchulain reached Emain, and sought out the palace of
the King and the playing-field where the boys were practising, three
times fifty in number, under the charge of Follaman, one of Conor’s
younger sons; the King himself being present, watching the game.
“The youths had been practising martial exercises, but when
Cuchulain came up they were hurling on the green. Without waiting
for anyone, the little fellow dived in amongst them and took a hand
in the game. He got the ball between his legs and held it there; not
suffering it to travel higher up than his knees or lower than his
ankle-joints, so making it impossible for any of them to get a stroke
at it, or in any way to touch it. In this way he got it gradually nearer
and nearer the end of the field; then with one effort he lifted it up
and sent it home over the goal. In utter amazement the whole corps
looked on. But Follaman their captain cried—‘Good now, boys, all
together meet this youngster who has come in we know not
whence, and kill him on the spot as he deserves. The boy insults us
that he comes amongst us without placing himself under the
protection of some chief’s son in order that his life should be
preserved; for it is not allowed to the son of any private person or
common warrior to intrude upon your game, without first having
asked permission and taken a pledge of the chiefs’ sons that his life
shall be respected; we admit not common men to the boy-corps
save under the protection of some youth of higher rank.’ For they did
not know Cuchulain, neither did he know the rules of the boy-corps.
‘Have at him, all of you,’ cried Follaman, ‘and give him what he
deserves; no doubt he is the son of some private man, who has no
right to intrude into your play without safe conduct. Defend your
honour and the honour of the corps.’ Then the whole of the lads
gathered round Cuchulain and began to threaten him, and together
with one throw they hurled at him their toy spears, on every side at
once. But Cuchulain stood firm, and one and all he parried them and
caught them on his little shield. Then all together they threw at him
their hurley-sticks, three fifties at a time; but all of them he parried,
catching a bundle of them on his back. Then they tried their balls,
throwing them all together, but he fended them off with arms and
fists and the palms of his hands, catching them into his bosom as
they fell. After a long while of this his ‘hero-fury’ seized Cuchulain.
His hair rose upright on his head, and in his wrath and fierceness it
seemed as though a light poured forth from each single hair,
crowning him with a crown of fire. A strong contortion shook him,
and he grew larger and taller as he stood before the lads, so that
they shrank terrified before him. He made for them like a young lion
springing on his prey, and before they could reach the door of the
fort fleeing from him for safety, he had stretched fifty of them on the
ground.
“Now it happened that the King and I,” said Fergus, “were playing
chess together at a table in the open air, on the borders of the
playing field, amusing ourselves while the boys’ games were going
on. Five of the boys, not seeing in their haste where they were
running, rushed past the place where Conor and I were sitting, and
nearly overturned the table with the chess. Cuchulain was in full
pursuit, and he seemed about to leap the table to make after them,
when the King caught him by the arm.
“‘Hold, my little fellow,’ said the King, restraining him, ‘I see this is
no gentle game thou playest with the boy-corps.’
 “‘What could I do?’ replied the lad. ‘I came to-day, O King, from a
far land to join myself with them, and they have not been good to
me; I have not had the reception of a welcome guest.’
“‘What is your name, little one?’ said the King. ‘Setanta, son of
Sualtach, is my name; your own foster-son am I, and the foster-son
of Fergus,’ said the boy. ‘It was not fitting that I should have had this
rough reception.’ ‘But knewest thou not the rules of the boy-corps,
that a new-comer must go under their protection, so that they will
respect his life?’ said the King. ‘That I knew not,’ said the boy,
‘otherwise I should have conformed to their rules; do thou thyself
undertake my protection, I pray thee, O King.’ The King liked the fine
spirit of the lad, and his open face and bravery in his self-defence,
and he said, ‘I will do that, my boy.’ Then he called the boy-corps
together, and said, ‘I, myself, have taken upon me the protection of
this little boy; promise me now that he shall play amongst you
safely.’ ‘We promise it,’ they said. Then all made off to play again;
but Setanta does just what he will with them, wrestling and throwing
them, and soon fifty of them are stretched upon the ground. Their
fathers think that they are dead, and raise a cry against Setanta. But
no such thing; merely had he with his charges, pulls, and pushes so
frightened them, that they fell down at last through terror on the
grass.
“‘What on earth is the lad at with them now?’ asks Conor.
“‘You bound them over to protect me,’ said the boy, ‘but you never
bound me over to protect them; and I avow that until they place
themselves under my protection, as I am placed under theirs, I will
not lighten my hand from them.’ ‘I place them under thy protection
then,’ said Conor. ‘And I grant it,’ said the lad.
“And now,” said Fergus to Queen Meave and Ailill, “I submit that a
youngster who, at the age of four or five years did all this, need not
excite your wonder, because now being turned seventeen years, he
prove a formidable foe to Connaught in time of war.”
 “I think not indeed,” said Ailill; and sulkily Meave said, “Perhaps,
indeed, he may.”
 CHAPTER IV

How Cuchulain got his Name

T
hat evening at supper, Meave sat silent, as though she were
revolving matters in her mind. When supper was ended and
she and her husband and Fergus, with one or two others of
her chief captains, sat in the tent-door around the fire, looking out
on the hosts who rested at close of day by the forest fires, singing
and telling tales, as was their wont after the evening meal, Meave
said to Fergus, “Just now you spoke of that little boy as Setanta, but
I have heard him called Cuchulain, or Culain’s Hound; how did he
get that name?”
And Cormac, Conor’s son, answered eagerly, “I will tell you that
story myself, for I was present, and I know the way of it.”
“Well, tell us now,” said Meave and Ailill both at once. And Cormac
said—“In Ulster, near Cuchulain’s country, was a mighty artificer and
smith, whose name was Culain. Now the custom is, that every man
of means and every owner of land in Ulster, should, once in a year or
so, invite the King and his chiefs to spend a few days, it may be a
week or a fortnight, at his house, that he may give them
entertainment. But Culain owned no lands, nor was he rich, for only
the fruit of his hammer, of his anvil and his tongs, had he.
Nevertheless he desired to entertain the King at a banquet, and he
went to Emain to invite his chief. But he said, ‘I have no lands or
store of wealth; I pray thee, therefore, to bring with thee but a few
of thy prime warriors, because my house cannot contain a great
company of guests.’ So the King said he would go, bringing but a
small retinue with him.
“Culain returned home to prepare his banquet, and when the day
was come, towards evening the King set forth to reach the fort of
Culain. He assumed his light, convenient travelling garb, and before
starting he went down to the green to bid the boy-corps farewell.
“There he saw a sight so curious that he could not tear himself
away. At one end of the green stood a group of a hundred and fifty
youths, guarding one goal, all striving to prevent the ball of a single
little boy, who was playing against the whole of them, from getting
in; but for all that they could do, he won the game, and drove his
ball home to the goal.
“Then they changed sides, and the little lad defended his one goal
against the hundred and fifty balls of the other youths, all sent at
once across the ground. But though the youths played well,
following up their balls, not one of them went into the hole, for the
little boy caught them one after another just outside, driving them
hither and thither, so that they could not make the goal. But when
his turn came round to make the counter-stroke, he was as
successful as before; nay, he would get the entire set of a hundred
and fifty balls into their hole, for all that they could do.
“Then they played a game of getting each other’s cloaks off
without tearing them, and he would have their mantles off, one after
the other, before they could, on their part, even unfasten the brooch
that held his cloak. When they wrestled with each other, it was the
same thing: he would have them on the ground before all of them
together could upset him, or make him budge a foot.
“As the King stood and watched all this, he said: ‘’Tis well for the
country into which this boy has come! A clever child indeed is he;
were but his acts as a grown man to come up to the promise of his
youth, he might be of some solid use to us; but this is not to be
counted upon.’”
“Then,” Fergus said, breaking in upon the tale, “I was vexed
because the King seemed to doubt the child, whether his after deeds
would equal the promise of his youth; and I spoke up and said,
‘That, O King, I think not wisely said; have no fear for this boy, for
as his childish deeds outstrip the acts of childhood, so will his manly
feats outshine the deeds of heroes and great men.’ Then the King
said to me, ‘Have the child called, that we may take him with us to
the banquet.’
“So when Setanta came, the King invited him; but the boy said,
‘Excuse me now awhile; I cannot go just now.’ ‘How so?’ said the
King, surprised. ‘Because the boy-corps have not yet had enough of
play.’ ‘I cannot wait until they have,’ replied the King: ‘the night is
growing late.’ ‘Wait not at all,’ replied the child; ‘I will even finish this
one game, and will run after you.’ ‘But, young one, knowest thou the
way?’ asked the King. ‘I will follow the trail made by your company,
the wheels of their chariots and hoofs of the horses on the road,’ he
replied.”
“Thereupon,”—continued Cormac,—“Conor starts; and in time for
the banquet he reaches Culain’s house, where, with due honour, he
is received. Fresh rushes had been strewn upon the floor, the tables
all decked out, the fires burning in the middle of the room. A great
vat full of ale stood in the hall, a lofty candlestick gave light, and
round the fires stood servants cooking savoury viands, holding them
on forks or spits of wood. Each man of the King’s guests entered in
order of his rank, and sat at the feast in his own allotted place,
hanging his weapons up above his head. The King occupied the
central seat, his poets, counsellors, and chiefs sitting on either hand
according to their state and dignity. As they were sitting down, the
smith Culain came to Conor and asked him, ‘Good now, O King,
before we sit at meat I would even know whether anyone at all will
follow thee this night to my dwelling, or is thy whole company
gathered now within?’ ‘All are now here,’ said the King, quite
forgetting the wee boy; ‘but wherefore askest thou?’
“‘It is only that I have an excellent watch-dog, fierce and strong;
and when his chain is taken off, and he is set free to guard the
house, no one dare come anywhere within the same district with
him; he is furious with all but me, and he has the strength and
savage force of a hundred ordinary watch-dogs. This dog was
brought to me from Spain, and no dog in the country can equal him.’
‘Let him be set loose, for all are here,’ said Conor; ‘well will he guard
this place for us.’
“So Culain loosed the dog, and with one spring it bounded forth
out of the court of the house and over the wall of the rath, making a
circuit of the entire district; and when it came back panting, with its
tongue hanging from its jaws, it took up its usual position in front of
the house, and there crouched with its head upon its paws, watching
the high road to Emain. Surely an extraordinarily cruel and fierce
and savage dog was he.
“When the boy-corps broke up that night, each of the lads
returning to the house of his parent or his fosterer or guardian,
Setanta, trusting to the trail of the company that went with Conor,
struck out for Culain’s house. With his club and ball he ran forward,
and the distance seemed short on account of his interest in the
game. As soon as he arrived on the green of Culain’s fort, the
mastiff noticed him, and set up such a howling as echoed loud
through all the country-side. Inside the house the King and his
followers heard, but were struck dumb with fear, nor dared to move,
thinking surely to find the little lad dead at the door of the fort. As
for the hound himself, he thought with but one gulp to swallow
Setanta whole. Now the little lad was without any means of defence
beyond his ball and hurley-stick. He never left his play till he came
near. Then, as the hound charged open-jawed, with all his strength
he threw the ball right into the creature’s mouth; and as for a
moment the hound stopped short, choking as the ball passed down
its throat, the lad seized hold of the mastiff’s open jaws, grasping its
throat with one hand and the back of its head with the other, and so
violently did he strike its head against the pillars of the door, that it
was no long time until the creature lay dead upon the ground.
“When Culain and the warriors within had heard the mastiff howl,
they asked each other, as soon as they got back their voices, ‘What
makes the watch-dog cry?’ ‘Alas!’ the King said, ‘’tis no good luck
that brought us on our present trip.’ ‘Why so?’ inquired all. ‘I mean
that the little boy, my foster-son and Fergus’s, Setanta, son of
Sualtach, it is who promised to come after me; now, even now, he is
doubtless fallen by the hound of Culain.’ Then, when they heard that
it was Conor’s foster-son who was without, on the instant to one
man they rose; and though the doors of the fort were thrown wide
they could not wait for that, but out they stormed over the walls and
ramparts of the fort to find the boy.”
“Quick they were,” said Fergus, interrupting, “yet did I outstrip
them, and at the rampart’s outer door I found the child, and the
great hound dead beside him. Without a pause I picked up the boy
and hoisted him on my shoulder, and thus, with all the heroes
following, we came to Conor, and I placed him between the
monarch’s knees.”
“Yes, so it was,” said Cormac, taking up the story again where he
had left it; “but let me tell of Culain. The smith went out to find his
dog, and when he saw him lying there, knocked almost to pieces
and quite dead, his heart was vexed within him. He went back to the
house, and said, ‘’Twas no good luck that urged me to make this
feast for thee, O King; would I had not prepared a banquet. My life
is a life lost, and my substance is but substance wasted without my
dog. He was a defence and protection to our property and our cattle,
to every beast we had and to our house. Little boy,’ said he, ‘you are
welcome for your people’s sake, you are not welcome for your own;
that was a good member of my family thou didst take from me, a
safeguard of raiment, of flocks and herds.’ ‘Be not vexed thereat,’
replied the child, ‘for I myself will fix on my own punishment. This
shall it be. If in all Ireland a whelp of that dog’s breed is to be found,
’tis I myself will rear him up for thee till he be fit to take the watch-
dog’s place. In the meantime, O Culain, I myself will be your hound
for defence of your cattle and for your own defence, until the dog be
grown and capable of action; I will defend the territory, and no cattle
or beast or store of thine shall be taken from thee, without my
knowing it.’
“‘Well hast thou made the award,’ said they all, ‘and henceforward
shall your name be changed; you shall no longer be called Setanta;
Cu-Chulain, or the “Hound of Culain,” shall your name be.’
“‘I like my own name best,’ the child objected. ‘Ah, say not so,’
replied the magician, ‘for one day will the name of Cuchulain ring in
all men’s mouths; among the brave ones of the whole wide world
Cuchulain’s name shall find a place. Renowned and famous shall he
be, beloved and feared by all.’ ‘If that is so, then am I well content,’
replied the boy.
“So from that day forth the name Cuchulain clung to him, until the
time came when he was no longer remembered as the Hound of
Culain’s Fort, but as the guardian and watch-dog of defence to the
Province against her foes; and then men loved best to call him ‘The
Hound of Ulster.’
“Now,” continued Cormac, “it would be reasonable to expect that
the little boy, who, at the age of six or seven years slew a dog whom
a whole company would not dare to touch when he was at large,
would, at the age of a grown youth, be formidable to Ulster’s foes.”
And Meave was forced to admit that it was likely that he would.
 CHAPTER V

How Cuchulain took Arms

W
hen Meave had thought awhile, she said, “Are there yet
other stories of this wondrous boy?” “Indeed,” cried Fiacra,
one of the companions of Cormac, who came with him
when he went from Ulster into exile, “the story of his taking arms is
not told yet, and I think it more than all the other stories you have
heard.” “How so?” said Meave; “tell it to us now.”
Then Fiacra said, “The very year after Cuchulain got his name, he
was playing outside the place where Caffa the magician sat with
eight of his pupils teaching them his lore. It chanced that he was
telling them, as the magicians and Druids are wont to believe, that
certain days were lucky for special acts and other days unlucky. ‘And
for what,’ asked one of the boys, ‘would this day at which we now
are be counted lucky?’”
“This is the day,” said Caffa, “on which any youth who should
assume arms, as became a champion of war, should attain eternal
fame; beside him, no warrior’s name in Ireland should ever more be
named, or spoken in the same breath with it, for his glory would
transcend them all. For such a youth, however, no happy thing were
this, for he should die at an early age, no long-lived warrior he; his
life shall be but fleeting, quickly o’er.”
Outside the house Cuchulain overheard the conversation of the
teacher with his boys. Instantly and without a moment’s pause he
laid aside his hurley and his ball, and put off his playing-suit. Then,
donning his ordinary apparel, he entered the sleeping-house of the
King. “All good be thine, O King,” said he. “Boy, what hast thou now
come to ask of me?” replied the King. “I desire,” said he, “to take
arms as a warrior and champion to-day.” “Who told thee to ask for
this?” said the King, surprised. “My master Caffa, the magician,”
answered he. “If that is so, thou shalt not be denied,” replied the
King, and he called on those who were about him to give the lad two
spears and sword and shield: for in Emain the King had always ready
seventeen complete equipments of weapons and armature; for he
himself bestowed weapons on a youth of the boy-corps when he
was ready to bear arms, to bring him luck in using them. Cuchulain
began to try those weapons, brandishing and bending them to try
their strength and fitness to his hand; but one after another they all
gave way, and were broken into pieces and little fragments. “These
weapons are not good,” said he; “they are but the equipment of a
common warrior, they suffice me not.” Then when he had tried them
all, and put them from him, the King said: “Here, my lad, are my
own two spears, my own sword and shield.” Then Cuchulain took
these weapons, and in every way, by bending them from point to
hilt, by brandishing them, by thrusting with them, he proved their
strength and mettle. “These arms are good,” said he, “they break
not in my hand. Fair fall the land and country whose King can wield
armour and weapons such as these!”
Just at the moment Caffa came into the tent. Wondering, he
asked: “Is the little boy so soon assuming arms?” “Ay, so it is,” said
the King. “Unhappy is the mother whose son assumes arms to-day,”
said the magician. “How now?” cried the King; “was it not yourself
who prompted him?” “Not so, indeed,” said Caffa. “Mad boy, what
made you then deceive me, telling me that Caffa it was who
prompted you to ask for arms?” “O King of Heroes, be not wrath,”
replied the lad. “No thought, indeed, had I to deceive. When Caffa
was instructing his pupils in the house to-day, I overheard, as I was
playing with my ball outside, one of the lads asking him what special
virtue lay in this day, and for what it was a lucky day. And he told
them that for him who should assume arms this day, his luck should
be so great that his fame would outstrip the fame of all Ireland’s
heroes, and he would be the first of Ireland’s men. And for this great
reward no compensating disadvantage would accrue to him, save
that his life should be but fleeting.”
 “True is that, indeed,” said Caffa, “noble and famous thou shalt be,
but short and brief thy life.” “Little care I for that,” replied the lad,
“nor though my life endured but for one day and night, so only that
the story of myself and of my deeds shall last.”
“Then get thee into a chariot, as a warrior should, and let us test
thy title to a future fame.”
 Cuchulain desires Arms of the King

So a chariot of two horses was brought to Cuchulain, and every

way he tried its strength, driving it furiously round and round the
green, goading the horses and turning suddenly. But for this usage
the chariot was not fit, and it broke beneath him. Twelve chariots
were brought to him, and he tested them all in this manner, but all
of them he reduced to fragments. “These chariots of thine, O Conor,
are no good at all, they serve me not, nor are they worthy of me,
thy own foster-son.”
Then the King cried: “Fetch me here Ivar, my own charioteer, and
let him harness my steeds into the kingly chariot, and bring it here
to serve Cuchulain.” Then the kingly chariot of war was brought and
Cuchulain mounted, testing it every way; and well it served him at
every test. “The chariot is good, and the steeds are good, they are
worthy of me,” said the boy; “it is my worthy match.”
“Well, boy, it is time that thou wert satisfied at last; now I will take
the horses home and put them out to graze,” said Ivar.
“Not yet awhile,” said Cuchulain. “Drive but the horses round the
kingly fort.” Ivar did so, and then he said again: “Be satisfied now,
my lad; I go to turn the horses out to grass.” For it was but seldom
that King Conor went forth in his war-chariot, because the men of
Ulster willed not that the King should expose his person in battle; so
Ivar was grown idle, and fat through his idleness, and he liked not at
all the unwonted exertion that the wee boy asked of him.
“Not yet awhile,” said Cuchulain again; “too early is it to turn in;
drive now towards the playing-fields that the boy-corps may salute
me on this the first day of my taking arms.” They did so, and the
boy-corps gathered round. “These are a warrior’s arms that thou
hast taken!” cried they all, surprised to see him thus equipped in the
King’s own warrior-gear, and driving in the chariot of the King. “Just
so, indeed,” replied the boy. Then they wished him well in his
warrior-career. “May success in winning of spoils, and in blood-
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