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 Contents vii

7 Problem Solving   195

7.1 Introduction 195
7.2 Analytic and Creative Problem Solving 195
7.3 Analytic Problem Solving 198
7.4 Creative Problem Solving 205
7.5 Personal Problem-Solving Styles 214
7.6 Brainstorming Strategies 219
7.7 Critical Thinking 225
REFERENCES 227
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 227

8 Graphics and Orthographic Projection 235

8.1 Introduction 235
8.2 Orthographic Projection 235
8.3 The Meaning of Lines 238
8.4 Hidden Lines 241
8.5 Cylindrical Features and Radii 242
8.6 Line Precedence 243
8.7 Freehand Sketching 244
8.8 Pictorial Sketching 245
8.9 Dimensioning 252
8.10 Scales and Measuring 254
8.11 Coordinate Systems and Three-Dimensional Space 257
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 258

9 Computer Tools for Engineers 263

9.1 Introduction 263
9.2 The Internet 264
9.3 Word-Processing Programs 271
9.4 Spreadsheets 272
9.5 Mathematics Software 276
9.6 Presentation Software 284
9.7 Operating Systems 285
9.8 Programming Languages 285
9.9 Advanced Engineering Packages 287
REFERENCES 292
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 293

10 Teamwork 297
10.1 Introduction 297
10.2 Engineers Often Work in Teams 297
10.3 Team Organizational Structures 303
10.4 Team Growth Stages 304
10.5 What Makes a Successful Team? 307

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 viii Contents

10.6 Team Leadership 309

10.7 Effective Decision Making 311
10.8 Attitudes Toward Team Experiences 314
10.9 Documenting Team Performance 315
REFERENCES 316
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 317

11 Project Management 319

11.1 Introduction 319
11.2 The Triple Constraints 320
11.3 Student Example Project 321
11.4 Creating a Project Charter 322
11.5 Task Definitions 323
11.6 Schedule 324
11.7 Work Breakdown Structure 326
11.8 Network Diagrams 328
11.9 Critical Paths 330
11.10 Gantt Charts 330
11.11 Costs 332
11.12 Personnel Distribution 332
11.13 Documentation 333
11.14 Team Roles 333
11.15 Agile Project Management 335
REFERENCES 336
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 336

12 Engineering Design 339

12.1 What Is Engineering Design? 339
12.2 The Engineering Design Process 341
12.3 Using the Engineering Design Process—ATM 352
12.4 Using the Engineering Design Process—Backpack 363
REFERENCES 369
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 370

13 Technical Communications 373

13.1 Visual Communication 374
13.2 Oral Presentations 378
13.3 Written Documents 390
13.4 Revising and Editing 398
13.5 Conclusion 400
REFERENCES 400
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 400

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 Contents ix

14 Ethics and Engineering 403

14.1 Introduction 403
14.2 The Nature of Ethics 404
14.3 The Nature of Engineering Ethics   414
14.4 Codes of Ethics and the Obligations of Engineers 419
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 436

T H E FU N DA M EN TA L S O F EN GI N EER I N G
15 Units and Conversions 441
15.1 History 441
15.2 The SI System of Units 442
15.3 Derived Units 444
15.4 Prefixes 446
15.5 Numerals 447
15.6 Unit Conversions 448
15.7 Dimensional Homogeneity and Dimensionless Numbers 450
REFERENCES 453
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 453

16 Mathematics Review 457

16.1 Algebra 457
16.2 Trigonometry 461
16.3 Geometry 464
16.4 Complex Numbers 468
16.5 Linear Algebra   471
16.6 Calculus 476
16.7 Probability and Statistics 481
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 485

17 Engineering Fundamentals 493

17.1 Statics 493
17.2 Dynamics 500
17.3 Thermodynamics 506
17.4 Electrical Circuits 516
17.5 Economics 524
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 533

18 The Campus Experience 551

18.1 Orienting Yourself to Your Campus 551
18.2 Exploring Your New Home Away from Home 551

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 x Contents

18.3 Determining and Planning Your Major 552

18.4 Get into the Habit of Asking Questions 552
18.5 The “People Issue” 553
18.6 Searching for Campus Resources   554
18.7 Other Important Issues 556
18.8 Final Thoughts 561
REFERENCES 561
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 562

19 Engineering Work Experience 565

19.1 A Job and Experience 565
19.2 Summer Jobs and On- and Off-Campus Work Experiences 567
19.3 Volunteer or Community Service Experiences 568
19.4 Supervised Independent Study or Research Assistantship 568
19.5 Internships 569
19.6 Cooperative Education 570
19.7 Which Is Best for You? 576
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 576

20 Connections: Liberal Arts and Engineering 579

20.1 What Are Connections? 579
20.2 Why Study Liberal Arts? 580
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 584

Appendix A Nine Excel Skills Every Engineering Student Should Know 585
Appendix B Impress Them: How to Make Presentations Effective 605
Appendix C An Introduction to MATLAB 619

Index 645

00-Oakes-FM.indd 10 19/11/16 3:09 PM

 Preface

You can’t make an educated decision about what career to pursue without adequate
information. Engineering Your Future endeavors to give you a broad introduction to
the study and practice of engineering. In addition to presenting vital information,
we’ve tried to make it interesting and easy to read as well.
You might find Chapter 2, “Engineering Majors,” to be a tremendous help to you in
determining what areas of engineering sound most appealing to you as you begin
your education. Our “Profiles of Engineers”, available on the Companion Website,
may also be of particular interest to you. It includes information from real people—
engineers practicing in the field. They discuss their jobs, their lives, and the things
they wish they had known going into the profession.
The rest of the book presents such things as the heritage of engineering; some
thoughts about the future of the profession; some tips on how best to succeed in the
classroom; advice on how to gain actual, hands-on experience; exposure to
computer-aided design; and a nice introduction to several areas essential to the study
and practice of engineering.
We have designed this book for modular use in a first-year engineering course that
introduces students to the field of engineering. Such a course differs in content from
university to university. Consequently, we have included many topics, too numerous
to cover in one course. We anticipate that several of the topics will be selected for a
particular course with the remaining topics available to you for outside reading and
for future reference.
As you contemplate engineering, you should consider the dramatic impact
engineers have had on our world. Note the eloquent words of American Association of
Engineering Societies Chair Martha Sloan, a professor emeritus of electrical
engineering at Michigan Technological University:

In an age when technology helps turn fantasy and fiction into reality, engineers
have played a pivotal role in developing the technologies that maintain our
nation’s economic, environmental and national security. They revolutionized
medicine with pacemakers and MRI scanners. They changed the world with the
development of television and the transistor, computers and the Internet. They
introduced new concepts in transportation, power, satellite communications,

xi

00-Oakes-FM.indd 11 19/11/16 3:09 PM

 xii Preface

earthquake-resistant buildings, and strain-resistant crops by applying scientific

discoveries to human needs.
Engineering is sometimes thought of as applied science, but engineering is far
more. The essence of engineering is design and making things happen for the
benefit of humanity.

Joseph Bordogna, former president of IEEE, adds:

Engineering will be one of the most significant forces in designing continued eco-
nomic development and success for humankind in a manner that will sustain
both the planet and its growing population. Engineers will develop the new pro-
cesses and products. They will create and manage new systems for civil infrastruc-
ture, manufacturing, communications, health care delivery, information
management, environmental conservation and monitoring, and everything else
that makes modern society function.

We hope that you, too, will find the field of engineering to be attractive, meaning-
ful, and exciting—one that promises to be both challenging and rewarding, and one
that matches well with your skills and interests.
For the instructor’s convenience, there is an Ancillary Resource Center site with
support materials (PowerPoint figure slides and a test bank). This material may be
found at http://oup-arc.com/oakes-engineering-9e/.

New to the Ninth Comprehensive Edition

■■ Chapter 1 “The Heritage of Engineering” replaces “The History of Engineering.”

This chapter was rewritten to move away from chronicling historical engineering
achievements to describe engineering as a profession that has impacted so much
of our daily lives and to appreciate the rich and inclusive heritage of engineering
and engineers that contributed to what we see today. Diverse examples are used
to discuss themes of the heritage of engineering that span genders and cultures
with some discussion of the historical contexts to prompt ideas and allow for
further research and discussions. Themes that are discussed include how
engineers are making the world a better place and improving the human
condition as well as the importance of teamwork and communication now and
historically.
■■ Chapter 2, “Engineering Majors,” was updated to reflect current technological
advances, especially in the computer, electrical, and biological areas. Mobile
computing is discussed as an example. Nanotechnology and its influence have
also been reflected in the descriptions of the majors.
■■ Chapter 3, “A Statistical Profile of the Engineering Profession,” provides the latest
available data on the job market for engineers, recent starting salaries for the

00-Oakes-FM.indd 12 19/11/16 3:09 PM

 Preface xiii

different majors, and a variety of related information. This material includes

updated college enrollment data trends, number of degrees awarded for the various
engineering majors, and career-long projections of salaries by employer size and
type, field of study, and geographical region. Updated information is also provided
concerning the diversity of the profession, and engineering graduate school data.
■■ Chapter 5, “Future Challenges,” was updated to include a list and description of
the National Academy of Engineering’s Grand Challenges. These descriptions,
used with permission from the National Academy, are the result of the academy’s
study of the most significant technological challenges of the day. These have been
added to the existing chapter and can be used as a standalone section or as part
of the existing chapter.
■■ Previously called “Visualization and Graphics, Chapter 8 is now titled “Graphics
and Orthographic Projection” and has been rewritten to be more concise and
practical. The text has been refocused to concentrate on techniques applied by
working engineers.
■■ Chapter 10, “Teamwork,” has been completely updated with new examples and
material. The chapter uses real examples from today’s leading companies,
including Netflix, Boeing, Tesla Motors, and Google.
■■ Chapter 11, “Project Management,” has been completely rewritten with
significant new material added. A sample student project is introduced and
developed, showing how a project plan can be developed using project
management tools. The application of Microsoft Project software is
demonstrated.
■■ Chapter 12, “Engineering Design,” was revised to help students gain insight into
the more practical aspects of learning the engineering design process. The 10-stage
process has been reduced to a more manageable five stages and includes an open-
ended case study that can be used in the classroom as is or with modification.
■■ Chapter 14, “Ethics and Engineering,” has been rewritten with the goal of
introducing ethics to future professional engineers in a lively, more accessible
way. In addition to systematically introducing the vocabulary and concepts
needed to understand the nature of professional ethics and the difference
between ethics and policy, the chapter now more directly confronts and clarifies
some of the most common questions and confusions students have about ethics,
including where professional ethical obligations come from, why the ethical
obligations of engineers are not merely matters of subjective opinion and
personal conscience, and why codes of professional ethics must be understood
not as arbitrary lists of rules but rather as a reflection of rational, intuitive
requirements on the practice of a learned profession. These insights about the
nature of professional ethics are now also reinforced in the revised explanation
and analysis of existing codes of engineering ethics as well as in the review
questions.
■■ Chapter 15, “Units and Conversions,” includes expanded sections on significant
figures and unit conversion along with numerical examples. A new section on
dimensionless numbers has been added. Several problems regarding
dimensionless numbers have been added to the end-of-chapter problems.

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 xiv Preface

■■ Chapter 16, “Mathematics Review,” presents brief yet concise reviews of many of
the mathematical concepts students will encounter in their engineering studies.
Improvements to previous editions include “in line expansion” of select example
problems, additional help with vector math, and a unit circle to accompany the
trigonometry section of the chapter.
■■ Chapter 17, “Engineering Fundamentals,” provides a review of specific math and
science applications that are fundamental to engineering studies. Select example
problems in this chapter also have more detailed “in line expansion” of solutions,
designed to encourage good problem-solving skills and problem documentation.
Included also in the revised chapter is a brief review of partial pressures in the
thermodynamics section.
■■ Appendix A, “Nine Excel Skills Every Engineering Student Should Know,” While
the number of skills is retained, the skills themselves have been completely
revised. Instead of focusing on “which button to click,” the skills are now
presented in a way that promotes everyday application as well as lifelong
learning.
■■ Appendix B, “Impress Them: How to Make Presentations Effective,” Given a
complete overhaul, this appendix now offers guidelines for making a powerful
presentation that will leave a lasting impression on the audience. The makeup of
a presentation is dissected, and plenty of good and bad examples are included.
■■ Appendix C, “An Introduction to MATLAB,” The programming section has been
significantly expanded. Learning to code is an art, and making an efficient and
elegant code is a lifelong pursuit—with this appendix serving as a starting point.

Acknowledgments

The authors are especially grateful to the reviewers whose opinions and comments
directly influenced the development of this edition:

Anil Acharya, Alabama A&M University

Spyros Andreou, Savannah State University
Asad Azemi, Penn State University
Jerome Davis, University of North Texas
Chris Geiger, Florida Gulf Coast University
Nolides Guzman Zambrano, Lone Star College
Dr. Dominic M. Halsmer, Oral Roberts University
Todd Hamrick, West Virginia University
Matthew Jensen, Florida Institute of Technology
Benjamin S. Kelley, Baylor University
Mark Keshtvarz, Northern Kentucky University
Dr. Raghava R. Kommalapati, Prairie View A&M University
Tanya Kunberger, Florida Gulf Coast University
Andre Lau, Penn State University

00-Oakes-FM.indd 14 19/11/16 3:09 PM

 Preface xv

Dean Lewis, Penn State University

Jennifer Light, Lewis-Clark State College
Dr. James McCusker, Wentworth Institute of Technology
Deepak Mehra, Potomac State College
Christopher Miller, University of Akron
Melodee Moore, Florida A&M University
Ahad Nasab, Middle Tennessee State University
Herbert Newman, Coastal Carolina University
Dr. John H. O’Haver, University of Mississippi
Olayinka Frank Oredeko, Central Georgia Technical College
Reginald Perry, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering
Cherish Qualls, University of North Texas
James Rantschler, Xavier University of Louisiana
Dr. Farhad Reza, Minnesota State University
Bernd F. Schliemann, University of Massachusetts at Amherst
Gary Scott, State of University of New York
Yeow Siow, Purdue University at Calumet
Yiheng Wang, Lone Star College

We would also like to thank those reviewers who provided feedback for previous
editions:

Spyros Andreou, Savannah State University

Juan M. Caicedo, University of South Carolina
Matthew Cavalli, University of North Dakota
Rafael Fox, Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi
Keith Gardiner, Lehigh University
Chris Geiger, Florida Gulf Coast University
Yoon Kim, Virginia State University
Nikki Larson, Western Washington University
Keith Level, Las Positas College
Jennifer Light, Lewis-Clark State College
S. T. Mau, California State University at Northridge
Edgar Herbert Newman, Coastal Carolina University
John Nicklow, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale
Megan Piccus, Springfield Technical Community College
Charles E. Pierce, University of South Carolina
G. Albert Popson, Jr., West Virginia Wesleyan College
Ken Reid, Ohio Northern University
Nikki Strader, Ohio State University
Yiheng Wang, Danville Community College
Gregory Wight, Norwich University
David Willis, University of Massachusetts at Lowell
Shuming Zheng, Chicago State University
—The Authors

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00-Oakes-FM.indd 16 19/11/16 3:09 PM
 CHA P TER 1

The Heritage of Engineering

While writing this chapter, I was teaching a class over the Internet to engineering
professors in India. The class was about how to integrate design experiences
­(addressing needs of underserved people and communities) into undergraduate en-
gineering courses. I was excited when I finished that day’s class as we had had a
great conversation about how we can use engineering to meet human, community,
and environmental needs in India and the United States. The same ideas could
be ­applied to any country to make our world a better place. Today’s technology has
opened so many opportunities to make an impact in our communities, our coun-
tries, and our world. I ended the class thinking that this is really an exciting time to
be an engineer or an engineering student—with all of the technological tools we
have at our disposal and the exciting things we can do with them.
As I ended the class, I looked outside at the first snowfall of the year. Because of the
time difference between India and the United States, I have to teach the class very
early in the morning, so the sun was just coming up. The beautiful sunrise with the
falling snow got me thinking. I had just been talking with about 40 colleagues who
were literally on the other side of the world and spread out all over their country.
I was in Indiana, and our course facilitator was from Massachusetts. The incredible
technology that allowed us to discuss how to use technology to make a difference in
the world was created by engineers who had come before us. A generation ago, we
would have had to make a very expensive phone call to have that discussion. Earlier
generations would have had to communicate with letters on actual paper that were
physically carried from one place to the next. Technology has significantly changed
the way we communicate, as well as so many other parts of our lives. Those changes
were created and driven by engineers who started out a lot like you.
As I sat there in the warm house and watched the snow, I began to think about all
of the other ways that engineers have impacted us. The materials to make the house
to keep me warm were developed by engineers. The house is heated with an
­ultra-high-efficiency furnace that also protects the environment. The natural gas
burning in the furnace was found, extracted, refined, and piped to the house using
technology developed by engineers. The lights in the house were developed by engi-
neers. The appliances in the house all have computers to make them more efficient
and easier to use. Everywhere I looked I saw something that had been touched by
engineers . . . with the exception of the snowflakes falling outside, of course.

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 2 The World of Engineering

There are so many engineers who have made an impact in our daily lives, and
they came from many different places and backgrounds. I thought about them as I
moved through the day. I had to pick up my daughter from a friend’s house, and I
was grateful for Mary Anderson, who had invented the windshield wiper to clear the
snow from my car’s windshield. When I got to the first intersection, I thought about
Garrett Morgan, the African American inventor who developed the traffic light to
keep us safe on the roads. I was grateful for the computer and electrical engineers
who developed the technology in my hearing aids that allow me to have a conversa-
tion with my daughter when I picked her up.

1.1 Introduction

The impact of engineers on our everyday lives is incredible. Even our life expectancies
are so much higher in large parts due to the technologies that engineers have devel-
oped to provide safe drinking water, sanitation, accessible medicines, and much
more. Engineers have made an enormous impact on our world, and there are so many
opportunities yet to come. Today’s technology has given us the tools to address needs
and opportunities to make a difference in our world.
The purpose of this first chapter is to give you a sense of the strong heritage of the
engineering profession. We will provide a brief glimpse into some of those who have
come before you and a feeling of the incredibly exciting profession you are exploring.
This is not meant to be a comprehensive overview of the history of engineering, as
that would be a book in itself. Instead we use history to illustrate some of the diversity
and wondrous heritage of the engineering profession and highlight a few of the men
and women who have developed the amazing world of technology we live in today.

Definition of Engineering

Even if you already have a general knowledge of what engineering involves, a look at
the definition of the profession may give you some insight. The organization that ac-
credits engineering programs is called ABET, and they define engineering as:

The profession in which knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences,

gained by study, experience, and practice, is applied with judgment to develop
ways to use, economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of
mankind.

This definition places three responsibilities on an engineer: (1) to develop judg-

ment so that you can (2) help mankind in (3) economical ways. It places obligations on
us to address needs that benefit others and to make sure we don’t do harm. We seek to
provide economical solutions because if they are too expensive, they are out of reach
of people. Looking at case histories and historical overviews can help us see how

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 Chapter 1 The Heritage of Engineering 3

others have applied these principles before us and understand more about the profes-
sion we are entering. Study of history can also give us a sense of belonging to the
profession. There are engineers who come from the very kind of background you
come from and look a lot like you—or did when they were your age.
Definitions are important, but they don’t always inspire. The National Academy of
Engineering is a body of outstanding engineers who advise the federal government
on matters pertaining to engineering and technology. One has to be nominated and
invited to become a member of the national academy. This body studied the percep-
tions of engineering and engineers in the United States and came to the conclusion
that most people do not understand who we are and what great things we could do.
They produced a report entitled Changing the Conversation to help us communicate
the potential of engineering. Part of that report includes a positioning statement to
help guide our conversations. It reads,

No profession unleashes the spirit of innovation like engineering. From research

to real-world applications, engineers constantly discover how to improve our lives
by creating bold new solutions that connect science to life in unexpected, for-
ward-thinking ways. Few professions turn so many ideas into so many realities.
Few have such a direct and positive effect on people’s everyday lives. We are count-
ing on engineers and their imaginations to help us meet the needs of the 21st
century.

We need this positioning statement because engineers and engineering are often
misunderstood as a field. The contributions of engineers are not always seen, under-
stood, or appreciated. As illustration, I think of a class I teach that engages about
500 students per semester in designs to meet community needs locally and globally.
The students work together to develop designs, and they work with community part-
ners. I often hear them describe themselves as “not a typical engineer.” They like to
work with others, have a social life, and want to make a difference in the world. I love
that attitude, and I do wonder how I have 500 students who view themselves as “not
typical.” At least in our class they are typical and are very much more typical of engi-
neers and the overall engineering profession, what it is and what is should be. It may
not match the stereotypes, but it does match the heritage we have as engineers. We
have a strong knowledge of math, science, and technology and have to work with
many others to create solutions that can improve the human and environmental con-
ditions. It takes many different people to do that, and it always has and always will.
The following sections will explore history with examples of some of these diverse
engineers who were real people who have helped make the world a better place.

1.2 The Beginnings of Engineering: The Earliest Days

The foundations of engineering were laid with our ancestors’ efforts to survive and to
improve their quality of life. From the beginning, they looked around their environ-
ments and saw areas where life could be made easier and more stable. They found

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 4 The World of Engineering

improved ways to provide for food, through hunting and fishing. They discovered
better methods for providing shelter for their families and ways to make clothing.
Their main physical concern was day-to-day survival. As life became more compli-
cated and small collections of families became larger communities, the need grew to
look into new areas of concern and specialization.
If you look back at the definition of engineering given by ABET, you will notice a
statement: “The profession in which knowledge of the mathematical and natural
­sciences . . . is applied.” Prehistoric engineers applied problem solving and toolmak-
ing but did not have a grasp of the same mathematical principles or knowledge of
natural science as we know it today. They designed and built items more by trial and
error, testing, and intuition. They built spears that worked and others that failed, but
in the end they perfected weapons that allowed them to bring down game animals
and feed their families. Although they couldn’t describe it, they used principles of
aerodynamics and mechanical advantage to develop more efficient tools to hunt.
Since written communication and transportation did not exist at that time, little
information or innovation was exchanged with people from faraway places. Each
group around the world moved ahead on its own. It is inspiring to see how people
from all over the world developed innovations to improve the quality of life for their
families and their communities.
Transportation was another area where early engineers made an impact. The de-
signs of early boats, for example, inspire even today’s engineers. Breakthroughs in
transportation and exploration are being located ever earlier as we continue to make
discoveries about various peoples traveling long before we thought they did—­
influencing others and bringing back knowledge. Transportation was used to hunt
and fish, to move families, and to explore new areas. Polynesian boat designers, for
example, developed crafts that could sail great distances and allowed people to settle
many of the islands across the Pacific. Their use of mathematics and astronomy al-
lowed them to navigate great distances on their vessels that were designed for long
ocean voyages. Their vessels are still an engineering marvel today.

AC TIVIT Y Prepare a brief report that focuses on engineering in a historical era and
1.1 cultural area (for example, pre-Columbian Central America, Europe in the
Industrial Revolution, Mesopotamia). Analyze the events that you consider to
be engineering highlights and explain their importance to human progress.

1.3 Early Cities

As cities grew and the need to address the demands of the new fledgling societies in-
creased, a significant change took place. People who showed special aptitude in cer-
tain areas were identified and assigned to ever more specialized tasks. This
development gave toolmakers the time and resources to dedicate themselves to

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 Chapter 1 The Heritage of Engineering 5

building and innovation. This new social function created the first real engineers,
and innovation flourished more rapidly.
Between 4000 and 2000 b.c., Egypt in Africa and Mesopotamia in the Middle East
were two areas for early engineering activity. Stone tools were developed to help
humans in their quest for food. Copper and bronze axes were perfected through smelt-
ing. These developments were not only aimed at hunting: The development of the plow
was allowing humans to become farmers so that they could reside in one place and give
up the nomadic life. Mesopotamia also made its mark on engineering by giving birth to
the wheel, the sailing boat, and methods of writing. Engineering skills that were ap-
plied to the development of everyday items immediately improved life as they knew it.
During the construction of the pyramids (c. 2700–2500 b.c.) the number of engi-
neers required was immense. They had to make sure that everything fit correctly, that
stones were properly transported long distances, and that the tombs would be secure
against robbery. Imhotep (chief engineer to King Zoser) was building the Step
­P yramid at Sakkara (pictured in Fig. 1.1) in Egypt about 2700 b.c. The more elaborate
Great Pyramid of Khufu (pictured in Fig. 1.2) would come about 200 years later. These
early engineers, using simple tools, performed, with great acuity, insight, and techni-
cal rigor, tasks that even today give us a sense of pride in their achievements.
The Great Pyramid of Khufu is the largest masonry structure ever built. Its base
measures 756 feet on each side. The 480-foot structure was constructed using over
2.3 million limestone blocks with a total weight of over 58 million tons. Casing blocks

Figure 1.1 The Step Pyramid of Sakkara

Source: © iStockPhoto

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 6 The World of Engineering

Figure 1.2 The Great Pyramid of Khufu

Source: © iStockPhoto

of fine limestone were attached to all four sides. These casing stones, some weighing
as much as 15 tons, have been removed over the centuries for a wide variety of other
uses. It is hard for us to imagine the engineering expertise needed to quarry and move
these base and casing stones, and then piece them together so that they would form
the pyramid and its covering.
Here are additional details about this pyramid given by Roland Turner and Steven
Goulden in Great Engineers and Pioneers in Technology, Volume 1: From Antiquity
through the Industrial Revolution:

Buried within the pyramid are passageways leading to a number of funeral cham-
bers, only one of which was actually used to house Khufu’s remains. The gran-
ite-lined King’s Chamber, measuring 17 by 34 feet, is roofed with nine slabs of
granite which weigh 50 tons each. To relieve the weight on this roof, located 300
feet below the apex of the pyramid, the builder stacked five hollow chambers at
short intervals above it. Four of the relieving chambers are roofed with granite
lintels, while the topmost has a corbelled roof. Although somewhat rough and
ready in design and execution, the system effectively distributes the massive over-
lying weight to the sturdy walls of the King’s Chamber.
Sheer precision marks every other aspect of the pyramid’s construction. The
four sides of the base are practically identical in length—the error is a matter of

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 Chapter 1 The Heritage of Engineering 7

inches—and the angles are equally accurate. Direct measurement from corner to
corner must have been difficult, since the pyramid was built on the site of a rocky
knoll (now completely enclosed in the structure). Moreover, it is an open question
how the builder managed to align the pyramid almost exactly north-south. Still,
many of the techniques used for raising the pyramid can be deduced.
After the base and every successive course was in place, it was leveled by flood-
ing the surface with Nile water, no doubt retained by mud banks, and then mark-
ing reference points of equal depth to guide the final dressing. Complications were
caused by the use of blocks of different heights in the same course.

The above excerpt mentions a few of the fascinating details of the monumental job
undertaken to construct a pyramid with primitive tools and human labor. It was quite
a feat for these early African engineers.
As civilizations grew around the world, the need for infrastructure increased, and
it was the early civil engineers who met this challenge. Cities developed in many
places, including India, China, and the Americas. Early engineering achievements
can be seen even today in many places. For example, pyramids still stand in Latin
America as a testament to the skill and expertise of early Native American engineers.
Cities were constructed that included sophisticated infrastructure and building
techniques. One extraordinary example of ingenuity and skill that inspires many vis-
itors is the Incan city of Machu Picchu (Fig. 1.3) built on top of the Andes mountains
in Peru. Constructed in the 15th century at the height of the Inca Empire, it is an

Figure 1.3 Machu Picchu in present-day Peru

Source: Damian Gil/Shutterstock.com

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 8 The World of Engineering

engineering marvel that used sophisticated techniques of dry-stone walls that fused
huge blocks without the use of mortar. The design of the city itself is based on astro-
nomical alignments that show mathematical and astronomical sophistication. The
site at the top of the mountains would have created significant engineering chal-
lenges, as well as providing for incredible panoramic views that can be enjoyed today.
Recreating that city would be a challenge even with today’s technology.

Engineering the Temples of Greece

The Parthenon (Fig. 1.4) was constructed by Iktinos in Athens starting in 447 b.c. and
was completed by 438 b.c. It is an extraordinary example of a religious temple.
­Engineers played a role in the religious aspects of societies all over the world. The
Parthenon was to be built on the foundation of a previous temple using materials sal-
vaged from its remains, making this an early example of recycling. The Parthenon
was designed to house a statue of Athena that stood almost 40 feet tall. Iktinos per-
formed the task that he was assigned, and the temple exists today as a monument to
engineering capability.
Structural work on the Parthenon enlarged the existing limestone platform of the
old temple to a width of 160 feet and a length of 360 feet. The building itself, constructed
entirely of marble, measured 101 feet by 228 feet; it was the largest such temple on the
Greek mainland. Around the body of the building Iktinos built a colonnade,

Figure 1.4 The Parthenon in Athens

Source: Rich Lynch/Shutterstock.com

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Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 TO BACCHUS.

The poet sings in love-sick verse

Plaints thy goblets soon disperse;
Pluck the willow from his head,
’Twine the vine-leaf in its stead,
Fill the bowl with drink divine,
Give the wounded minstrel wine;
And the fool now fraught with pain,
Ne’er shall weep for love again.
See! it scarcely stains his lips,
Yet to draughts have turned his sips.
Subtle raptures swiftly fill
Every vein with fiery thrill;
Long before its rage is o’er
Pants the reeling wretch for more;
Squeeze the grape, fill high the bowl,
Wine shall cheer the wounded soul.
Let the ruddy torrent flow,
Heal all wounded hearts below,
Freely let the red stream pour,
With its storm the blood shall roar;
Surges of mad ecstacy
Shall embroil life’s phantasy;
Clouds of joy before the brain
Dull the deeper sense of pain.
Love is great; but in life’s dream
Wine alone shall reign supreme;
To old Bacchus! drink and sing;
Cupid’s Victor! Pleasure’s King!
 LOVE’S WHISPERS.

I hear soft breathings in the gentle breeze,

Though whence or how they spring I cannot tell.
They whisper on the hill and in the dell,
Along the streamlets and among the trees;
Like the sweet humming of a thousand bees
In harmony, as if some magic spell
Fashioned the dew to music as it fell,
Like merry mermaids, chanting ’neath the seas,
Or fairy chorus in a moon-lit grove,
Or band of nightingales, each to its rose
Trilling of love when all things else repose.
Such sweet sounds haunt me wheresoe’er I rove
Shaping themselves to words that sing to me,
“Happy art thou of men, thy loved one loves but thee!”
WORK.
Work! use all thy will, give all thy might,
Ply all thy strength,
Until the golden dawn of early light
Shall change at length
Into deep purple shades, soft, pure and bright,
That bring glad tidings of the peaceful night.

Work! while the subtle seasons onward roll

In certain course,
The ways of this frail world to help control;
That keen remorse
In life’s last moment—’ere thy deeds unroll
May strike no sudden anguish to thy soul.

Work! taking lessons from the mighty Past,

What men have done;
Yet let not those old masters hold thee fast,
They have begun;
What later souls must finish. They have cast
The first stones at earth’s evil—not the last.

Work! but seek not false Ambition’s flame

To light thee on;
Not so the men of wisdom ever came
In days long gone;
No sordid dream,—no bare desire for Fame
Has left on Memory’s lips one worthy name.

Work! in the hope of sowing seedlings great;

Let others reap,—
That, when stern Nature bids thy step abate,
Thy body sleep,
Thy soul shall tremble not at Death’s dark gate,
But calm and sure shall meet its After-Fate.
WHERE BLUE BELLS NOD.

Where blue-bells nod beneath the trees

And violets scent the summer breeze
I love to lie the whole day long
And listen to the wild bird’s song,
While bees hum in their harmonies.

Proud wealth can buy its days of ease,

But not made up of hours like these;
To none doth rank or fame belong
Where blue-bells nod.

In vain the arts may strive to please

The sense with novel images;
For me, this sweet, cool fern among,
All Nature’s right, all Art is wrong;
Ah! leave me with my birds and bees,
Where blue-bells nod.
 LOSS AND GAIN.

Since thou hast come the world and I have parted,

Like chance-met friends whom love has never chained,
Away it spins, mad-brained and merry-hearted,
While I count o’er what I have lost and gained.
My losses are the breath of idle greeting,
The siren-song of pleasure, folly’s laugh,
Wealth’s patron smile, the pedant’s wit most fleeting,
And all that goes to make youth’s epitaph.
My gain is thee, who hath removed my blindness,
Torn off the mask of sin, stript shame’s disguise,
Shown me man’s frailty, taught me gold’s unkindness,
And made a very heaven beneath the skies.
So do I feel like one from dreams awaking
Who laughs at night and all its foolish making.
 TRIO.

FOUNDED ON A WELL KNOWN PASSAGE OF DANTE.

I.

Do you remember, dear, the day we sat

And read together from an old love-book
Alone in that sweet, calm, sequestered nook
Which Nature made for souls to marvel at?
Beneath us stretched a soft and shining mat
Of velvet verdure; leaves and blossoms shook
As songsters all their melodies forsook
To hear a legend from Love’s laureate
We knew no fear, for there was no one by,
The stream seemed in its ripple to repeat
That tale of Lancelot, so sadly sweet,
Whom love enthralled in endless slavery.
Ah, me! there is no greater grief than when we feel
The thought of happier days o’er present sorrows steal.

II.
 When from your lips the words fell on mine ear
Full many a thought our souls together drew
In sympathy, that with the story grew
Still more intense, and oh! so wondrous near.
Our eyes were dimmed by Love’s all-pitying tear
And from our cheeks the blushing colour flew
As if ashamed of its divulgent hue;—
How well we understood the story, dear!
The blue vault overhead bore not a cloud
Upon its surface; on our sky of love
Not e’en the shadow of a sigh did move,
Where now the soul-storm rages long and loud.
Ah, me! there is no greater grief than when we feel
The thought of happier days o’er present sorrows steal.

III.

But one sweet passage from the book you read

The o’ergrown bud of love contrived to burst,
And all the beauty it had warmly nursed
Broke in our trembling hearts and blossomèd.
Youth’s long-fought fire our unloosed fancies fed;
Our souls felt Love’s unsatiable thirst;
O! happiest moment then, but now the worst,
When life’s blue sky grew all aflame with red!
But when you told how that long looked for smile
Was kissed by noble Lancelot, then—then—
You kissed my quivering lips; nor read again;
And bliss eternal breathed in us awhile.
Ah, me! there is no greater grief than when we feel
The thought of happier days o’er present sorrows steal.
DE SENECTUTE.
Ninety years forever fled
Seem but ninety minutes past,
As I, waiting for the last,
Live alone among the dead.

Musing in the gloom and glow,

Lo! I see a ghostly train,
Spectres conjured by the brain,
Images of long ago.

From the soul rise strangled cries,

Death-groans from the sins it wrought;
From the mind spring buried thought,
Poisoned hopes, vain sympathies.

In a weird, phantasmal band,

Seen as though in life’s eclipse,
Perished women kiss my lips,
Dead men take me by the hand.

Infant figures glad with glee,

Cluster in unbidden band,
Clasp my old and palsied hand
Pulsing high with memory.

Pass light fingers through my hair,

Once like their’s all tangled gold,
Silvery now and thin and old,
Bleached with age and blanched with care.

Softly touch my parchment skin,

Laugh and touch again and ask
That I throw aside time’s mask,
Dull with years and dark with sin.

Look into my dim, dead eyes,

Di ith t th t t t
 Dimmer now with tears that start
From the little left of heart
That to those dear souls outflies.

Crowds of spirit-children pass,

Faces, lost long years ago,
Buds, soon buried in the snow,
Playmates—comrades in the class.

Chide me for my childish tears,

Bid me join the childish game,
Call me by a childish name
None have named for scores of years.

Youths, high-souled, with aims that age

Neither blighted nor betrayed,
Look with truth-lit eyes that made
Noble life’s short pilgrimage.

Friends whose friendship now I crave,

Hearts whose love I yet would feel,
One by one before me steal,
In and out my living grave.

All things I have seen and known,

Read in book and dreamed in dream,
Stand as true as they did seem
When I claimed them for my own.

I have tried the truth of life,

Kissed love’s lips till they grew cold,
Drained the cup and clutched the gold,
Mingled in the human strife.

Seen men come and go like leaves

Through the falls of many years,
Joined their laughter, shared their tears,
In the plot the great God weaves
In the plot the great God weaves.

Ninety years forever fled,

Seem but ninety minutes past,
And I, waiting for the last,
Live alone among the dead.
THE COMING OF SUMMER.
Grim Winter rose and girded on his sword
To battle with the world. At each swift blow
The wind hissed cold, and at the sound abhorred
Birds ceased their singing and the river’s flow
Stayed in its course, the sun’s warm glow
Reached not the flowers through the air’s dark frown,
The last leaves perished, and the crystal snow
Paled the soft bosom of the earth so brown
And all her pulsing life was frozen down.

Within Time’s wondrous palace of past years

Nature sat grieving on her ancient throne;
Her furrowed cheeks were wet with scalding tears,
And from her wrinkled mouth ’scaped many a moan;
For she was brooding on delights long flown,
When all was bright and happy and the land
Flourished in fruitfulness, and there was known
No sign of sorrow, ere stern Winter’s hand
Gave right of spoil to all his ruthless band.

“Ah me!” she cried aloud in accents sad,

“That ever son of Time should work such woe,
And he of all the offspring I have had,
The eldest, unto whom my love did go
Like streams that meadow margins overflow
With rainy surfeit for the thirsty earth;
Whom I had hoped from childhood would upgrow
Rich in high thought, bold deed and noble worth,
And yet Woe’s curse fell on him from his birth.”

In simple beauty Spring knelt gently down,

Kissed the sad tears from Nature’s care-worn face,
Smoothed from her thoughtful brow each troublous frown
With tender hands, that left of pain no trace,
And then upstood in modest maiden grace,
Saying: “Behold! mine hour hath come to me;
Saying: Behold! mine hour hath come to me;
I go to make my love a resting-place
Against his coming from beyond the sea—
A throne most fitting for his sovereignty.”

So Spring walked forth into the icy cold,

And as her first soft footfall touched the earth,
A joyous thrill on everything took hold,
And from the spot a snowdrop white had birth;
Then a bold robin piped across the dearth
Of frozen land a loud defiant sound;
Then Winter knew his power was little worth,
And sped him forth to higher vantage ground,
With all his yelling rout fast flying round.

The birds set up a chorus of glad song,

Watching their nests among the shady trees;
Insects in quick innumerable throng
Made live the earth and air; gold-laden bees
Scorned the fine butterflies that flew at ease
Among the blossomed beauties of the fields;
The strong young leaves defied the assaulting breeze,
Spreading the brightness of their verdant shields
To guard the nurseling fruit that Autumn yields.

Where the thin moonbeams cast their joys along

A verdured vale of rapturous delight
Spring caught the echoes of the herald’s song,
And saw the flowerets in the dead of night
Lift up their watchful faces, glad and bright,
And heard the birds soft singing through the shade,
Singing for Summer and the morning light;
Then sank her soul within her, and afraid,
She watched the circuit that the fast moon made.

As Death, unseen, poised high his vengeful dart,

And Nature knelt beside Spring’s fallen form,
Ni ht’ t t i ’ t d t
Night’s outer curtain ’gan to wave and part
Before the sun’s first breath, so bright and warm;
The diamond dew to rainbows did transform,
The flowers raised up their heads to their full height,
The breeze bore on its wings a music storm
As every bird sang forth in full delight
And loudest strain the sighings of the night.

And Spring, revived a little, moved her head,

And to her mother said, in accents mild:
“Before he comes, alas! I may be dead.
O hasten to him, mother, for thy child,
And give him this, I plucked it in the wild,
And tell him ere King Death his mantle throws
I would he kissed my lips, and on me smiled.
O haste thee, mother mine! take this white rose,
And bid him come my dying eyes to close.”

With her last word the golden door swung free,

A blaze of sunshine scattered all the gloom,
Sweet music rolled in a voluptuous sea,
The radiant air was filled with scent and bloom,
And Summer stood, the bravest-hearted groom
That ever bride had waited for and won;
But Spring lay like an image on a tomb,
Her too-short pilgrimage already done,
Her blue eyes closed, her latest breath begun:

And as her soul forsook its frail abode,

Golden-haired Summer, with a cry of pain,
Across the threshold of Time’s palace strode,
With tears that fell in showers like to rain,
Calling on Spring to come to life again.
But tears could not disturb her last repose,
And all the calling of his heart was vain.
Summer still thinks of Spring—his grief he shows,
When golden raindrops fall upon the rose.
g p p
 RONDEL.

God’s wisdom all my spirit fills

With faith that puts to flight all doubt,
The snow dissolving into rills
Refreshing earth from last year’s drought
Adown the peeping slopes of hills
Carve their increasing channels out,
God’s wisdom all my spirit fills
With faith that puts to flight all doubt.

The day that stirs, the night that stills;

Spring’s masque of flowers; rich summer’s rout;
Each wonder, far past finding out,
With joy and love my bosom thrills;
God’s wisdom all my spirit fills
With faith that puts to flight all doubt.
THE ABBEY WALLS.
This was the Abbey long years ago
When a priest was pious, a lord was brave
And a lady repeated her Ave slow
With fair eyes fixed on the architrave
As she heard a sanctified voice that clave
The clear bright air with a holy strain:
All have been lost in Time’s great wave—
Only the old grey walls remain.

One arch still stands of all the row

That circled the Abbey so tall and brave,
These flags as legend would have us know,
Are the very stones that used to pave
The cloister-walk, when a proud margrave
Heard from his hiding a love-talk plain
Which he never forgot and never forgave,
Only the old grey walls remain.

Here where the nettle and nightshade grow

By a nameless stone, is the quiet grave
Of a murdered priest;—they laid him low
Under the walk of the quiet nave.
’Tis whispered alas! that a dagger gave
A stab to the heart that brought no pain;
Of all the story that Time could save
Only the old grey stones remain.

ENVOI.

Ballade! To that dead lady go

Say Love still sings its sad refrain;
Of its lofty hope and sunny glow
Only its old grey walls remain.
 THE VIOLET.

Born in the night and christened with the dew,

The violet lifts its face for morning’s kiss;
And each fair petal, filled with Nature’s bliss,
Weaves from the sunshine a sweet robe of blue.
The birds look down and wonder how it grew,
For yesterday the leaves where now it is
Lay green i’ the grass, and nought was like to this,
Earth’s earliest counterfeit of Heaven’s hue.
The shy hepatica; the showdrop white;
The trebly mounted trillium; the blaze
Of golden daffodil with sunny rays—
Have all arisen in their beauty bright;
But none of Flora’s first-born can compare,
With this blue-blossomed darling of the air.
LA FARFALLA.
Bright little butterfly, mounting at morning
Over Love’s garden of sweet delight,
Heedless of harm and the honey-bee’s warning,
Bent upon pleasure, in pains despite.
Gaily thou flutterest, gaudily flaunting
All thy fair charms to the winds that kiss
Like a soul in elysian happiness haunting
New meadows of bliss.

When the first grey beam of the dawn uplifting

Shadows of sleep from a world of dreams,
From sea-marge to mountain and meadow-land drifting,
Lighted at last on thy wings’ bright gleams
Kissed thee and waked thee and whispered thee hasten
To herald the sun where it might not smite
In the deeps of dark dells where white flowers wasten
And languish for light.

Thou hast bathed in the sun-flashing spray that arises

From ripples that laugh on the brook’s fair face,
Thou hast gazed in the mirror that Nature devises
For Beauty’s delight in her own sweet grace,
Thou hast basked in the heat of the noon-tide splendour
When cricket piped high in the grass beneath,
And the blossoms that carried thy burden so tender
Were crowned with a wreath.

The lily grew pale for thou passed its perfection,

The violet bowed in a passion of grief,
The daisy had hope of thy gracious election,
The blue-bell despaired of its heart’s relief,
The hyacinth spread all its beauties before thee,
The marjoram blushed as it caught thine eye,
The mignonette flung its sweet fragrance o’er thee—
But thou passed them by.
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