Power and Polynomial

Functions
College Algebra
 Power Function
A power function is a function that can be represented in the form

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 %

where k and p are real numbers, and k is known as the coefficient.

Example: consider functions for area or volume.

The function for the area of a circle with radius 𝑟 is 𝐴(𝑟) = 𝜋𝑟 +
-
and the function for the volume of a sphere with radius 𝑟 is 𝑉 𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 .
.
Both of these are examples of power functions because they consist of a
-
coefficient, 𝜋 or 𝜋, multiplied by a variable 𝑟 raised to a power.
.
 End Behavior of Power Functions

The behavior of the graph of a function as the input values get very small
( 𝑥 → −∞) and get very large ( 𝑥 → ∞) is referred to as the end behavior of
the function.

For a power function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒌𝒙𝒏 where 𝒏 is a non-negative integer,

identify the end behavior
1. Determine whether the power is even or odd.
2. Determine whether the constant is positive or negative.
3. Use the following graphs to identify the end behavior.
End Behavior of Power Functions with Even Power

• Positive constant 𝑘 > 0 • Negative constant 𝑘 < 0

• 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓 𝑥 → ∞ • 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓 𝑥 → −∞
𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞ 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞
 End Behavior of Power Functions with Odd Power

• Positive constant 𝑘 > 0 • Negative constant 𝑘 < 0

• 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓 𝑥 → −∞ • 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓 𝑥 → ∞
𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞ 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞
 Identifying the End Behavior of a Power Function
Describe the end behavior of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 : Describe the end behavior of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 <

The coefficient is 1 (positive) and the exponent of the The exponent of the power function is 9 (an odd
power function is 8IDENTIFYING
EXAMPLE: (an even number). THE END number). BEHAVIOR Because the
OF coefficient
A POWER is –1 (negative), the
graph is the reflection about the x-axis of the graph
FUNCTION.
As x approaches infinity, the output (value of f(x) ) of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 < .
increases without bound. We write as 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) →
∞. The graph shows that as 𝑥 approaches infinity, the
As x approaches negative infinity, the output increases output decreases without bound.
without bound. In symbolic form, as 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → As x approaches negative infinity, the output increases
∞. without bound. In symbolic form, we would write
We can graphically represent the function as 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞
 Desmos Interactives

Topic: end behavior of power functions

(Even powers) - https://www.desmos.com/calculator/rgdspbzldy

(Odd powers) - https://www.desmos.com/calculator/4aeczmnp1w

 Polynomial Function

Let 𝑛 be a non-negative integer. A polynomial function is a function that

can be written in the form

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎? 𝑥.? +BBB +𝑎+ 𝑥 + + 𝑎C 𝑥 + 𝑎D

This is called the general form of a polynomial function. Each 𝑎E is a

coefficient and can be any real number. Each product 𝑎E 𝑥 E is a term of a
polynomial function.
 Terminology of Polynomial Functions

• We often rearrange polynomials so that the powers are descending

• When a polynomial is written in this way, we say that it is in general form
 End Behavior of Polynomial Functions

For any polynomial, the end behavior of the polynomial will match the end
behavior of the highest degree.

In this example graph, the end behavior is:

• as 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓 𝑥 → −∞
• as 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓 𝑥 → ∞
Therefore, this graph has the shape of an
odd degree power function and the
leading coefficient must be positive.
 Identifying End Behavior and Degree of a Polynomial Function
Describe the end behavior and determine a possible degree of the polynomial function in
the graph below.

As the input values 𝑥 get very large, the output values 𝑓(𝑥) increase without bound. As
the input values 𝑥 get very small, the output values 𝑓(𝑥) decrease without bound. We
can describe the end behavior symbolically by writing

𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞

We can tell this graph has the shape of an odd degree power function that has not been
reflected, so the degree of the polynomial creating this graph must be odd and the
leading coefficient must be positive.
 Local Behavior of Polynomial Functions
A turning point is a point at which the
function values change from increasing to
decreasing or decreasing to increasing.

• The 𝑦-intercept is the point at which

the function has an input value of zero.
• The 𝑥-intercepts are the points at which
the output value is zero.
• A polynomial of degree 𝑛 will have, at
most, 𝑛 𝑥-intercepts and 𝑛 – 1 turning
points.
 Principle of Zero Products

The Principle of Zero Products states that if the product of n numbers is 0,

then at least one of the factors is 0. If 𝑎𝑏 = 0, then either 𝑎 = 0 or 𝑏 = 0,
or both 𝑎 and 𝑏 are 0.
We will use this idea to find the zeros of a polynomial that is either in
factored form, or can be written in factored form.

For example, the polynomial

𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥−4 + 𝑥+1 𝑥−7
is in factored form.
 Intercepts of a Polynomial Function
Use the factored form of a polynomial function to find it’s x and y-intercepts.

The 𝑦-intercept of a polynomial occurs when the input is zero.

The 𝑥-intercepts occur when the output is zero.

Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + + 5)

𝑓 0 = −2 1 5 = −10 so the 𝑦-intercept is at (0, −10).

𝑓 𝑥 = 0 when 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = −1, or 𝑥 = ± −5 (which has no real solution) so
the 𝑥-intercepts are at (2,0) and −1,0 .
 Multiplicity
If a polynomial contains a factor of the form (𝑥 − ℎ)% , the behavior near
the 𝑥-intercept ℎ is determined by the power 𝑝. We say that 𝑥 = ℎ is a zero
of multiplicity 𝑝.
How To: Given a Graph of a Polynomial Function of
Degree 𝑛, Identify Their Zeros and Their Multiplicities
Given a graph of a polynomial function of degree 𝑛, identify the zeros and
their multiplicities.

If the graph crosses the 𝑥-axis and appears almost linear at the intercept, it
is a single zero.

If the graph touches the 𝑥-axis and bounces off of the axis, it is a zero with
even multiplicity.

If the graph crosses the 𝑥-axis at a zero, it is a zero with odd multiplicity.

The sum of the multiplicities is 𝑛.

 Example: Identifying Zeros and Their Multiplicities
Use the graph of the function of degree 6 to identify the zeros of the function and their
possible multiplicities.

The polynomial function is of degree 𝑛. The sum of the multiplicities must be n.

Starting from the left, the first zero occurs at 𝑥 = −3. The graph touches the 𝑥-axis, so
the multiplicity of the zero must be even. The zero of –3 has multiplicity 2.

The next zero occurs at 𝑥 = −1. The graph looks almost linear at this point. This is a
single zero of multiplicity 1.

The last zero occurs at 𝑥 = 4. The graph crosses the 𝑥-axis, so the
Multiplicity of the zero must be odd. We know that the multiplicity is
likely 3 and that the sum of the multiplicities is likely 6.
 Graphing Polynomial Functions
1. Find the intercepts
2. Check for symmetry. If the function is even, its graph is symmetrical about
the 𝑦-axis, that is, 𝑓(– 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
If a function is odd, its graph is symmetrical about the origin, 𝑓(– 𝑥) = – 𝑓(𝑥)
3. Use the multiplicities of the zeros to determine the behavior at the 𝑥-intercepts
4. Determine the end behavior by examining the leading term
5. Use the end behavior and the behavior at the intercepts to sketch a graph
6. Ensure that the number of turning points does not exceed one less than the
degree of the polynomial
7. Optionally, use technology to check the graph
 Example: Sketching the Graph of a Polynomial Function

Sketch a graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = −2(𝑥 + 3)+ (𝑥 − 5).

This graph has two x-intercepts. At 𝑥 = – 3, the factor is squared, indicating a multiplicity
of 2. The graph will bounce at this 𝑥-intercept. At 𝑥 = 5, the function has a multiplicity of
one, indicating the graph will cross through the axis at this intercept.
The 𝑦-intercept is found by evaluating 𝑓(0).
𝑓(0) = −2(0 + 3)+ (0 − 5) = −2 ⋅ 9 ⋅ (−5) = 90
The 𝑦-intercept is (0, 90).
Additionally, we can see the leading term, if this polynomial were multiplied out, would
be −2𝑥 . , so the end behavior is that of a vertically reflected cubic, with the outputs
decreasing as the inputs approach infinity, and the outputs increasing as the inputs
approach negative infinity.
 Example: Sketching the Graph of a Polynomial Function
𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → −∞, the function 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞, so we know the
graph starts in the second quadrant and is decreasing
toward the x-axis.

Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = −2(−𝑥 + 3)+ (−𝑥 − 5) is not equal to 𝑓(𝑥),

the graph does not display symmetry.

At (−3,0), the graph bounces off of the x-axis, so the

function must start increasing. At (0, 90), the graph
crosses the 𝑦-axis at the 𝑦-intercept.
Somewhere after this point, the graph must turn back
down or start decreasing toward the horizontal axis
because the graph passes through the next intercept at
(5, 0).
𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → ∞ the function 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞, so we know the graph
continues to decrease, and we can stop drawing the
graph in the fourth quadrant.
 Intermediate Value Theorem

The Intermediate Value

Theorem states that
If 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) have opposite
signs, then there exists at least one
value 𝑐 between 𝑎 and 𝑏 for
which 𝑓(𝑐) = 0
 Factored Form of Polynomials

If a polynomial of lowest degree 𝑝 has horizontal intercepts at

𝑥 = 𝑥C , 𝑥+ , … , 𝑥? , then the polynomial can be written in the factored form:

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥C )%Y (𝑥 − 𝑥+ )%Z BBB (𝑥 − 𝑥? )%[

where the powers 𝑝E on each factor can be determined by the behavior of

the graph at the corresponding intercept, and the stretch factor 𝑎 can be
determined given a value of the function other than the 𝑥-intercept.
 Local and Global Extrema
A local maximum or local
minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is the output at the
highest or lowest point on the graph in
an open interval around 𝑥 = 𝑎
A global maximum or global
minimum is the output at the highest
or lowest point of the function. If a
function has a global maximum at 𝑎,
then 𝑓(𝑎) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥. If a function
has a global minimum at 𝑎, then 𝑓(𝑎) ≤
𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥.
 Desmos Interactive

Topic: zeros from a graph with slider = a to change y-intercept

https://www.desmos.com/calculator/5oyyx0vbiv
 Division Algorithm
The Division Algorithm states that, given a polynomial dividend 𝑓(𝑥) and a non-
zero polynomial divisor 𝑑(𝑥) where the degree of 𝑑(𝑥) is less than or equal to the
degree of 𝑓(𝑥), there exist unique polynomials 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) such that

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥)

𝑞(𝑥) is the quotient and 𝑟(𝑥) is the remainder. The remainder is either equal to
zero or has degree strictly less than 𝑑(𝑥)

If 𝑟(𝑥) = 0, then 𝑑(𝑥) divides evenly into 𝑓(𝑥). This means that, in this case,
both 𝑑(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) are factors of 𝑓(𝑥).
 Synthetic Division
Synthetic division is a shortcut that can be used when the divisor is a
binomial in the form 𝑥 – 𝑘. In synthetic division, only the coefficients
are used in the division process
 The Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 – 𝑘, then the remainder is the value 𝑓(𝑘).
Given a polynomial function 𝒇, evaluate 𝒇(𝒙) at 𝒙 = 𝒌 using the
Remainder Theorem.
1. Use synthetic division to divide the polynomial by 𝑥 − 𝑘.
2. The remainder is the value 𝑓(𝑘).
Example: Evaluate 𝑓 𝑥 = 6𝑥 - − 𝑥 . − 15𝑥 + + 2𝑥 − 7 at 𝑥 = 2.
Use synthetic division: 2 6 −1 −15 2 −7
12 22 14 32
6 11 7 16 25
The remainder is 25. Therefore, 𝑓 2 = 25.
 The Rational Zero Theorem
The Rational Zero Theorem states that, if the polynomial 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎? 𝑥 ? +
𝑎?aC 𝑥 ?aC +BBB +𝑎C 𝑥 + 𝑎D has integer coefficients, then every rational zero
%
of 𝑓(𝑥) has the form where 𝑝 is a factor of the constant term 𝑎D and 𝑞 is a factor
b
of the leading coefficient 𝑎? .
When the leading coefficient is 1, the possible rational zeros are the factors of the
constant term.
Example: List all possible rational zeros of 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 - − 5𝑥 . + 𝑥 + − 4.
Solution: The constant term is −4; the factors of −4 are ±1, ±2, and ±4.
The leading coefficient is 2; the factors of 2 are ±1 and ±2.
Therefore, any possible zeros are: ±1, ±2, ±4 and ±½.
 The Factor Theorem
The Factor Theorem states that 𝑘 is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥) if and only if (𝑥 − 𝑘) is a
factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

Given a factor and a third-degree polynomial, use the Factor Theorem to

factor the polynomial.
1. Use synthetic division to divide the polynomial by (𝑥 − 𝑘).
2. Confirm that the remainder is 0.
3. Write the polynomial as the product of (𝑥 − 𝑘) and the quadratic quotient.
4. If possible, factor the quadratic.
5. Write the polynomial as the product of factors.
 Find Zeros of a Polynomial Function

Given a polynomial function 𝒇, use synthetic division to find its zeros.

1. Use the Rational Zero Theorem to list all possible rational zeros of the function.
2. Use synthetic division to evaluate a given possible zero by synthetically dividing
the candidate into the polynomial. If the remainder is 0, the candidate is a
zero. If the remainder is not zero, discard the candidate.
3. Repeat step two using the quotient found with synthetic division. If possible,
continue until the quotient is a quadratic.
4. Find the zeros of the quadratic function. Two possible methods for solving
quadratics are factoring and using the quadratic formula.
 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra states that, if 𝒇(𝒙) is a Polynomial
of Degree 𝒏 > 𝟎, then 𝒇(𝒙) has at least one Complex Zero

We can use this theorem to argue that, if 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑛 > 0,
and 𝑎 is a non-zero real number, then 𝑓(𝑥) has exactly 𝑛 linear factors

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑐C 𝑥 − 𝑐+ … (𝑥 − 𝑐? )

where 𝑐C , 𝑐+ , … 𝑐? are complex numbers. Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥) has 𝑛 roots if we allow for
multiplicities.
 Complex Conjugate Theorem
According to the Linear Factorization Theorem, a polynomial
function will have the same number of factors as its degree, and each
factor will be in the form (𝑥 − 𝑐), where 𝑐 is a complex number.

If the polynomial function 𝑓 has real coefficients and a complex zero in

the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, then the complex conjugate of the zero, 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖, is also
a zero.
 Descartes’ Rule of Signs

According to Descartes’ Rule of Signs, if we let

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎? 𝑥 ? + 𝑎?aC 𝑥 ?aC +BBB +𝑎C 𝑥 + 𝑎D
be a polynomial function with real coefficients:

• The number of positive real zeros is either equal to the number of sign
changes of 𝑓(𝑥) or is less than the number of sign changes by an even
integer.
• The number of negative real zeros is either equal to the number of sign
changes of 𝑓(−𝑥) or is less than the number of sign changes by an even
integer.
 Quick Review

• What is a power function?

• Is 𝑓(𝑥) = 2e a power function?
• What does the end behavior depend on?
• Do all polynomial functions have a global minimum or maximum?
• What is synthetic division?
• Does every polynomial have at least one imaginary zero?
• If 2 + 3𝑖 were given as a zero of a polynomial with real coefficients,
would 2 – 3𝑖 also need to be a zero?