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Characteristics of living organisms
movement the actionby an organism or part of an organism causing a change
in position or place
Respiration the chemical reaction in cells that break down nutrients and release
energy for metabolism
sensitivity the ability of organisms to detect or sense stimuli in theinternal and
external environment and to make appropriate responses

Growth the permanent increase indrymassby an increase in cell size or cell

number or both

Reproduction the processes that make more of the same kind of organism

Excretion the removal of waste products of metabolism toxic materialsandother

substances in excess

Nutrition thetaking in of materials for energy growth development

all haveDNA cellmembrane cytoplasm enzymes

classification
makeit easiertostudy
based on morphology shapeofbodies E anatomy Dissection
can comparethe sequence ofDNA 9 aminoacids in protein
Binomial system agreed system in whichthe scientific name of an
internationally
organism is made upoftwoparts showingthe genus E species

Species a group of organismsthat can reproduceto produce fertile offspring

organisms who are related are believed to have a common ancestor

similarDNAsequence

Hierarchy of classification
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
Features of organisms
Animal Kingdom
nocell wall chloroplasts Phylum Athropods
multicellular
feed on organic substance made byother Insect
organisms segmented body Cheadthorax
abdomen
Phylum Vertebrates 3pairs of jointed legs
mammals 1 pair of antennae
hair 2 pairsof wings Imightbe
placenta vestigal
youngborn alive 1 pair of compoundeyes
young feed onmilk from mammary
glands crustacean
diaphragm hardexoskeleton chalky
hearthas4 chambers 4 pairs of jointed legs
4 types ofteeth gills
exothermic segmented body cephalothorax
abdomen
Bird 2pairs of antennae
Feathers E wings 1pairs of compound eyes
layeggswith hard shell Arachnid
beak
exothermic 4 pairs of jointedlegs
4 heartchambers no antennae
severalpairs of simple eyes
Fish chelicerae to bite
prey1poison
livein water
scales Myriapod
gills forbreathing 310 jointed legs
laterallineto detect vibration segmented bodythoraxabdomen

layjelly covered eggs in water 1 pair of antennae

ectothermic simpleeyes

Amphibian Plant Kingdom

moistsoftbody multicellular
fourlimbs photosynthesis
jellyeggs in water have chloroplast cellWall cellulose
breathewith lungs 1 gills nucleus
adultslive onland organs rootsstems leaves
ectothermic
Dicotyledon Monocotyledon
Reptiles network vein parallelvein
4 limbs petalsin 41 5 petalsin 3
scalyskin taproots fibrousroots
eggs with rubbery shells
ectothermic
lungs
 Prokaryotes
cell wall not made of cellulose
no nucleus
unicellular
no mitochondria

Protoctista
photosynthesis 1 organicsubstance by other organisms
nucleus
multi1unicellular
may have cell wall 1chloroplasts
virus
notconsidered living q
900000000

only living when inside other livingcell oooo

centralcore of RNA or DNA surrounded

by proteincoat
g
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no cellorganelles nucleus cell membrane cytoplasm oooo
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 Was
cellorganelles cytoplasm mostly water
where all chemical reactions happen
cell wall made of cellulose
keepscell in shape support E protect
prevent bursting

nucleus stores geneticmaterial DNA

cell membrane IIIIIhineratmagaesneiniont

go'an
of
made of protein andfat
chloroplast absorb energy from sunlight to makefood
withchlorophyll byphotosynthesis
largevacuole contains cellsap mostly water
I supportthecell
mitochondria powerhouses of cell
aerobic reaction
ii
ribosomes siteof proteinsynthesis
endoplasmic reticulum cellmembrane
nucleus
mitochondria
o
maycontainfood1water resides
Level oforganisation
cytoplasm
organism a livingthing

organsystem a groupof organs withrelated functions working together toperform

bodyfunctions

organ a structure made

up of a group of tissues working togetherto perform
specific functions

Tissues a group of cells withsimilar structures working togethertoperform a

shared function

Magnification specialised cells

ciliatedcell movementofmucusintrachealbronchi
magnification
sizeof image roothaircells absorption
sizeof object xylemvessels conduction E support
palisade photosynthesis
nerve conduction ofimpulses
1213C transport ofoxygen
spermlegg reproduction
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Diffusion
netmovementof particles from a region of high concentration to a region of
lower concentration as a result of their random movement
energy comes from kinetic energy
factors affectingdiffusion 1 surface area
2 temperature
3 concentration gradient
4 distance

osmosis
thenet movement of water molecules from a region of higher waterpotential to a region
of lowerwaterpotential through a partially permeable membrane

Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution

diluted concentrated

plant cell turgid flaccid plasmolysed

no
it
Animalcell burst normal haemolysedl
shrink
q go see
Active Transport
Themovementof particles through a cell membrane from a regionof low concentrationto
a region of higher concentration using energyfrom respiration
e human small intestine 1plants roots
g
Transport proteins plants roots

soil ion changesshape

protein

cell gq
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Carbohydrates
carbon Hydrogen E oxygen
for respirations
monosaccharides disaccharides polysaccharides
glucose sucrose glycogen storage in animal
fructose maltose cellulose cell wall
galactose s lactose starch storage in plants
soluble tastes sweet solubletastessweet insoluble
reactive lessreactive not reactive
Test for reducing sugar
Add Benedict's solution to food solution
Heat till 800C
Result green yellow orange brick red
Testfor starch
Add few drops of Iodine solution to food
Result orange brown to blue black

Protein
carbon Hydrogen Oxygen nitrogen
basicunits amino acids different sequence makes different
proteins
growth E repair
e g keratin enzymes collagen antibodies haemoglobin
Test for protein
Add binvet solution to food solution
or Add dilute coppersulfate 1 dilute potassium hydroxide
Result blue to purple
Fats
carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
basic unit glycerol E 3 fatty acids
heat insulation
Test for fats
Add ethanol to food shake gently mixture
pourethanol to water 1
Result Emulsion of fat droplets in mixture
water
80 l of the body
solvent for chemicals so that they can react
help in excretion urea urine
transportation blood plasma

DNACdeoxyribonucleicacid
makeupyourgenes E chromosomes
A E T CE G bases
double helix shaped
sequence of bases determine our growth
provides instructions to make proteins
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catalyst a substance that speeds up rate of reaction and is
notchanged by the reaction
Enzymes a biological catalyst

Active site
a dent in enzymes that has a complementary shape to substrate
where enzymes bind to substrate
different enzymes has different shapes
substancethat enzymes act on

Fgj D T
activesite
Properties at an Enzyme
1 Enzymes are proteins
qq.qagstrate.mn
if1111
proganj

2 Enzymes are denatured by hightemperature

9
I

gas.info i optimumtemperature
eraxnri
3
Enzymes work best at a temperature
4Enzymes work best at a particular pH
a

eating
in 1
pH
g

5 Enzymes are catalysts

Enzymes are specific
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Photosynthesis the process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy
from tight
carbon dioxide light
water chlorophyll oxygen 1 glucose
6Coz t 6h20 7 602 t 6hr06
chlorophylltransfers light energy into chemical energy in molecules
for the synthesis of carbohydrates
uses of glucose
1 Respiration for
energy
2 Stored as starch
3 Transported as sucrose contains
4 Used to makeproteins and other organic substances carbon E
hydrogen
Testing leaf for starch
I Boil the leaf break down membranes
2 Remove and
put into a tube of alcohol in waterbath alcohol is flammable
remove chlorophyll Ccolour mightaffect results
3 Dip intohotwater softenthe leaf
4 spread leaf on whitetile cover withiodine solution
Blue black indicates a presence of starch
Leaf structure waxy cuticle
700000 upperepidermis

mesophy
Palisade mesophy 1000000000
layer xylem
spongymesophyll
000091 vascularbundle

air spaces
lowerepidermis
00 CFBy phoem

0000 DO
guard cells
stomata
mineral Requirements
1 Magnesium to make chlorophyll yellowing between veins
2 nitrate proteinsynthesis weak growth
3 Potassium saltbalance mottled leaves
4 Phosphorus make DNA E chemicals in respiration poorgrowth
Leaf Adaptations
Leaf Feature Function
supported by stem andpetiole to expose more leaves to sunlight and
air

large surface area to expose larger area to sunlight and

air

thin to allow sunlight to penetrate to all

all cells to allowcozE 02 to diffuse
quickly
stomata in lower epidermis to allowCO2E 02 to diffuse in E out
airspaces in spongy mesophyll to allow CO2 E Oz to diffuse to all
cells

nochloroplasts in epidermal cells to allow sunlightto penetrate to the

mesophyll layer

chloroplasts containing chlorophyll to absorbenergyfrom sunlight sothat

presentinthe mesophyll layer COs will combine with H2O

palisade arranged end on to keep fewer cellwalls between

sunlightand chloroplasts
chloroplastsarrangedbroadside on to expose more chlorophyll to sunlight
chlorophyll arrangeon flatmembranes to expose more chlorophyll to sunlight

xylem vessels within short distance to supply water to the cells in the leaf
to be used in photosynthesis
phloem vessels within short distance
to take away sucrose and otherorganic
products of photosynthesis

Limiting Factor something presentin the environment in such shortsupply

that it restricts life processes
carbon dioxide a not a limitingfactor anymore
2 rate
Light
3 Temperature
4 Stomata f n limits the rate of photosynthesis

limitingfactorca
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Balanced diet
Balanced diet is a diet whichcontains all 7 nutrients carbohydrates proteins fats vitamin minerals
fibre 8 water inthecorrectamount and proportions
Factorsaffectingdietaryneeds
Age teenagerneedmore energyandprotein
2 Gender males generally needmore energy
3 Activity
4 Pregnancy more calcium E iron for growthofbaby
5 Breastfeeding

malnutrition
theresult of noteatingbalanced diet too muchortooless of something
effects
starvation
obesity takeintoomuchenergy
mighthaveproblemswithjoints
likely toget heartdiseasesstrokes diabetes
coronaryheart diseases when fat deposits buildup in arteries andmakeit narrowerand stiffer
1saturated fat heart muscles runshortofoxygen malfunction
cause blood clot heart attack

nutrition
carbohydrates provideenergy 19kt E protein
deficiency marasmus lack of
energy
looksemaciatedand underweight
protein growth E repair
deficiency kwashiorkor swollenabdomen

tatsandoils insulation energy 39kt membrane

vitamins C make collagen
deficiency scurvy paininjointsandmuscles bleeding fromgums
D absorbtion of
calcium
deficiency rickets bones become soft and deformed

minerals Fe make haemoglobin

deficiency anaemia Tired drowsy
Ca makebones blood clotting
deficiency weakbones brittlebonesand teeth
fibre provide
roughage keepsfoodmoving smoothly
letperistalsis muscles workharder
Alimentary canal
Ingestion takingin of substance intothebodythroughthemonth

mechanical digestion breakdown oflarge food piecesinto smaller pieces

without chemical
theirsurfacearea toease chemical digestion
change andincreasing

chemical digestion breakdown of large food molecules into smaller and solublemolecules
absorbtion themovement of digested food moleculesthrough thewalls of small intestine
intotheblood

assimilation movement of digestedfoodmolecules intothecellsofthebody tobeused becoming

partdthe cell

egestion thepassingoutof undigested and unabsorbed food asfaecusthroughthearms

diarrhoea loss of watery faeces
treatment oraltherapy water 1 salt sugar
green coconutwater
Yogurt 1 salt
cause cholerabacterium
cholerabacterium producestoxins whichcause secretion ofchlorideions intosmallintestine
thatcause water to moveout byosmosis

organ
mouth ingestion mechanical digestion
byteeth chemicaldigestion
bysaliva
maltose
amylase starch
make foodintoa bolustobe swallowed

oesophagus food passesthrough here by peristalsis

epiglottis prevents foodentering lungs sphincter controls entrance

stomach mechanical digestion

bymuscles mix foodwithchyme enzyme 1 mucus
chemical digestion
by enzymes pepsin protein polypeptides
curdledmilkprotein
HCl kills bacteria givesuitabepHdenature rennin milkprotein
other enzymes
Duodenum

pancreas chemical digestion

by enzymes amylase starch maltose rot
carbonateprovide suitable acids tglyce
lipase Fats7fatty
sodiumhydrogen pH
trypsin 7
proteins polypeptides
bite mechanicaldigestion emulsifytats intodroplets
bilepigments excretary products
neutralise acidic mixture

IKUM maltase maltose

byvilli
enzymessecreted glucose
sucrase sucrose glucose fructose
lactase lactose glucose galactose
peptidase polypeptides 1 aminoacids
acids glycerol
 p y gy
villi makesenzyme

absorbent

hIII artery

colon reabsorb water E salts

egested as faecus

Mechanical digestion

incisors biting food

teeny

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canine tear pulpcavity

y
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molars a premolars chewing

ToothDecay
of
coating bacteria and foodon teeth forms plaque withsaliva
bacteria inplaque respivewith
sugarturningitselfintoacid whichdissolvesenameland dentine

care ofteeth
I Donttaketoo much sugary food
2 Brush regularly with fluoridetoothpaste
3 visitdentistoftenly

Adaptations smallintestine
1 Long time
givesplenty
2 Villi large surface area
3 Villi withbloodcapillaries absorbtion

4 villi withlacteals fat

absorb
5 Villi withthinwalls
 thereat
Nemtande
innmRHl A
of many hollowdead cells joined and to end
wnoalbenmdadweaftce.HU raeshiffathigeninforwafetronffowtor support

fenndhcells
notcompletely broken down
form sieveplates with cytoplasm has a companion cell

fit ii i
for translocation transport sucrose aminoacids etc
Vascularbundles
a group of xylem vessels and phloemtubes
Root stem leaf
Eoe

4 Ii I
cambium
epidermis

xylem phloem
supports the plant
YefYus
Water uptake root cortex

i.io it it.it ii
Transpiration loss of waterfromplant leaves
by evaporation of water at
the surfaces ofthe mesophyll cells followed
by of watervapour
loss
through the stomata
transpiration stream 1pull 1 water is constantlyloss at top
2 pressureand waterpotential is reduced
3 water is pulled
up
cohesion thestrongtendency of waterto stick together when it is pulled
up
plants adaptation
1 large surface area of root hairs t quantity of watertaken in
2 hollow narrow vessels
xylem easy pathway
3 air spaces in leaves A surface for evaporation
4 stomata allow water vapour to diffuse out
transpiration rate
potometer to measure how fast a plant takes up water
record how fast the air water meniscus moves alongthe
capillary tube

plant

airetaight
sF waterreservoir

screw clip
41 meniscus

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ruler
factors affecting transpiration
1 Temperature T T Katela
2
Humidity HH Ratel
3 windspeed wind 4 RateT
4 Lightintensity stomata open KateT
5 Water supply waterA Ratel
Translocation the movement of sucrose and aminoacids in phloem
fromregions of production source to regions of storage
or utilisation in respiration oursource sink
dormant plants plantswhodont photosynthesise during winter
summer leaves source roots sinks
springs leaves7 sinks roots7 source
whenplants regrow after winter
e g potato carrot
Travwypoutt inn Animorphs
circulatorysystem a system ofbloodvessels with a pump and valves to ensure oneway flow
of blood
Double circulatory system mammals head
bloodpasses through the hearttwice in onecomplete circuit
advantages raisethepressure
blood is delivered faster to metabolically activetissue
flung
1hearth J
gills body
y
single circulatory system I egfish
blood onlypass throughonce
heart
body
The heart

a cardiac muscle Right pulmonary left

artery aorta
musclewallis thicker
inventricle than pH pulmonary vein

fMY
attorianimpwood
na 7
atrium
in left side atrium
pumpbloodfurther 1 ya
bicuspid 1mitral

in
triffid.tw

ventricle
yf ii n
pumpblood further
septum toseparate oxygenated
E deoxygenated blood
Heartbeat
listen with stethoscope
record with ECG 1electrocardiograph
Exercise heartbeats faster tissuesneedmore oxygen
receptorcellsbrain detectpH change dueto dissolved CO2
sendssignalto pacemaker a patch of muscle inrightatrium
pacemaker sends electrical signalthrough thewalls to let heart contract
delivers oxygen faster
Coronary HeartDisease CHD
coronary arteries supply bloodto heart
whencoronaryarteries block e blood clot
get g heartrun short of 02
cannot respire
causes smoking cigarettes nicotine heart attack
diethigh insalt saturated fat cholestrol
obesity stress genes
treatment
Drugs aspirin decrease risk ofbloodclots forming insidebloodvessels
statins lowering blood pressure
surgery coronarybypass replace with blood vessels fromanotherpartofthebody
angioplasty inflate
tinyballoonwithwaterto pusharteryopen
hearttransplant mightget rejected byimmune system needtotake drugs

Blood vessels
Arteries

carryoxygenated blood withhighpressure

structure elasticwalls canstretch withrecoil withstand
highpressure
smooth lining
thick layerof muscles
smalllumen
veins

44
sfrauqyurdeeoxygenatedbnfnodaua.ua

lessresistance
gramfoffmffing

thinlayerd muscle
contains raw hepatic
artery

Hatenutrients
toallthecells and takewasteaway
9 rien Y
small
structure

µ
intestine
Kidney
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way

Blood
Plasma 1551.1
mostlywater 921
it transports
component source destination notes
water ileumcolon all cells excess 1 kidneys
proteins fibrinogenantibodies liver lymphocytes remainin blood blooddot kill pathogens
lipids ileum fatreserves liver adiposeissue energysupplymightcausedisease
carbohydrates ileum liver all cells changed intoglycogen as
storage
excretary substances urea liver deamination kidneys
mineral ions ileum colon allcells excess kidneys
hormones endocrineglands
all broken
byliver 7 kidneys
dissolved
gases 911 cells lungs carried
asHeo
Red bloodcell 1451
nonucleus short life span
contains haemoglobin protein w iron combines with oxygen
biconcavediscs large surface area
smallsize
phagocytes
Yhffheffytes
White bloodcells I I'll yp.tl lobednucleus

fight pathogens cleardeadbodycells

phagocytosis taking in and digestingbacteria doneby phagocytes
granularcytoplasm
lymphocytes produce antibodies
responsible for immunity
Platelets I I'll
blood clotting preventblood loss entry of
pathogens
activatefibrinogen become fibrincinsoluble
alveoli Hb oxyHb heart
forms a meth
trapsRBC
heat oxygen

made'ginaendnglarine

dissolve inplasmas
hormones I
Transportin theblood co
03 I
plasma IHC

blood
fibrinogen plasmaproteins T aminoacid
food materials tattyacidE
in
dissolved
area
liverc
monosacchdalffed
plasma
liver 1 ldissolved water vitamins
to kidneys dissolved
in minerals

Lymphatic system inplasma plasma

tissuefluid whenplasma E
white bloodcellleak from capillaries
surroundallcells
supply cells with all requirements
keepsthe compositionand temperature constant homeostasis

Lymph when tissue fluid draininto lymphatic vessels subclavianveins

Lymphaticvessels no pump novalues capillary

when muscles contract tone to move Humespsheff
Heart
Lymphnodes produce white blood cell
capillary
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Pathogens microorganism thatcauses disease
causes transmissibledisease
damagecells by using their resources
producetoxins

Transmissible disease a disease in whichthepathogen can bepassedfrom one hostto

another
Directcontact
e blood contact shavingtowel
g
indirecttransmission
1 Through therespiratory passages
2 1hfood or water
3 In vectors an organismthatcarries a pathogen from onehost to another

Body Defences
MechanicalDefences
1 Skin
2 Mucus
3 Ear wax
4 HCl in stomach

chemical Defences
whitebloodcells phagocytosis byphagocytes
antibodies produced
by lymphocyte
vaccination

Foodhygiene
1 washhandsbefore eating keep hairoutof food
2 keepanimals
awayfromfood
3 donotkeepfood at roomtemperature forlong
4 keep rawmeataway fromotherfoods

ways to prevent getting transmissible diseases

1 Personal hygiene
2 Water disposal
3 Sewage treatment
The immune system
Phagocytes
engulfanddestroypathogens

lymphocytes
clonethemselvesandsecrete antibodies

Antibodies protein molecule with a particularshape

bind onto antigens
markpathogens to alert phagocytes
produceenzymesto digestpathogens

when pathogens enterthebody

pathogens meet many lymphocytes
oneofthesemightrecognise it
lymphocyte divide
secrete antibodies destroyed

memory cells
clones of lymphocytethatremain in bloodfor a longtime
provides activeimmunity
ready ifthesame pathogen enters
vaccination
of dead1weak pathogens
injection
produce antibodies 9 memorycells

Immunity
Active immunity
defence against a pathogen by antibody production in the body
developed
by havingthe disease andgetting overit
vaccinated

Passive immunity
short termdefence against
individual
a pathogen by antibodies acquired fromanother
byinjection1motherto infant
Auto immune disease
malfunction d
immunesystem
when immune system attack organs ofour own
e.g type 1 diabetes whenbetacells in pancreas is attacked
insulin cannotbe produced
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respiration involve enzymes muscle contractionprotein synthesis mitosisgrowth etc

aerobic respiration
chemicalreactions in cells that use oxygen to breakdown nutrient molecules to energy

glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water

614,20o t bOs s b lo t bHD

naerobic respiration
thechemical reactions in cellsthatbreak down nutrient moleculesto releaseenergy without
oxygen

plants glucose alcohol t carbon dioxide

GH1206 2EHOH t 210

animals glucose lacticacid

release much less energy per glucose molecule

oxygen debt when lacticacid buildsup in muscle then transported to liver forbreak
down
oxygen is still needed after exercise to breakdown lacticacid
aerobicrespiration
high heart rate afterexercise transport lactic acidto liver
deep breathing after exercise supply 02 for anaerobic respiration of
lactic acid
Gas exchange in humans
17 features at alveoli cgasexchangesurface
Thin
large surface area
Good blood supply
Good ventilation with air

alveoli
o g capillary

0 O
o moistsurface
O
co
O O
02
O
do
 epiglottis
larynx voicebox
closestrachea
food
nea tggpnrgev.int
I Left
externalintercostal 51
muscles bronchi
internalintercostalmuscles 149M

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bronchioles
If diaphragm
pleuralmembraneI
fluid
nose
warms and moist air goblet cells make mucus E liquid
ciliatedcells trap dust andbacteria with mucus

11111111 A cilia
cells
filigreed

gobletcells
basement membrane

inspiration expiration
diaphragm contract 1down diaphragm relax 1up
externalintercostalmusclescontract external intercostal muscles relax 1ribsdown
up to out volume decreased
volume of thoraxincreases pressure fall
inspired air expired air
oxygen 21 1 oxygen 161
carbondioxide0.041 carbondioxide 41
argon E others I l argon E other n l l
humidity humidity high
temperature temperature warm
marathoner
Excretion the removalfrom organismsof the wasteproducts of metabolism
toxicmaterials and substances in excess of requirements
eg carbondioxide bilepigments from haemoglobin excesswater and salts urea

Egestion passing outof substances thatsimplypassed unchanged throughthe

digestivesystem

nitrogenous waste
formedfrom excess proteins and amino acids
changed to urea in liver
excreted in kidneys
amino acids are broken down CH O carbohydrate and stored
N urea t water urine andexcreted
deamination the removal ofthe nitrogen containingpartof aminoacidsto form
urea
protein digestion Aminoacids hepaticinportals released into circulation

5 deamination carbohydrates
j ammonia urea
Functions of liver taken away byblood
1 Deamination to be excreted
2 ynthesises plasma proteins
3 centralblood glucose level e.g fibrinogen
hormones insulin E glucagon
4 Store glycogen
5 Makebile
6 Breaksdown oldred blood cells store iron excreteothersas bile pigments
7 Break down harmful substances suchas alcohol
8 Store vitamis A B D E E K
9 Stores potassium
Makeschdestrol needed to repair cell membranes
renalcapsule blood
kidneys glomerulus
capillary

renalartery
a medulla

i i
K
TIfiBFano
401 rena.ve
niuie.ti
mn

urethra
ureter
sphincter muscle yy
Akidney
ureter IEFIILIE.in
A nephron
Henie
 nephrons
makes upthe kidneys
begins at the cortex loops upintothe medulla back to cortex
againthrough medulla pelvis ureter
Urineformation
kidneys filterblood to remove urea excess water and salts
reabsorbs glucose water and salts
produces a solution of urea salts 9 water urine
urine ureters bladder
reabsorbtion

Filtration
is passed to renalcapsule
small molecules are squeezed out
glomerus atangle of blood
narrow blood capillaries
blood in glomerous cannot
fyj
getaway easily urine
highpressure squeeze molecules through holesintorenal capsule
Reabsorbtion
some glucose water E salts are needed by body
over 99 l of waterare reabsorbed

TheBladder
urine ureter bladder urethra
stores urine
stretchy walls
whenbladderfulls sphincter muscles open
adults can control consciously

Kidney dialysis
treatment for kidney failure dueto infection
arterial Venousblood
blood
filter

Iff
ginaigssisentinia

urea diffuses out of the blood

c dialysisfluid in
alfotwmtarterial
to blood pump to keep pressure high
to enterveintobe
withdrawnfordialysis
area diffuses out due to concentration
proteins are unable to diffuse through membranes
need to treat 213 times a week
atreatment lasts a few hours
kidney transplant
recipentand donor must have a very close tissuetype match
might cause rejection by immune system
organs mustbe removed and keptcold to prevent deteriote
immunosuppresants are given to treat rejection
stops white blood cells working efficiently
immune system working properly sufferfrom infectious
disease
chances of rejection donorwhoare closerelatives
antigens are similar body not to react
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Coordination in animals
w ppooo
stimuli changes in an organism's environment
receptorssense stimuli
effectorsresponds
e.g muscles glands
coordination the way in which receptors pickup stimuli andpass
information to the effectors
information is passed by 1 nerves
2 hormones

Humannervoussystem
neurones

YUL
Of
dendriteIdendrons
cellmembrane
159dg
49ft intoYasm
axon
node of Kanvier

myelinsheath
E nucleus ofcell whichmakes myelinsheath
Any nerveending

dendritespickup nerve impulses electricalsignal thatpasses along nervecellscalled

andpasstotheaxon otherneurons neurones

myelin
a layerof fat and protein that wraps nervefibres

fibres sothat impulses can

Fe fastlieadtettahseterhene
Fifeinsnea
centralnervous system CNS
made up ofthebrain and spinal cord all mammalshave CNS E peripheral
to coordinate the messages travelling through thenervous system nervoussystem

receptor Yehattigen's brain1spinalcord effector

detects a muscles
stimulus
any
or glands
Peripheralnervous system
made up of nerves and receptors
reflectarcs

sendimpulse sensory neurone sensory

alongaxon to spinal receptorce.g.infingers
cord
s
r.iia.emtnereinmeiinrisne.m
fieinaione
passimpulse to v motorneurone
brain f effector
effector muscles e g in yourarms

reflex actions
actions youdontneedto thinkabout
realise after message hasbeensent
involuntaryaction
reflexarcs
thepathwayalong whichthenerve impulse passes
sensoryneurone relay neurones motorneurone

sensory neurone motor neurone relayneurone

so
IE IEEz
he t
O impulse
Fff zf I
impulse t
in
O 0 x passto brain E effector
O 0
O O
Ex O
Yffffindgaottsisameattinal
Of

carrying impulsesfrom
sensory receptor q
µ
in CNS
 synapses a junctionbetweentwonervecells consisting of a minutegap acrosswhich
impulsespass bydiffusionof a neurotransmitter

synapticclefts vesicles of neurotransmitter

diffusethroughthe gap
nenr0 o cheeiffotrdyanffmitter

synapse relayneurone

gap

impulse arrives causesvesicletomove to the cellmembrane 7 synaptic cleft

4
triggersnerveimpulse c attachto receptormolecules 1 neurotransmitterdiffuse
in cellmembraneofrelay a chemical
neurone

acts like one way valve only oneneurotransmitteron oneside

nerve impulses onlytravel in one direction

Receptors
the part ofthe body that detect stimuli eg
specialised lendingsofsensoryneurones
cells
oftenpartof a sense organ groups ofreceptor cells responding to specific stimuli
lightsoundtouch temperatureand chemicals

Eye
muscleattaching
eyetoskull
protection

Feoaristyabnuffingisdoztrohen contain centroid Project

absorban light
kill bacteria richin bloodvessels nourish
config
retina
green.fi
fue oeYignt
pupil fovea cellspackedmost
receptor
aqueous opticnerve closely
humourwith lens
saltsto nourish blind spot
thelens ciliarymuscle semisolid vitreous humour
suspensionaryligament supporting the eyeball
retina
lightfalls receptorcellsendsimpulse opticnerve brain sortsoutallimpulse
sensitiveto coloured lights andbuild image
A of receptor cells clearer image
types of receptors
1 rodcells
sensitive to dim light
condeoften
respond to colour 1black E white infoffoupeaacked
a
can distinguish differentcolours of light
only function in bright light
three kind of cones red green blue RGB

iris
colouredcircular tissue infrontof lens
pigments absorb light stop it getting through to retina
controlthe size ofpupil closein stronglight prevent damage on retina
circularmuscles contract pupil constrict smaller His reflex
radialmuscles in iris contract pupil dilate bigger

Focusinglight
light isbentby cornea and lens
accomodation adjustmentin theshapeof the lens tofocuslightcomingfrom
distance
thickness 4 bending of lights

lightfalls
1 s
I upsidedwo.MYniemfffferpreted
bybrain
cornea
lens
1
largely diverging lightrays
nearitem
cornea

light s lightfocusedonto retina

g
lens
X
slightly diverging lightrays
faraway

fifth
changing shape d lens Caccomodation
e
fav I
relax
ciliarymuscles 11111
if suspensionary
pulled
liganfighfts
I 11111T
lenspulledthin
11
near
1 ciliary muscles contract
lie

f sausage.nngionary ligaments

1111
lensallowedtobuldge

It
Endocrinesystem
Endocrine glands
make hormones and release directlyintoblood
good blood supply

Gland Hormone Function of hormone

Adrenalgland Adrenaline prepares bodyfor vigorous action
pancreas insulin reducesthe concentration of glucose in the blood
Testis testosterone causesdevelopmentofmalesecondary sexual characteristics

Ovary oestrogen causes development of female secondary sexualcharacteristics and

helps inthecontrol of the menstrual cycle

pituitarygland

thyroidgland

2µL adrenalgland

pancreas
above kidneys

oo

Hormone
hormones a chemicalsubstance producedby a gland carriedbytheblood
whichaltersthe activity of one or more specifictarget organs
dissolved inplasma
only affectcertain partsofthebody targetorgans
Adrenaline
madein adrenal glands
to letbodycopewithdanger fight orflight response
1 make heartbeatfaster supplyoxygentaster A energy
2 increasebreathingrate more oxygen
3 bloodvessels in
yourskin and digestive system butterflies in stomach
goespale
4 pupils widen morelight
5 liverrelease glucose muscles can release energy
Coordination and response in plants
plants response to stimuli bychanging their rate or direction of growth
tropism positive response growthtowards stimuli
negative response growth away stimuli
gravitopism a response in which a plant growstowards or awayfrom
gravity
phototropism a response in which a plant growstowards or awayfrom
which light is coming
plants grow awayfromgravity E towardsthelight

Plants Hormones
receptor tip oftheshoot
effector belowthe shoot
plantsonly communicate by plantshormones

Anxin
made in thetip oftheshoot diffuse downtotherestof thesnoot
makesthecells just behindthetipgetlonger
9 aux in fastergrowth
concentrate at shady sides growsfasterand bendstowardslight

Etiolation
plantsthatgrow in dark
tall thin smallerleaves
chloroplasts do not developproperly

weedkillers
uses synthetic auxin
weeds growfaster anddie
 h.fi iiqeeoEFtfwsgivsis
Homeostasis themaintenance of a constantinternal environment
control ofbodytemperature
endothermic animalsthatcankeeptheirtemperaturealmost constant
cangetheatenergyfromwithinthemselves
e g mammals birds
enzymesworkefficiently
highmetabolism at any temperature
hasto eatmorefood
ectothermic e g amphibians reptiles fish

the skin
hairerectormuscle hair hairfollicle sweatpore
cornified layer
f
1
epidermis

Tung
temperaturesensor

Yntyy
a l
mess

shuntvessel

Iii
bloodcapillary

rennie
smallvein
arteriole

Epidermis
made of cells indermis
always dividing mitosis
cornified
layer madeof deadcells E keratin
I
2 protection Chard E waterproof
mightcontain melanin absorbs UV
rays insunlight as protection
hairsmade of keratin
 Dermis
made of connectivetissue containselasticfibres E collagenfibres
sweatglands secretessweat mostlywater smallamounts of salts E urea
regulatestemperature
contains bloodvessels and nerve endings keepsyouaware of environment
underneaththedermis is adiposetissue a layer of fat
insulate body againstheatloss
energy conserve
Hypothalamus
partof the brain at the centre ofthe control mechanism
keepstemperature constant
sends electricalimpulses to part of bodythat regulates bodytemperature

whenbody temperature falls

1 Body shiver musclescontractandrelaxquickly
produces heat
2 Metabolism increase releases heat
3 Hairstandsup traps a layer of warm air
insulates

Idf
muscles

4 Vasoconstriction arterioles contract

blooddoesnotloseheatto air
whenbody temperature rises
1 Hairlies flat
2 Vasodilation more heat is toss to the air
3 Sweat

negative Feedback
body gainsheat c
mechanismstogain1saveheat
body istoohot
temperature receptors hypothalamus
in theskin bodyistoocold
b
mechanisms to lose heat
bodylosesheat

negative informationthatthebloodhascooled down stopsthe

hypothalamus doingthesethings
Feedback effectof its action is fedback to it
Controlof bloodglucose concentration
controlled
by pancreasandthe liver
pancreas and liver
groupof cells islets of Langerhans in pancreas
makesinsulin and glucagon
Insulin lowers blood glucose concentration
causes liver to absorb glucose
some is convertedinto glycogen
glucagon increases blood glucose concentration
causeslivercells to breakdown glycogen to glucose

Diabetes
whenthe control of blood glucose concentration does notwork
Type 1 Diabetes
caused
by death of cells that secretes insulin
auto immunedisease
need to inject insulinto reduce blood glucose concentration
hyperglycaemia whenblood glucose is toohigh after a meal
thirsty blurry eyes dry mouth
hypoglycaemia low blood glucose concentration
noenergyfor respiration tired confusionirrationalbehaviour
unconcions
method of checking blood glucose concentration
1 sensor
2 urinetest
odbwwwq
Drugs any substance taken intoThe bodythatmodifies or affects chemical
reactions in thebody

medicinaldrugs
Antibiotics
totreat bacterial infection
some bacteria become resistant to prevent use as last resort
natural selection mutation
damage cellwalls notuseful for virusinfection
bacteria

Misused Drugs
Heroin
depressant i slowdownfunctions ofthe brain
2 reducespain slowsdown breathing
3 increases reaction me
feelingof 4 slowsdown functions of hypothalamons hormones temp
euphoria high 5 loss of selfcontrol
addictive 1 unable to get ajob 7crime
2 hardto withdraw mightdie

heroin is metabolisedto morphine in brain

morphine fit into endorphin receptors reduce sensations of pain affect
reduceproduction of natural endorphins mood reduce hunger andthirst
and other important neurotransmitter
have to takein more to getthe sameeffect
might transmit HIV 1hepatitis virus by snaring injection needles
withdrawal symptoms 1 diarrhoea
2 insomnia
3 fatigue
4 anxiety depression
5 nausea 1vomiting
Alcohol
feelmore relaxed releasetheir inhibition
broken down by liver
lengthens reactiontime depressant
increase aggression
can kill poison
coma unconsciousness death
vomit until suffocate
Alcoholism
cannotmanage without alcohol
dueto genes 1personality 1 stress
result in cirrhosis fibresgrowing intheliverAFFIEto
brain damage loss of memory1confusion dueto lossof water
stops releasing the hormone that prevent kidneys lose
too much water throughthe urine

Anabolicsteroids
hormones that stimulate metabolic reactions that build large molecules from small
molecules
Testosterone
leg
protein synthesis
causesproteinto bemade muscles become larger
helps athletestotrainharder and longer
increase aggression
decrease theability of immune system to destroy pathogens
damage liver
Tobacco
1
smoking
nicotine
simulant more alert
addictive
narrow blood vessel 4 blood pressure
coronary Heart Disease hypertension

Tar
carcinogen causes cancer
affect DNA
causes uncontrolled mitosis
tumour formed if malignant cancermightspread and moretumours
grow
discovered
by Richard Doll
carbon monoxide
poisonous gas
combines with haemoglobin less oxygen carried
affect baby growth
Smokeparticles
gettrappedinside lungs WBCproduce chemicals damage lungs itself
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease COPD
longterm
walls of alveoli breakdown emphysema less SAforgasexchange
can't do anything active
harm lining more mucus
lesscilia
F good environment for bacteria
F it is gas exchange harder
6 workfaster
W u
fewercilia
lungs work lesswell

stiffenarteries harder to stretch E recoil

blood clot