CIT, Ranchi Computer Networks by Rajni RK.

MODULE 1

1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a distance.

What is a data?
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and
using the data.
What are Data communications?
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.
What are the characteristics for effectiveness of a data communication?

delivery, accuracy, timeliness and jitter.

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission
and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the
case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same
order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called Real-Time
Transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30ms. If some
of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is
3the result.

DATA COMPONENTS
A data communications system has five components (see figure 1.1)
1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking English cannot be understood by
a person who speaks only Kannada.

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Fig: 1.1

Types of Data Representation:

Text
In data communication, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s). Different
sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process
of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which
uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in any language in the world. The American Standard
Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) developed some decades ago in the United States, now
constitutes the first 127 characters in Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin.

Numbers
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to
represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical
operations.

Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix
of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.
For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case, there is a better
representation of the image (better resolution), but more memory is needed to store the image.
After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the
pattern depend on the image. For an image made of only black-and-white dots (e.g., a chessboard), a 1-bit
pattern is enough to represent a pixel.
If an image is not made of pure white and pure black pixels, you can increase the size of the bit pattern
to include gray scale. For example, to show four levels of gray scale, you can use 2-bit patterns. A black
pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray pixel by 10, and a white pixel by 11.
There are several methods to represent color images. One method is called RGB, so called because
each color is made of a combination of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. The intensity of each
color is measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it. Another method is called YCM, in which a color is
made of a combination of three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.

Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different from
text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change voice or
music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.

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Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as
a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity,
arranged to convey the idea of motion. Again we can change video to a digital or an analog signal.

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in figure 1.2

Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see figure 1.2a).
Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce
input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to
send data in one direction.

Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (see figure 1.2b).
The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are
travelling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait.
In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices
is transmitting at the time.
Examples: Walkie-talkie and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.

The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.

Full-Duplex
In full duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see
figure 1.2c).

The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in the
other direction.
This sharing can occur in two ways; Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths,
one for sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals
travelling in both directions.

One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

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Fig:1.2

1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be
a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes
on the network.

Distributed Processing
A Network is a set of devices/nodes connected by communication links, each device capable of sending
or receiving data generated by other nodes.
Most networks use Distributed Processing, in which the task is divided among multiple computers

Network Criteria
The most important criteria are Performance, Reliability and Security
Performance: Is often evaluated by two networking metrics, Throughput and delay.
Performance depends on number of factors like transit time (time taken for a msg to travel from one device
to another), no. of users, type of transmission medium, efficiency of hardware and software.
Reliability: It is the accuracy of delivery, also measured by frequency of failure
Security: Protecting data from unauthorized access and implementing policies and procedures for recovery.

Physical Structures- Types of connections

A network is a set of communication devices connected by media links. .
The Possible types of connections are Point-to-Point and Multipoint
* In a point-to-point connection, two and only two devices are connected by a dedicated link.
* The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between the two devices.
* The links can be of microwave or satellite or a cable connecting the two ends.

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Ex: Changing television channels by remote control. In a multipoint connection,

three or more devices share a link.
Ex: LAN
Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

Physical Structures- Physical Topology

Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network.

i.e. two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology. Four basic topologies are: mesh, star, bus and ring topology.
* In a Mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device
* A mesh network with n nodes need n(n-1) physical links and n(n-1)/2 for duplex links.
* To accommodate the links, every device on the mesh must have (n-1) I/O ports.

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Advantages of Mesh Topology:

* Use of dedicated links eliminates traffic problems that can occur with shared links.
* It is Robust, if one link becomes unusable, the entire system will not fail.
* Enables Privacy or security, message travels along a dedicated line and only intended recipient sees it.
* Point-to-point links make fault identification easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links with
suspected problems.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology:
* Installation and reconnection are difficult, b’coz every device must be connected to every other device.
* Sheer bulk of wiring require more accommodation space.
* The hardware required to connect each link (I/O Ports and cable) can be expensive.
Ex: Connection of telephone regional offices.

Star topology
* Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub.
* The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends data to
the controller, which then relays to the other device.
* Therefore, no direct traffic between devices.

A star topology connecting four stations

Advantages of STAR Topology

* Less Expensive, each device needs only one port and one link.
* Easy to install and reconfigure.
* Less cabling & additions, moves and deletions involve only one connection
* Is robust: If one link fails only that is affected, others remain active.
* As long as hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems.
Disadvantages of STAR Topology:
* Dependency of the whole topology on one single point. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
* Although a STAR requires less cabling than a mesh, it requires more cabling than some other
topologies.
Ex: High-speed LAN’s.

Bus Topology:
* is Multipoint. One Cable links all devices in a network.
* Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
* There is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and the distance between the taps.
* As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat, thereby

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weakening the signal as it travels farther and farther.

Advantages of Bus Topology

*Ease of installation.
*Uses less cabling than Mesh or Star topologies.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
* Difficult reconnection and fault isolation
* Difficult to add new devices as it may require modification or replacement of the backbone.
* A fault in the bus cable stops all transmission. The damaged area reflects signals back in
the originating direction, creating noise in both directions.
Ex: Ethernet LAN’s

In a Ring Topology
* Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either side of it.
* A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
* Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater
* when a device receives a signal intended for another device, the repeater regenerates the bits
and passes them along.

Advantages of Ring Topology

* Relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
* Fault isolation is simplified, if one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it
can issue an alarm, the alarm alerts the network operator to the problem location.
Disadvantages
* Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage, a break in the ring can disable the entire network.
* This can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch closing the break.

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Network Models

The two best known models are the OSI model and the Internet Model.
OSI Model defines a seven-layer network.
Internet model defines a five-layer network.

Categories of Networks

A network can be categorized as a local area network (LAN), a metropolitan-area network (MAN), or a
wide area network (WAN).

The networks are determined by their size

LAN covers an area less than 2 miles.
A WAN can be worldwide.
Networks of size in between are referred to as MAN and span tens of miles. Ex. Telephone
network, or cable TV network
LAN is privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building or campus.
LAN’s are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers.
The resources to be shared can include H/W (eg. Printer) , S/W (eg. An application program) or data.
Ex: Client-Server Applications, Here size of the LAN may be determined by Licensing
restrictions ( No. of users per software/ no. of users allowed to access OS)
LAN’s are distinguished from other networks by Transmission media and Topology
Most common LAN topologies are bus, ring and Star
LAN speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps

LAN

A WAN is a data communication system spanning states, countries, or the whole world.
A WAN can be a switched WAN or a Point-to-point WAN
Switched WAN connects the end systems, which comprises of a router that connects to another
LAN or WAN (Ex: ATM Networks)

Point-to-point WAN is a leased line from a telephone or a cable TV provider that connects a
home computer or small LAN to an ISP

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Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN.
It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed
DSL line to the customer.
Another example is the cable TV network that originally was designed for cable TV, but today can also be
used for high-speed data connection to the Internet.

Interconnection of Networks
An internet is a network of networks or is a collection of many separate networks.
As an example, consider an organization that has two offices, one on the east with a Star topology LAN
and the other on the west with a Bus topology LAN.
A switched WAN is used as a backbone WAN for connecting these LAN’s to the president’s computer.
Three point-to-point WAN’s are required to connect the LAN’s to the switched WAN.
These point-to-point WAN’s can be a high speed DSL line or a cable modem line.

THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected the way we do business as
well as the way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a communication system that has brought a
wealth of information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.
Brief History
In 1960’s The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD)
showed interest in finding a way to connect computers to share research findings.

In 1967, ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET. The idea was that each host computer would be
attached to a specialized computer, called IMP(Interface Message Processor). The IMP’s in turn
would be connected to one another.

By 1969 ARPANET was a reality. Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided
communication between the hosts.

In 1973, TCP/IP - the protocol suite for the Internet was outlined.
IP responsible for routing
TCP responsible for higher level functions such as segmentation, reassembly and error detection.

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The Internet Today

Most end users who want Internet connection use the services of ISPs (Internet Service Providers)
There are local, regional, national, and international Internet service providers (ISPs).
At the top of the hierarchy are the International ISP’s that connect nations.
National ISPs are backbone networks created and maintained by specialized companies.
These backbone networks are connected by complex switching stations called NAPs (Network Access
Points)
Regional ISPs are smaller ISPs that are connected to one or more national ISPs.
Local ISPs provide direct service to end users.
The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or directly to National ISPs
Each level of hierarchy differ in terms of Data rate.

PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

In this section, we define two widely used terms: protocols and standards. First, we define protocol, which is
synonymous with rule. Then we discuss standards, which are agreed-upon rules.

A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication;

The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and
timing.
Syntax: Refers to the structure or format of data. Ex: A simple protocol might expect first 8 bits
to be address of sender, next 8 bits to be address of receiver and the rest the message.
Semantics: Refers to the meaning of each section of bits. Ex: Address identify the route to be

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taken or the final destination.

Timing: Refers to two things, when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent. Ex: Sender produces
data at 100Mbps, Receiver processes data at 1Mbps, the transmission channel gets overloaded and data will
be lost.
Standards are necessary to ensure that products from different manufacturers can work together as
expected.
Data communications standards fall into two categories
de facto (Meaning ―by fact‖ or ―by convention‖). Those standards have not approved by an
organized body but have been adopted as standards through wide spread use.
de jure (Meaning ―by law‖ or ―by regulation‖). Those standards have been legislated by an
recognized body.

Standards Organizations

The ISO, ITU-T, ANSI, IEEE, and EIA are some of the organizations involved in standards creation.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO): The ISO is a multinational body whose
membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation committees of various governments throughout
the world. The ISO is an active in developing cooperation in the realms of scientific, technological, and
economic activity.
International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T): The United
Nations formed, as a part of its International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a committee, the
Consultative committee for International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT). This committee was
devoted to the research and establishment of standards for telecommunications in general and for phone
and data systems in particular. On March 1, 1993, the name of this committee was changed to the
International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
American National Standards Institute (ANSI): Despite its name the American National Standards
Institute is a completely private, non-profit corporation not affiliated with the U.S federal government.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers is the largest professional engineering society in the world. International in scope, it aims to
advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio s
well as in all related branches of engineering. As one of its goals, the IEEE oversees the development and
adoption of International Standards for computing and communications.
Electronic Industries Association (EIA): Aligned with ANSI, the Electronic Industries Association is a
non-profit organization devoted to the promotion of electronics manufacturing concerns.

Standards committees are procedural bodies and by nature slow-moving. Forums are special-interest
groups that quickly evaluate and standardize new technologies.
All communications technology is subject to regulation by government agencies as FCC (Federal
Communications Commission)

Internet Standards
An Internet Standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is adhered to by those who work with
Internet.
There is a procedure by which a specification attains Internet Standard. It begins with an Internet draft, a
working document with no official status, upon recommendation from Internet authorities a draft may be
published as an RFC (Request for Comment). Each RFC is edited, assigned a number and made available

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to interested parties. RFCs are then categorized according to their requirement level.

Network Models

LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Tasks involved in sending a letter

Hierarchy
Tasks must be done in the order given in the hierarchy, The letter must be written and dropped in the
mailbox before being picked up by the letter carrier.

Each layer at the sender’s site uses the services of the layer immediately below it.

The two popular models of networking are OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model and TCP/IP
Model.
The TCP/IP protocol suite became the dominant commercial architecture because it was used and tested
extensively in the internet; the OSI model was never fully implemented.

THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards.
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture.

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The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between different systems
without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
OSI is a layered model for the design of network systems that allows communication between different
systems regardless of their architecture.
OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers: Physical, Data link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, Application.
Each layer uses the services provided by the layer below it and provides certain services for the layer above
it.

Seven layers of the OSI model

Layered Architecture

As a message travels from device A to device B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These
intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model.
Layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine, this communication is governed by
protocols.
The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer-to-peer processes
governed by peer-to-peer protocols.

Peer-to-peer processes
At the physical layer communication is direct, however at higher layers communication must move
through other layers.
Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives and passes the whole
package to the layer below it.
At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer with each process (layer) removing the
data meant for it.

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The interaction between layers in the OSI model

Organization of the layers.

The seven layers can be organized in three subgroups.

Layers 1, 2 and 3 are the Network support layers – Deal with the physical aspects of moving data
from one device to another (such as electrical specifications, physical connections, physical
addressing, transport timing and reliability).
Layers 5, 6 and 7-session Presentation, and application are the User support layers – Allow
interoperability among unrelated software systems.
Layer 4 Transport layer- links the two subgroups – Ensures that what the lower layers have
transmitted is in a form that upper layers can use.

Upper layers are implemented in software, lower layers are a combination of hardware and
software except physical layer which is mostly hardware.

In fig 2.4, D7 means the data unit at layer 7, D6 means data unit at layer 6 and so on.
At each layer a header or trailer (only in data link layer) is encapsulated.
At physical layer, it is changed into an electromagnetic signal and transported along a link. Encapsulation
is another aspect of data communications in the OSI model.

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An exchange using the OSI model

LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium
It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium.
It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for
transmission to occur.

The physical layer is responsible for movement of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

\
The physical layer is also concerned with the following functions:
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium.
Representation of bits.
Data Rate
Synchronization of bits
Line configuration
Physical topology
Transmission mode
1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: The physical layer defines the characteristics
of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of
transmission medium.

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2. Representation of bits: The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s)
with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals – electrical or optical.
The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals).
3. Data rate: The transmission rate – the number of bits sent each second – is also defined by the
physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long
it lasts.
4. Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also must
be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized.
5. Line configuration: The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media.
In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a
multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
6. Physical topology: The physical topology defined how devices are connected to make a network.
Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected to every other
device), a star topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring topology (each
device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every device is on a common
link), or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more topologies).
7. Transmission mode: The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other
can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two
devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode,
two devices can send and receive at the same time.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link. It makes the
physical layer appear error-free to upper layer (network layer).
The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.

The data link layer is responsible for delivering data units from one station to the next without errors.
It’s also responsible for the following:
Framing
Physical Addressing
Flow control
Error control
Access control

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1. Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
2. Physical addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data
link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is
intended for a system outside the sender’s network, the receiver address is the address is the address
of the device that connects to the network to the next one.
3. Flow control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which
data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
4. Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by dding mechanism to
detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate
frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
5. Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols
are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
As the below figure shows, communication at the data link layer occurs between two adjacent nodes. To
send data from A to F, three partial deliveries are made.
First, the data link layer at A sends a frame to the data link layer at B (a router).
Second, the data link layer at B sends a new frame to the data link layer at E.
Finally, the data link layer at E sends a new frame to the data link layer at F. Note that the frames that are
exchanged between the three nodes have different values in the headers.
The frame from A to B has B as the destination address and A as the source address.
The frame from B to E has E as the destination address and B as the source address.
The frame from E to F has F as the destination address and E as the source address. The values of the
trailers can also be different if error checking includes the header of the frame

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Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to the
destination host.

. Other responsibilities include:

Logical addressing
Routing

1. Logical addressing: The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer adds a header to
the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of
the sender and receiver.
2. Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks (network of
networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch
the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this
mechanism.

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

As the figure shows, now we need a source-to-destination delivery. The network layer at A sends the packet
to the network layer at B. When the packet arrives at router B, the router makes a decision based on the final
destination (F) of the packet. As we will see in later chapters, router B uses its routing table to find that the

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next hop is router E. The network layer at B, therefore, sends the packet to the network layer at F.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the process-to-process delivery of the entire message
A process is an application program running on a host, whereas the network layer oversees source-to-
destination delivery of individual packets.
The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing
both error control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.

. Other responsibilities include:

Service-point addressing
Segmentation and reassembly
Connection control
Flow control
Error Control

1. Service-point addressing: Computer often runs several programs at the same time. For this reason,
source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from
a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the
other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called a service-point
address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct process on that
computer.
2. Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble
the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were
lost in transmission.
3. Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented. A
connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the
transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the
data are transferred the connection is terminated.
4. Flow control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However,
flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
5. Error control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.

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However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a single link.
The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport
layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through
retransmission.

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

Session Layer
It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
The Session layer is the network dialog controller. Other responsibilities include
Dialog control
Synchronization: Allowing a process to add check points or synchronization points, to a
stream of data

Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

1. Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half-duplex (one way at a time) or full-
duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
2. Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization
points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable
to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently. In this case, is a crash happens during the transmission of page 523;
the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to
501 need not be resent. Figure 2.12 illustrates the relationship of the session layer to the transport
and presentation layers.

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

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Presentation Layer
Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between
two systems. Other responsibilities include:
Translation
Encryption
Compression

1. Translation: The processes (running program) in two systems are usually exchanging information
in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to bit streams
before being transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding systems, the
presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The
presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format into a
common format into its receiver-dependent format.
2. Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption
means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the resulting
message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message
back to its original form.
3. Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text,
audio, and video.
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

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Application Layer
Of the many application services available, the figure shows only three: X.400 (message-handling services),
X.500 (directory services), and file transfer, access, and management (FTAM). The user in this example
employs X.400 to send an e-mail message.
The application layer enables the user to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and
transfer, shared database management and other distributed information services.

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

Specific services provided by application layer include:

Network virtual terminal
File transfer, access and management
Mail services
Directory services

1. Network virtual terminal: A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal,
and it allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation
of a terminal at the remote host. The user’s computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn,
talks to the host, and vice versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own
terminals and allows the user to log on.
2. File transfer, access, and management: This application allows a user to access files in a remote
host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local
computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
3. Mail services: This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
4. Directory services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.

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Summary of Layers

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a process where multiple signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium. This process divides a
communication channel into multiple logical channels. Each one is allotted for a different message signal or data stream to be transferred.
The hardware that is used for multiplexing is called as a multiplexer, which combines n number of input lines for generating a single
output line. It follows many-to-one where there are n input lines and one output line.

• The device that performs multiplexing at the sender’s side is called a Multiplexer (MUX).
• The device that performs the reverse (demultiplexing) at the receiver’s side is called a Demultiplexer (DEMUX)

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Why Multiplexing is Needed?

• To maximize resource utilization (e.g., bandwidth, channel).

• To reduce cost by sharing the same medium among multiple signals.
• To increase efficiency in transmitting data simultaneously.
• To support concurrent communications.

Types of Multiplexing:

Multiplexing techniques are broadly classified into three categories:

A. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique that allows multiple
signals
to be transmitted simultaneously over a single communication channel by allocating each signal to a different frequency
band. This is achieved by dividing the total bandwidth of the channel into multiple smaller, non-overlapping sub-channels,
each carrying a different signal.
• Each signal is assigned a different frequency band within the available bandwidth.
• Analog technique.
• Used in radio, TV broadcasting, cable TV.

Application of FDM:
1. In the first generation of mobile phones, FDM was used.
2. The use of FDM in television broadcasting
3. FDM is used to broadcast FM and AM radio frequencies

Advantages:
• Simple and widely used for analog signals.
• Continuous transmission.
Disadvantages:
• Bandwidth wastage due to guard bands.
• Crosstalk between channels.

B. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) : This happens when the data transmission rate of media is greater than that of the source, and
each signal is allotted a definite amount of time. These slots are so small that all transmissions appear to be parallel. In frequency division
multiplexing all the signals operate at the same time with different frequencies, but in time-division multiplexing, all the signals operate
with the same frequency at different times.
• Each signal is assigned a time slot in a round-robin fashion.
• Digital technique.

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Types of TDM:
1. Synchronous TDM – The time slots are pre-assigned and fixed. This slot is even given if the source is not ready
with data at this time. In this case, the slot is transmitted empty. It is used for multiplexing digitized voice streams.
Each sender gets a fixed time slot.

2. Asynchronous (Statistical) TDM – The slots are allocated dynamically depending on the speed of the source or
their ready state. It dynamically allocates the time slots according to different input channels’ needs, thus saving the channel
capacity.
Time slots are assigned dynamically based on demand.

Advantages:

High Capacity: TDM can support a large number of signals over a single communication channel, making it ideal for applications where
many signals need to be transmitted.
Simple Implementation: TDM is a relatively simple technique that is easy to implement, making it a cost-effective solution for many
applications.
Precise Time Synchronization: TDM requires precise time synchronization between the transmitting and receiving devices, which can
help ensure accurate transmission of signals.

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Disadvantages:

Inefficient Use of Bandwidth: TDM may not make optimal use of available bandwidth, as time slots may be left unused if there
are no signals to transmit during a particular time slot.
High Implementation Cost: TDM requires sophisticated hardware or software to ensure precise time synchronization between the
transmitting and receiving devices, making it more expensive to implement than FDM.
Vulnerable to Timing Jitter: TDM can be vulnerable to timing jitter, which can occur when the timing of the transmitting and receiving
devices drifts out of sync, leading to errors in the transmission of signals.
• Idle slots waste bandwidth in synchronous TDM.
• Complexity in synchronization.

C. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) :

It is an analog technique where many streams of data with different wavelengths get transmitted in light spectrum. When the
wavelength increases, frequency of the signal decreases. In WDM, optical signals from different sources get combined by a
multiplexer.

The following diagram conceptually represents multiplexing using WDM. It has 4 optical signals having 4 different wavelengths.
Each of the four senders generates data streams of a particular wavelength. The optical combiner multiplexes the signals and
transmits them over a single long-haul fiber channel. At the receiving end, the splitter demultiplexes the signal into the original 4
data streams.

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Transmission Media:
A transmission media is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the path along which data is sent from one device
to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

Types of Transmission Media

1. Guided Media
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed and
confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires twisted about each other. Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a
protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another.
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for
telephonic applications.

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Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

• Least expensive
• Easy to install
• High-speed capacity
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield)
to block external interference. It is used in fast data rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
• Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• Eliminates crosstalk
• Comparatively faster
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
• Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
• More expensive
• Bulky

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel conductors
each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes:
Baseband mode (dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog
television networks widely use Coaxial cables

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Advantages of Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .
• It is easy to install.
• Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.
• Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
• Coaxial cables support multiple channels
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cables are expensive.
• The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
• As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
• There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers, this compromises the security of the data.

Optical Fiber Cable :

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept of total internal reflection of light through a core made up of glass. The core is surrounded
by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the coating. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be
unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and
bidirectional mode.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
Applications of Optical Fibre Cable
• Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
• Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
• For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
• Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the interior and exterior of automobiles.

Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge
Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-

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frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are
usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.
Microstripline
A microstripline is a type of transmission media used to carry high-frequency signals, commonly found in microwave and radio
frequency circuits. It consists of a flat, narrow conducting strip (usually made of metal) placed on top of a dielectric material (an insulating
layer), with a metal ground plane on the other side.

2. Unguided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media . No physical medium is required for the transmission of
electromagnetic signals.
Features of Unguided Media
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
Radio Waves
Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency
Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.
Types of Radio Waves:
• Short Wave: AM Radio
• VHF (Very High Frequency): FM Radio/TV
• UHF (Ultra High Frequency): TV
Radio Wave Components:
• Transmitter: Responsible for encoding the signal.
• Receiver: Responsible for decoding the signal.

Microwaves
It is a line-of-sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with each other.
The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. Micro
waves are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.
Advantages:
• Cheaper than using cables
• Freedom from land acquisition
• Ease of communication in difficult terrains
• Communication over oceans
Disadvantages:
• Insecure communication.
• Out of phase signal.

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• Susceptible to weather conditions.

• Bandwidth is limited.
• High cost of design, implementation, and maintenance.
•

Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference
between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Satellite Communication
• Components: Uplink, satellite transponder, downlink
• Usage: GPS, television broadcasting, military applications

Switching Techniques
Switching is the mechanism of transferring data between devices on a network. It helps in the efficient use of bandwidth.
1. Circuit Switching:
Circuit Switching is a type of switching, in which a connection is established between the source and destination before
communication. This connection receives the complete bandwidth of the network until the data is transferred completely.
However, circuit switching can be inefficient and costly due to its requirement for dedicated resources, making it
less suitable for high-traffic or large-scale networks. In this article, we will discuss every point about Circuit Switching.

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In circuit switching network resources (bandwidth) are divided into pieces and the bit delay is constant during a
connection. The dedicated path/circuit established between the sender and receiver provides a guaranteed data rate. Data
can be
transmitted without any delays once the circuit is established.
The telephone system network is one of the examples of Circuit switching.
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) and TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) are two methods of multiplexing multiple
signals into a single carrier.
• Frequency Division Multiplexing: Frequency Division Multiplexing or FDM is used when multiple data signals are
combined for simultaneous transmission via a shared communication medium. It is a technique by which the total
bandwidth is divided into a series of non-overlapping frequency sub-bands, where each sub-band carries different signal.
Practical use in radio spectrum & optical fiber to share multiple independent signals.
• Time Division Multiplexing: Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting and receiving independent
signals over a common signal path using synchronized switches at each end of the transmission line. TDM is used for long-
distance communication links and bears heavy data traffic loads from the end user. Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is also
known as a digital circuit switch.

Phases of Circuit Switching

• Circuit Establishment: A dedicated circuit between the source and destination is constructed via a number of intermediary
switching center’s. Communication signals can be requested and received when the sender and receiver communicate signals
over the circuit.
• Data Transfer: Data can be transferred between the source and destination once the circuit has been established. The link
between the two parties remains as long as they communicate.
• Circuit Disconnection: Disconnection in the circuit occurs when one of the users initiates the disconnect. When the
disconnection occurs, all intermediary linkages between the sender and receiver are terminated.

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What is Circuit Switching Used For?

• Continuous connections: Circuit switching is used for connections that must be maintained for long periods, such as long-
distance communication. Circuit switching technology is used in traditional telephone systems.
• Dial-up network connections: When a computer connects to the internet through a dial-up service, it uses the public
switched network. Dial-up transmits Internet Protocol (IP) data packets via a circuit-switched telephone network.
• Optical circuit switching: Data centre networks also make use of circuit switching. Optical circuit switching is used to
expand traditional data centres and fulfil increasing bandwidth demands.
Advantages of Circuit Switching
• The main advantage of circuit switching is that a committed transmission channel is established between the computers
which give a guaranteed data rate.
• In circuit switching, there is no delay in data flow because of the dedicated transmission path.
• Reliability: Circuit switching provides a high level of reliability since the dedicated communication path is reserved for the
entire duration of the communication. This ensures that the data will be transmitted without any loss or corruption.
• Quality of service: Circuit switching provides a guaranteed quality of service, which means that the network can prioritize
certain types of traffic, such as voice and video, over other types of traffic, such as email and web browsing.
• Security: Circuit switching provides a higher level of security compared to packet switching since the dedicated
communication path is only accessible to the two communicating parties. This can help prevent unauthorized access
and data breaches.
• Ease of management: Circuit switching is relatively easy to manage since the communication path is pre-established and
dedicated to a specific communication. This can help simplify network management and reduce the risk of errors.
• Compatibility: Circuit switching is compatible with a wide range of devices and protocols, which means that it can be used
with different types of networks and applications. This makes it a versatile technology for various industries and use cases.
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
• Limited scalability: Circuit switching is not well-suited for large-scale networks with many nodes, as it requires a
dedicated communication path between each pair of nodes. This can result in a high degree of complexity and difficulty in
managing the network.
• Vulnerability to failures: Circuit switching relies on a dedicated communication path, which can make the network
vulnerable to failures, such as cable cuts or switch failures. In the event of a failure, the communication path must be re-
established, which can result in delays or loss of data.
• Limited Flexibility: Circuit switching is not flexible as it requires a dedicated circuit between the communicating devices.
The circuit cannot be used Waste of Resources for any other purpose until the communication is complete, which limits the
flexibility of the network.
• Waste of Resources: Circuit switching reserves the bandwidth and network resources for the duration of the
communication, even if there is no data being transmitted. This results in the wastage of resources and inefficient use of the
network.
• Expensive: Circuit switching is an expensive technology as it requires dedicated communication paths, which can be costly
to set up and maintain. This makes it less feasible for small-scale networks and applications.
• Susceptible to Failure: Circuit switching is susceptible to failure as it relies on a dedicated communication path. If the path
fails, the entire communication is disrupted. This makes it less reliable than other networking technologies, such as packet
switching.
• Not suitable for high traffic: Circuit switching is not suitable for high traffic, where data is transmitted intermittently at
irregular intervals. This is because a dedicated circuit needs to be established for each communication, which can result in
delays and inefficient use of resources.
• Delay and latency: Circuit switching requires the establishment of a dedicated communication path, which can result in
delay and latency in establishing the path and transmitting data. This can impact the real-time performance of applications,
such as voice and video.
• High cost: Circuit switching requires the reservation of resources, which can result in a high cost, particularly in large-scale
networks. This can make circuit switching less practical for some applications.
• No prioritization: Circuit switching does not provide any mechanism for prioritizing certain types of traffic over others.

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2. Packet Switching in computer networks is a method of transferring data to a network in the form of packets. In
order to transfer the file fast and efficiently over the network and minimize the transmission latency, the data is broken
into small pieces of variable length, called Packet. At the destination, all these small parts (packets) have to be
reassembled, belonging to the same file. A packet is composed of a payload and various control information. No pre-
setup or reservation of resources is needed.

Packet Switching uses the Store and Forward technique while switching the packets; while forwarding the packet
each hop first stores that packet then forwards. This technique is very beneficial because packets may get discarded at
any hop for some reason. More than one path is possible between a pair of sources and destinations. Each packet
contains the Source and destination address using which they independently travel through the network. In other words,
packets belonging to the same file may or may not travel through the same path. If there is congestion at some path,
packets are allowed to choose different paths possible over an existing network.

Diagram of Packet Switching

In packet switching the data is divided into small packets which allow faster movement of data. Each packet contains
two parts that is Header and Payload, the header on each packet conation information. Below is the diagram of how
packet switching works.

Types of Delays in Packet Switching

• Transmission Delay: Time required by the spent station to transmit data to the link.
• Propagation Delay: Time of data propagation through the link.
• Queueing Delay: Time spent by the packet at the destination’s queue.
• Processing Delay: Processing time for data at the destination.

Advantages of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching

• More efficient in terms of bandwidth, since the concept of reserving a circuit is not there.
• Minimal transmission latency.
• More reliable as a destination can detect the missing packet.
• More fault tolerant because packets may follow a different path in case any link is down, Unlike Circuit Switching.
• Cost-effective and comparatively cheaper to implement.

Disadvantage of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching

• Packet Switching doesn’t give packets in order, whereas Circuit Switching provides ordered delivery of packets because
all the packets follow the same path.
• Since the packets are unordered, we need to provide sequence numbers for each packet.
• Complexity is more at each node because of the facility to follow multiple paths.
• Transmission delay is more because of rerouting.
• Packet Switching is beneficial only for small messages, but for bursty data (large messages) Circuit Switching is better.

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Types of Packet Switching

1. Connection-oriented Packet Switching (Virtual Circuit)
Before starting the transmission, it establishes a logical path or virtual connection using a signalling protocol, between sender
and receiver and all packets belongs to this flow will follow this predefined route. Virtual Circuit ID is provided by
switches/routers to uniquely identify this virtual connection. Data is divided into small units and all these small units are
appended with help of sequence numbers. Packets arrive in order at the destination. Overall, three phases take place here- The
setup, data transfer and tear-down phases.

All address information is only transferred during the setup phase. Once the route to a destination is discovered, entry is added
to the switching table of each intermediate node. During data transfer, packet header (local header) may contain information
such as length, timestamp, sequence number, etc.
Connection-oriented switching is very useful in switched WAN. Some popular protocols which use the Virtual Circuit
Switching approach are X.25, Frame-Relay, ATM, and MPLS (Multi-Protocol Label Switching).

2. Connectionless Packet Switching (Datagram)

Unlike Connection-oriented packet switching, In Connectionless Packet Switching each packet contains all necessary
addressing information such as source address, destination address, port numbers, etc. Packets belonging to one flow may take
different routes because routing decisions are made dynamically, so the packets that arrived at the destination might be out of
order. It has no connection setup and teardown phase, like Virtual Circuits.
Packet delivery is not guaranteed in connectionless packet switching, so reliable delivery must be provided by end systems
using additional protocols.

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A—R1—R2—BA is the sender (start)R1, R2 are two routers that store and forward dataB is receiver(destination)

To send a packet from A to B there are delays since this is a Store and Forward network.

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