Fluid Mechanics

[CEC-104]

Boundary Layer Theory

By
Abhishek, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil Engg.
IIT Roorkee
Course
content
Evaluation Procedure

• CWS: 15% [attd-10; Quiz-5]

• PRS: 20%

• Mid-term: 25%

• End-term: 40%

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 Boundary Layer Theory
Real fluid flowing past a solid body/wall: fluid adheres to it

No slip condition: Same velocity as body/wall

Free-stream velocity (𝑈)

Boundary layer

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 Flow over solid body

Velocity gradient 𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Stationary boundary: Zero velocity

𝜏 beyond BL??

Theory dealing with B.L.: Boundary Layer Theory

3
 Definitions
No slip condition: Fluid on plate surface → Same velocity as plate [0]

Velocity gradient → shear resistance

BL region begins at the sharp leading edge [A].

↑ increases downstream Flow over a plate

because the retarded fluid is
further retarded [growth of BL]

1. Laminar B.L.

Near A, flow in BL is laminar though

the main flow is turbulent [this
layer of the fluid: laminar boundary
layer; AE. The length → laminar
zone [AB].
4
 Definitions contd…
The distance of 𝐵 from leading edge is obtained from Reynold number equal
to 5 ∗ 105 for a plate. Because up to this Reynold number the boundary layer is
laminar.

𝑈∗𝑥
(𝑅𝑒 )𝑥 =
𝜈 Flow over a plate
where
𝑥 = Distance from leading edge,
𝑈 = Free-stream velocity of fluid,
𝜈 = Kinematic viscosity of fluid,

For laminar boundary layer

𝑈∗𝑥
5 ∗ 105 =
𝜈

If the values of 𝑈 and 𝜈 are known, 𝑥 or the distance from the leading edge upto
which laminar boundary layer exists can be calculated.
5
 Definitions contd…
2. Turbulent Boundary Layer

If length of plate > 𝑥; BL keep increasing and becomes unstable

Flow disturbed & irregular → Laminar to Turbulent → Transition zone [BC]
Downstream of BC → Turbulent BL [FG]
Flow over a plate

3. Laminar sub-layer

Region in Turbulent BL
Near solid surface
∆Velocity Viscous forces only

𝜕𝑢 𝑢
𝜏0 = 𝜇 =𝜇
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0
𝑦
∆V assumed linear [not parabolic??]
6
 Definitions contd…
4. Boundary Layer Thickness (𝜹) Direction??

Distance from the boundary where 𝑉 = 0.99 ∗ 𝑈 [U: free stream V]

𝛿𝑙𝑎𝑚 ; 𝛿𝑡𝑢𝑟 ; 𝛿 ′ [Thickness of laminar BL; turbulent BL; Laminar sub-layer.

5. Displacement Thickness (𝜹∗ ) Direction??

Distance by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for

the reduction in flow rate on account of boundary layer formation.

"The distance perpendicular to the boundary, by which the free-stream is

displaced due to the formation of boundary layer".

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Displacement Thickness (𝛿 ) ∗

Velocity of fluid at B = 0
at C = 𝑈 𝐵𝐶 = 𝛿: 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐿𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟

At section 1-1, consider an elemental strip.

Let
𝑦 = distance of elemental strip from plate
𝑑𝑦 = thickness of the elemental strip
𝑢 = velocity of fluid at the elemental strip
𝑏 = width of plate

Area of elemental strip, 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑𝑦

Mass per s through this strip = 𝜌 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌 ∗ 𝑢 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 …(1)
In the absence of plate, Mass per s = 𝜌 ∗ 𝑈 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 …(2)

Reduction in mass through BC??

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Displacement Thickness(𝛿 ∗ ) contd…
Reduction in mass through BC: (2)-(1) → 𝜌(𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑏𝑑𝑦

Total reduction through BC due to …….

𝛿 𝛿
න 𝜌 𝑈 − 𝑢 𝑏𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑏 න (𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦 [fluid is incompressible]
0 0
…(3)

Displace the plate by 𝛿 ∗

Loss of mass of fluid/s = 𝜌 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜌 ∗ 𝑈 ∗ 𝛿 ∗ ∗ 𝑏 …(4)

Equating

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Displacement Thickness(𝛿 ∗ ) contd…
𝛿
𝜌𝑏 න 𝑈 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑈𝛿 ∗ 𝑏
0
𝛿
𝑢
Solve to get 𝛿∗ =න 1− 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈

6. Momentum Thickness (𝜽)

Compensate for the reduction in momentum

Momentum of fluid through BC= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 𝑢

Momentum in absence of BL = 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 𝑈 𝜌𝑏𝑢 𝑈 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑦

After displacement: 𝜌𝜃𝑏𝑈 2 Momentum transport rate for

same mass but with velocity U
𝛿
𝑢 𝑢
CWS?? 𝜃=න 1 − 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈 𝑈 10
 Energy Thickness (𝜹 )
∗∗

7. Energy Thickness (𝜹∗∗ )

Compensate for the reduction in Kinetic Energy

1 1
K.E. of fluid through BC= 2 ∗ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2 = 2 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 𝑢2
1 1
K.E. in absence of BL = 2 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 𝑈 2 2
(𝜌𝑢𝑏 𝑈 2 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑦

After displacement: 1 1
𝜌𝑏𝛿 𝑈 𝑈 = 𝜌𝑏𝛿 ∗∗ 𝑈 3
∗∗ 2
2 2
Equating
𝛿
1 1
𝜌𝑏𝛿 𝑈 = 𝜌𝑏 න 𝑢 𝑈 2 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑦
∗∗ 3
2 2 0

𝛿
𝑢 𝑢2
𝛿 ∗∗ =න 1 − 2 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈 𝑈
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 Problem
Find the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness and
energy thickness for the velocity distribution in the boundary
𝑢 𝑦
layer given by = , where 𝑢 is the velocity at a distance 𝑦 from
𝑈 𝛿
the plate and 𝑢 = 𝑈 at 𝑦 = 𝛿 where 𝛿 = boundary layer thickness.
∗
Also calculate the value of 𝛿 ൗ𝜃.
Solution

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Solution

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 Drag force on a plate
• Free-stream velocity (𝑈)
• The drag force on the plate can be determined if the velocity
profile near the plate is known.

Consider a small length ∆𝑥 of the plate at a distance of 𝑥 from

the leading.

𝜕𝑢 Drag force on a plate due to boundary layer

𝜏0 = 𝜇
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

enlarged view
Drag force/shear force on ∆𝑥

∆𝐹𝐷 = 𝜏0 ∗ (∆𝑥 ∗ 𝑏)
…(1)

∆𝐹𝐷 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 ∆𝑥 14

 Drag force contd…
Mass rate of flow entering through 𝐴𝐷
𝛿
න 𝜌 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
0
𝛿
න 𝜌 ∗ 𝑢 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑𝑦
0
𝛿 𝛿
𝜕
Mass rate of flow leaving through 𝐵𝐶 න 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 + න 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥
0 𝜕𝑥 0

Continuity Eq. Mass entering thr. 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝐶 = Mass leaving thr. 𝐵𝐶

𝛿
Mass rate entering 𝜕
න 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥 [incompressible fluid flow]
through 𝐷𝐶 𝜕𝑥 0
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Drag force contd…
The fluid is entering through side DC with a uniform velocity U.
Now let us calculate momentum flux through control volume [C.V.].

Momentum flux entering through 𝐴𝐷

𝛿
න 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑦
0
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
න 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = න 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑢 = න 𝜌𝑢2 𝑏𝑑𝑦
0 0 0
Momentum flux leaving through 𝐵𝐶
𝛿 𝛿
𝜕
න 𝜌𝑢2 𝑏𝑑𝑦 + න 𝜌𝑢2 𝑏𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥
0 𝜕𝑥 0

Momentum flux entering through 𝐷𝐶

𝛿 𝛿
𝜕 𝜕
න 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥 ∗ U = න 𝜌𝑢Ub𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥
𝜕𝑥 0 𝜕𝑥 0 16
 Drag force contd…
Rate of ∆momentum through C.V. = momentum flux through 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐷𝐶

𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝜕 𝜕
න 𝜌𝑢2 𝑏𝑑𝑦 + න 𝜌𝑢2 𝑏𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥 − න 𝜌𝑢2 𝑏𝑑𝑦 − න 𝜌𝑢Ub𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥
0 𝜕𝑥 0 0 𝜕𝑥 0

Solve to get
𝛿
𝜕
𝜌𝑏 න 𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑈 𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥 …(2)
𝜕𝑥 0

Rate of ∆momentum through C.V. = total force on C.V. in the same direction

For a flat plate, 𝜕𝑝ൗ𝜕𝑥 = 0; there is no external pressure force on C.V.

Force on 𝐷𝐶 is negligible: velocity = constant and its gradient is 0.

The only external force acting on C.V. is the

shear force (∆𝐹𝐷 ) on 𝐴𝐵 from 𝐵 to 𝐴. ∆𝐹𝐷 = 𝜏0 ∗ (∆𝑥 ∗ 𝑏) …(3) 17
Drag force contd…
Momentum principle: (2) = (3)

𝛿
𝜕
−𝜏0 ∗ ∆𝑥 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝜌𝑏 න 𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑈 𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥
𝜕𝑥 0

Solve to get
𝛿
𝜏0 𝜕 𝑢 𝑢 Momentum thickness
= න 1 − 𝑑𝑦
𝜌𝑈 2 𝜕𝑥 0 𝑈 𝑈 (𝜽)
…(4)

𝜏0 𝜕𝜃 Von Karman momentum integral

=
𝜌𝑈 2 𝜕𝑥 equation for boundary layer flows.
This is applied to:
1. Laminar boundary layers,
2. Transition boundary layers, and
3. Turbulent boundary layer flows. 18
 Drag force contd…
Total drag force on the plate of length, 𝐿

𝐿
∆𝐹𝐷 = න 𝐹𝐷 = න 𝜏0 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑𝑥
0

𝜏
1. Local co-efficient of Drag (𝐶𝐷∗ ) 𝐶𝐷∗ = 0൘1
𝜌𝑈 2
2

𝐹𝐷
2. (Average) co-efficient of Drag (𝐶𝐷 ) 𝐶𝐷 = ൘1 2
2 𝜌𝐴𝑈

3. Necessary Boundary conditions for velocity profiles in all zones

𝐴𝑡 𝑦 = 0; 𝑢 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑢ൗ𝑑𝑦 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐴𝑡 𝑦 = 𝛿; 𝑢 = 𝑈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑢ൗ𝑑𝑦 = 0
19
Problem

For the velocity profile for laminar boundary layer flows given as

𝑢 𝑦 𝑦 2
=2 −
𝑈 𝛿 𝛿
find an expression for boundary layer thickness (𝛿), shear stress
(𝜏0 ) and co-efficient of drag (𝐶𝐷 ) in terms of Reynold number.

20
 Solution
(4)

21
 Solution

22
 Solution

23
 Solution

24
Some pictures

25
Problem
For the velocity profile in laminar boundary layer as,

𝑢 3 𝑦 1 𝑦 3
= −
𝑈 2 𝛿 2 𝛿

find the thickness of the boundary layer and the shear stress 1.5 𝑚
from the leading edge of a plate. The plate is 2 𝑚 long and 1.4 𝑚
wide and is placed in water which is moving with a velocity of
200 𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 . Find the total drag force on the plate if
𝜇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = .01 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒.

26
 Solution

27
Numerical
@Home

28
Turbulent Boundary Layer
• The thickness of the boundary layer
Determined similar to
• Drag force on one side of the plate
laminar BL provided the
• Co-efficient of drag due to turbulent BL on a
velocity profile is known
smooth plate at zero pressure gradient

Blasius on the basis of 1

𝑢 𝑦 𝑛 𝑛 = 7 for 𝑅𝑒 < 107 but > 5 ∗ 105
experiments give the =
following velocity profile for 𝑈 𝛿 𝑢 𝑦 1/7
turbulent boundary layer =
𝑈 𝛿

very near the boundary

Applicable

[thin laminar sub-layer of

The value of 𝜏0 for flat plate is
Not

thickness 𝛿 exists; velocity

′
𝜇 1/4
taken as 𝜏0 = 0.0225𝜌𝑈 2 𝜌𝑈𝛿
distribution is influenced only
by viscous effects.
29
Turbulent Boundary Layer
for 𝑅𝑒 < 107 but > 5 ∗ 105

0.37𝑥 0.072
Thickness of BL 𝛿 = 𝐶𝐷 = Drag co-efficient
(𝑅𝑒𝑥 )1/5 (𝑅𝑒𝐿 )1/5

where 𝑥 = Distance from the leading edge

𝑅𝑒𝑥 = Reynold number for length 𝑥
𝑅𝑒𝐿 = Reynold number at the end of the plate.

for 𝑅𝑒 > 107 but > 109

0.455
Schlichting: Empirical Eqn. 𝐶𝐷 =
(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑅𝑒𝐿 )2.58

30
Total Drag on a Plate
Let If the length of transition
region is assumed negligible,
𝐿 = Total length of the plate then
𝑏 = Width of plate 𝐿 − 𝐴 = Length of turbulent
boundary layer.
𝐴 = Length of laminar boundary layer

Drag due to laminar and turbulent

boundary layer
Assumption:
Turbulent BL starts from
the leading edge: valid
only when the length of
laminar BL is negligible.

Otherwise
31
 Total Drag on a Plate
Otherwise, the total drag on the plate due to laminar and turbulent boundary
layer is calculated as :
(1) Find the length from the leading edge upto which laminar BL exists. This
𝑈𝑥
is done by equating 5 ∗ 105 = . The value of 𝑥 gives the length of laminar
ν
BL. Let this length is equal to 𝐴.
(2) Find drag using Blasius solution for laminar boundary layer for length 𝐴.
(3) Find drag due to turbulent BL for the whole length of the plate.
(4) Find the drag due to turbulent BL for a length 𝐴 only.

Then total drag on the plate

= Drag given by (2) + Drag given by (3) - Drag given by (4)
= Drag due to laminar boundary layer for length 𝐴
+ Drag due to turbulent boundary layer for length 𝐿
Drag due to turbulent boundary layer for length 𝐴.
32
Problem

Oil with a free-stream velocity of 2 𝑚/𝑠 flows over a thin plate

2 𝑚 wide and 2 𝑚 long. Calculate the boundary layer thickness
and the shear stress at the trailing end point and determine
the total surface resistance of the plate. Take specific gravity
as 0.86 and kinematic viscosity as 10−5 𝑚2 /𝑠.

33
Solution

34
Separation of Boundary Layer
When a solid body is immersed in a flowing fluid, a thin layer of fluid called the
boundary layer is formed adjacent to the solid body.
• In BL, velocity varies from zero to free-stream velocity.
• Along the length of solid body, the thickness of BL increases.

Fluid layer adjacent to solid surface has to do work against surface friction at
expense of its K.E. This loss is recovered from immediate fluid layer in contact
with the layer through momentum exchange process. Thus velocity keeps↓.

Along the length, at a certain point a stage may come when the boundary layer
cannot provide kinetic energy to overcome the resistance offered by the solid
body; and BL will be separated from the surface. This phenomenon is called
boundary layer separation.

The point on the body at which the boundary layer is on the verge of separation
from the surface is called point of separation. 35
Separation of Boundary Layer
Effect of Pressure Gradient Effect of pressure gradient on
boundary layer separation

Analogous to flow over curved surface

Region 𝐴𝐵𝐶: flow area↓, 𝑣 ↑, 𝑃 ↓

Region 𝐶𝑆𝐷: flow area↑, 𝑣 ↓, 𝑃 ↑

𝒗 𝑔𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 ↓ as the K.E. is used to

overcome the frictional resistance

A stage comes, when the momentum of the fluid is unable to overcome the
surface resistance and the BL starts separating from the surface at the point 𝑆.
Downstream the point 𝑆 , the flow is taking place in reverse direction and the
velocity gradient becomes negative. 36
 Practical Examples

37
Separation of Boundary Layer
Location of separation point

𝜕𝑢
Determined from the condition =0
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

𝜕𝑢
<0 Flow has separated
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

𝜕𝑢
=0 Flow is on the verge of separation
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

𝜕𝑢
>0 Flow will not separate
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

38
Separation of Boundary Layer
Methods of Preventing the Separation of Boundary Layer

1. Suction of the slow moving fluid by a suction slot.

2. Supplying additional energy from a blower.
3. Providing a bypass in the slotted wing.
4. Rotating boundary in the direction of flow.
5. Providing small divergence in a diffuser.
6. Providing guide-blades in a bend.
7. Providing a trip-wire ring in laminar region for flow over a sphere.

39
Practical Examples
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dOK446jAsAw

In applications like airplanes, boats, and high-speed trains, where

shapes are smooth and streamlined, the goal is to maintain a
laminar boundary layer as long as possible. A turbulent boundary
layer is thicker than a laminar one, which increases the effective
thickness and thus the pressure drag of the wing.
40
Practical Examples contd…

In applications with less streamlined shapes, like sports athletes

or golf balls, it can be beneficial to trip the boundary layer and
make it turbulent.

Turbulent boundary layers carry more momentum and will push

the separation point further downstream –
that’s the reason golf balls have dimples and athletes wear
special suits or even shin tape, reducing the wake they
leave behind.

41
Practical Examples contd…

42
Practical Examples contd…

Keep thinking of more examples from your

surroundings and daily life …..
43
Thank you 

44