The Structure of English

Language

Language
The term ‘language’ is defined and described differently by linguists.
So let us understand and look at the definitions given by
distinguished linguists. Some of their definitions are given below:

Hockett (1958) states, “language is the most valuable single

possession of the human race and the use of language is an integral
part of human beings.”

Humboldt believes that “man is the man through the use of

language alone.”

Trager (1949) defines language as “a system of arbitrary vocal

symbols by means which the members of a society interact in terms
of their total culture.”

“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of

communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a

system of voluntarily produced symbols” – Edward Sapir

“Language is a system of signs”– Ferdinand de Saussure

 Linguistics
The word ‘linguistics’ is borrowed from the Latin word ‘lingua’
meaning ‘tongue’. Generally, linguistics deals with the scientific
study of language or languages. Some definitions of linguistics are as
follows:

Online Merriam Webster Dictionary defines linguistics as “the study

of human speech including the units, nature, structure and
modification of language.”

Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners: “Linguistics is

the study of language and how it works.”

So, linguistics is the specialized study of language and its structure

which includes grammar, syntax, and phonetics. Specific branches of
linguistics include sociolinguistics, dialectology, psycholinguistics,
computational linguistics, comparative linguistics, and structural
linguistics.

Linguistics can further be divided into sub-branches. They are as

follows:

• Phonetics: the scientific study of speech sounds.

• Phonology: the study of sounds in a particular language.
• Morphology: the study of the formation of words.
• Syntax: the study of structures in a particular language.
 • Semantics: the study of meanings.
• Pragmatics: the study of contextual meanings.

1.Phonetics

The word ‘Phonetics’ is derived from the Greek word ‘phone’ which
means ‘sound or voice’. It may also be defined as “the scientific study
of speech sounds”. Phonetics is primarily concerned with the aural
medium addressed to the ear. It is one of the sub-branches of
linguistics, which deals with the medium of speech, production,
transmission and reception of the sounds of human speech. J. C.
Catford (1990) defines “phonetics as the systematic study of human
speech sounds. It provides means of analysing, classifying and
describing virtually all the sounds that can be produced by human
vocal tracts”. The study of phonetics is essential to familiarize
ourselves with the English language. The study of phonetics is
essential in learning any new language.

In phonetics, a phone is any distinct speech sound. It is any surface-

level or unanalysed sound of a language, a smallest identifiable unit
occurring inside a stream of speech. In spoken human language, a
phone is thus any vowel or consonant sound (or semivowel sound).
In sign language, a phone is the equivalent as a unit of gesture.

2.Phonology

Phonology deals with “the study of sounds in a particular language”.

According to George Yule, “phonology is essentially the description
of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is,
based on the theory of what every speaker of a language
unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language.
Because of this theoretical status, phonology is concerned with the
abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with
the physical articulation of speech sounds”. So, phonology is the
systematic study of the relationship between speech sounds of a
language. It is the branch of linguistics that deals with system of
sounds within a language or between different languages.

A phoneme is the smallest unit of meaningful sound. We study

phonemes in phonology, the branch of linguistics that helps us
understand the relationship between speech sounds and meaning
within a specific language. A Phoneme is one of
the smallest units of speech that make one word different from
another word:

The difference between "pin" and "pan" depends on the vowel, i.e.
the different phonemes /ɪ/ and /æ/.

The necessary activity in phonology is phonemic analysis, the

objective of this analysis is to set up what the phonemes are and
arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language.

3.Morphology

Morphology is one of the branches of linguistics that generally deals

with words and how these words are formed in a given language. It is
“the study of the forms of things or a particular form, shape, or
structure.” It further deals with the study of the distribution and
form of “morphemes,” taken to be as the minimal combination unit
that languages use to build words and phrases.
In linguistics, morphology is the study of words, including the
principles by which they are formed, and how they relate to one
another within a language. Most approaches to morphology
investigate the structure of words in terms of morphemes, which are
the smallest units in a language with some independent meaning.

A morpheme is any of the smallest meaningful constituents within a

linguistic expression and particularly within a word.

4.Semantics

The word semantics originates from the ancient Greek language

meaning significant. Semantics deals with the study of meaning. It
further covers several related subfields like linguistics, computer
science and philosophy. Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning.
It examines what meaning is, how words get their meaning, and how
the meaning of a complex expression depends on its parts. Part of
this process involves the distinction between sense and reference.
Sense is given by the ideas and concepts associated with an
expression while reference is the object to which an expression
points.
5. Syntax

‘Syntax’ is the term used to refer to the arrangement

of words, phrases and clauses in a sentence to make them sound and
look meaningful. Syntax means the study of structures. The word
syntax originates from primitive Greek means "coordination", which
consists of "together", and "an ordering." In linguistics, syntax is how
words and morphemes are made into larger units, for example,
phrases and sentences. Most importantly syntax comprises word
order, grammatical relations, sentence structure, agreement, the
nature of cross-linguistic variation, and the relationship between
form and meaning. In the discipline of linguistics, syntax is the study
of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as
phrases and sentences.

6. Pragmatics

Pragmatics deals with the contextual study of language how context

adds to meaning. For example, the field of the study examines how
human language is used in community exchanges, as well as the
relationship between the sender and the receiver. Further,
pragmatics includes speech acts, relevance and conversation, as well
as nonverbal communication. Theories of pragmatics go with
theories of semantics, which concentrates on aspects of meaning,
and studies sentence structures, principles, and relationships.

Kinds and Functions of Words: Word

Classes or Parts of Speech

Words are the building blocks in any sentence. They just don’t
‘mean’ something, they ‘do’ something in every sentence. Hence
words are grouped into word classes based on what they do. A word
class is a group of words that have certain common features. The
term “word class” is analogous to the more conventional term, “part
of speech.”

What is Part of Speech?

The English language has thousands of words and every word has
some function to perform. Some words are there to show action,
some to join, and some to name something. There are different
parts of speech including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
pronouns, prepositions, conjunction, and interjection. And together,
all the functions performed by words in the English language fall
under Parts of speech.

Parts of Speech Definition

The parts of speech are the “traditional grammatical categories to

which words are assigned in accordance with their syntactic
functions, such as noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and so on.” In other
words, they refer to the different roles that words can play in a
sentence and how they relate to one another based on grammar and
syntax.

1.Noun

A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, state, or quality.

It can be singular or plural. Nouns are a part of speech.

• Function: Refers to Things or person

• Examples: Pen, Chair, Ram, Honesty

• Sentences: Cars are expensive, this chair is made of wood, and

Ram is a topper, Honesty is the best policy.

Noun includes words that are frequently used in everyday life.

Nouns are most commonly understood as “naming” words,
 that is, it performs the function of naming “people, places or
things”.

• A person – Boy, Girl, John, etc

• A thing- House, Dog, etc

• A place- China, America, etc

However, the use of nouns is not restricted to just names of

people, places, or things. Nouns also denote abstract and
intangible concepts such as an idea, quality, or state. Example:
Danger, Happiness, Love, etc.

2.Pronoun

The word used in place of a noun or a noun phrase is known as a

pronoun. A pronoun is used in place of a noun to avoid the repetition
of the noun.

• Function: Replaces a noun

• Examples: I, you, he, she, it, they

• Sentences: They are expensive, it is of wood, He is a topper, It is

the best policy.

A word that takes the position of a noun is named as a pronoun.

Pronouns can be employed as a substitute for a noun.
Pronouns are divided into 5 categories:

• Personal Pronouns: I, you, she, etc

• Demonstrative Pronouns: This, these, etc

• Possessive Pronouns: Yours, His, etc

• Interrogative Pronouns: Which, What, etc

• Reflexive Pronouns: Herself, Himself, etc.

• Reciprocal Pronouns: Each other

• Indefinite Pronouns: Few, Nobody, etc.

• Relative Pronouns: Which, Whom, etc.

3.Adjective

A word that modifies a noun or a pronoun is an adjective. Generally,

an adjective’s function is to further define and quantify a noun or
pronoun.

• Function: Describes a noun

• Examples: Super, Red, Our, Big, Great, class

• Sentences: Supercars are expensive, the red chair is for kids,

Ram is a class topper, and Great things take time.
 Adjectives describe the quality of a noun. For example,

Example: - They stay in a beautiful house.

The word beautiful indicates or refers to one of the attributes of

the house that is described. Hence beautiful becomes the
adjective in the above sentence.

4.Verb

A word or a group of words that describes an action, a state, or an

event is called a verb. A verb is a word that says what happens to
somebody or what somebody or something does.

• Function: Describes action or state

• Examples: play, write, run, cook

• Sentences: I play football, I will be a doctor, I like to work, I love

writing poems.

The words that are used to describe an action are known as verbs.
Hence verbs are generally known as “action” words.

Example: - Rahul rides a scooter.

The verb in the above sentence denotes an action that Rahul

performs which is the action of riding a scooter.
 However, the idea of verbs as “action” words is somewhat
restricted. Many verbs don’t stand for action at all as in the given
instance: Rahul seems desperate. We cannot say that the verb
‘seems ‘refer to an action.

5.Adverb

A verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, clause, preposition, or

sentence is typically modified by an adverb. Adverbs often answer
questions like “how,” “in what way,” “when,” “where,” and “to what
extent” by expressing things like method, place, time, frequency,
degree, level of certainty, etc

• Function: Describes a verb, adjective, or adverb

• Examples: Silently, too, very

• Sentences: I love reading silently, it is too tough to handle, He

can speak very fast.

In English, an adverb describes a word that alters the meaning of a

verb, adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs in a sentence gives more
information about the sentence. They are used to express how an
action is fulfilled. Adverbs can broadly be categorized into Simple
Adverbs, Interrogative adverbs, and Relative Adverbs.
6.Preposition

A preposition is called a connector or linking word which has a very

close relationship with the noun, pronoun or adjective that follows
it. Prepositions show position in space, movement, direction, etc.

• Function: Links a noun to another word

• Examples: at, in, of, after, under,

• Sentences: The ball is under the table, I am at a restaurant, she

is in trouble, I am going after her, it is so nice of him.

Prepositions indicate the relation between different words. They

occur before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase and indicate a
direction, time, place, location, and spatial relationship. Common
prepositions include across, after, at, before, by, during, from, in,
into, of, on, to, under, with, without, etc.

7.Conjunction

A conjunction is a word that connects clauses, sentences, or other

words. Conjunctions can be used alone or in groups of two.

• Function: Joins clauses and sentences

• Examples: and, but, though, after

 • Sentences: First, I will go to college and then I may go to Fest, I
don’t have a car but I know how to drive, she failed the exam
though she worked hard, He will come after he finishes his
match.

These are used to express connections between different words.

Example: John and David are friends. And is used as a conjunction in

the given sentence.
The most familiar conjunctions in English are: and, but, and or.

Conjunctions are further divided into two:

• Coordinating Conjunctions: These conjunctions connect

elements of equal syntactic structure. Example: Paul and David
study together.

• Subordinating Conjunctions: Connects elements of unequal

syntactic structure. Example: I left early because I had an
interview the next day.

8.Interjection

An interjection is a word or phrase expressing some sudden feelings

of sadness or emotions.

• Function: Shows exclamation

 • Examples: oh! wow! alas! Hurray!

• Sentences: Oh! I got fail again, Wow! I got the job, Alas! She is
no more, Hurray! We are going to a party.

These are the main parts of speech, but there are additional
subcategories and variations within each. Understanding the
different parts of speech can help construct grammatically correct
sentences and express ideas clearly.

Short exclamations like Oh! Ah! etc are known as Interjections. Even
though they have no grammatical value, we often use them in daily
speech. Interjections are primarily used to express emotions such as
anger, surprise, etc. Given below are a few examples.

Well! That hurts

Hey! Don’t be so clumsy.

What is a Sentence in English?

A sentence in English is a group of words that conveys a complete

thought. It typically contains a subject (who or what the sentence is
about) and a predicate (what is being said about the subject), and it
follows a grammatical structure. A sentence must begin with
a capital letter and end with a period (.), question mark (?),
or exclamation mark (!), depending on its type.
For example:

• She is reading a book. (This sentence expresses a complete

thought.)

Types of Sentences in English

In English, sentences can be divided into four main

types: Declarative, Interrogative,
Imperative, and Exclamatory. Each type has a different
structure and serves a specific purpose. Understanding these
sentence types will help you improve your communication
skills.

1. Declarative Sentences

A declarative sentence makes a statement or provides

information. It is the most common type of sentence in English.

Structure:

• Subject + Verb + Object

• Ends with a period (.)

Example:

• I like to read books.

• She is going to school.

 Common Usage: Used to state facts, opinions, or ideas.

Examples of Declarative Sentences

• The sun rises in the east.

• He enjoys playing basketball.

• She is a good dancer.

• The train arrives at 9 AM.

• I am learning English.

2. Interrogative Sentences
An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is used when you
want to request information.

Structure:

• Auxiliary verb + Subject + Verb + Object

• Ends with a question mark (?)

Example:

• What is your name?

• Are you coming to the party?

Common Usage: Used to ask questions or make inquiries.

 Examples of Interrogative Sentences

• How old are you?

• Where is the nearest hospital?

• What time does the bus arrive?

• Did you finish your homework?

• Are they coming to the meeting?

• How many siblings do you have?

• Can I borrow your pen?

3. Imperative Sentences
An imperative sentence gives a command or request. It is used
when you want someone to do something.

Structure:

• (Implied You) + Verb + Object

• Can end with a period (.) or an exclamation mark (!)

Example:

• Close the door.

• Please pass me the salt.

Common Usage: Used to give commands, instructions,

or advice.
 Examples of Imperative Sentences

• Sit down, please.

• Open the window.

• Listen carefully.

• Don’t touch that!

• Please be quiet.

• Turn on the TV.

• Follow me.

• Write your name here.

4. Exclamatory Sentences
An exclamatory sentence expresses strong
emotion or surprise. It usually ends with an exclamation mark.

Structure:

• Subject + Verb + Object

• Ends with an exclamation mark (!)

Example:

• What a beautiful day!

• I can’t believe it!

Common Usage: Used to show surprise, excitement, or emotion.

 Examples of Exclamatory Sentences

• What a great idea!

• I’m so happy!

• That’s unbelievable!

• What a beautiful sunset!

• I can’t wait to go!

• You did a fantastic job!

• What a mess!

• That’s so funny!

CONCLUSION
Language is an essential aspect of our life and it’s also
important to learn and understand the characteristics of
language. Language is the most powerful and dominant system
of communication. In other words, it is the most effective way
to communicate.

In addition, language is the system of conventional, spoken,

and written symbols by which we communicate with each
other, from one country to another country or one culture to
another culture. It is the best way to express emotions,
thoughts, feelings, and desires.

Breaking down and analysing complex language structures can

be a challenging task, but mastering this skill is crucial for
effective communication and academic success. Here are some
tips for breaking down complex language structures:
1. Read the text carefully: Carefully read through the text several
times, paying close attention to sentence structure, word
choice, and punctuation;

2. Identify the elements of complexity: Look for the presence of

complex sentences, rhetorical devices, and figurative language,
noting their purpose and effect;

3. Consider the context: Analyse the text in context, taking into

account factors such as the intended audience, the purpose of
the communication, and the subject matter;

4. Break down sentences: In particularly complex sentences,

break them down into smaller components (such as main
clauses and subordinate clauses) to clarify the relationships
between ideas;

5. Paraphrase: Rewrite complex sentences or passages in your

own words, attempting to simplify the language and clarify the
meaning without losing the essence of the original;

6. Relate the components back to the main message: Consider

how the identified complex language structures contribute to
the overall message and impact of the text.

By following these steps, one can effectively break down and

analyse complex language structures, leading to a deeper
understanding of the text and an increased ability to
communicate complex ideas and emotions in her own writing
and speech.