Radio Communication System – Block Diagram and types:

Radio communication is very popular technique of communicating a message. The radio waves
are electromagnetic waves produced due to escape of electrical energy into free space. They
have a frequency range from a few hertz to gigahertz. They travel with a velocity of light i.e., 3 x
108 m/s and consist of electric and magnetic fields at right angles to each other. The basic
elements of a radio communication system are shown in Fig. 22.57. For the sake of
convenience, the entire arrangement can be divided into three components viz. transmitter,
transmission of electromagnetic waves and radio receiver.
Transmitter
The function of transmitter is to generate radio communication waves for transmission into
space. The important components of an AM transmitter are shown in a dashed block in Fig.
22.57. The individual components are described as below:

1. Microphone is a device that converts sound waves into electrical waves. The air
pressure, produced due to voice, music or code, on the diaphragm of a microphone
generates an audio electrical signal corresponding in frequency to the original signal.
The output of the microphone is supplied to a multistage audio amplifier.
2. Audio amplifier is to strengthen the audio signal received from the microphone. The
amplified output from the audio amplifier is fed to the modulator.
3. Oscillator is a crystal controlled type. Its function is to generate a high frequency signal,
called the carrier wave. The power output of the oscillator is not large and, therefore,
needs strengthening.
4. RF buffer amplifier is meant for isolating the oscillator from succeeding stages so that
the loading effect does not occur.
5. Frequency multiplier is meant for multiplying the frequency of the oscillator output so as
to raise to the required value. The crystal oscillator is not capable of generating high
frequency required for carrier wave and therefore, needs multiplication.
6. Modulator: The amplified audio signal and carrier wave are fed to the modulator. Here,
the audio signal is superimposed on the carrier wave in a suitable manner. The resultant
waves are known as modulated waves or radio waves.
7. Intermediate RF amplifier is meant for amplification of modulator output, in case of low
level modulation.
8. RF power amplifier is meant for amplifying the modulated carrier before being fed to the
antenna for transmission. For high level modulation, the modulator output is applied to
the final RF amplifier.

Transmission of Radio Waves

The radio waves from the transmitter are fed to the transmitting antenna (or aerial) from where
these are radiated into space. The radio waves are electromagnetic waves and have the same
general properties. These are similar to light and heat waves except that they have longer
wavelengths.

Receiver
On reaching the receiving aerial, the radio waves induce tiny emf in it. This small emf is supplied
to the radio receiver where the radio waves are first amplified and then audio signal is extracted
from them by the process of detection. The audio signal is amplified by the audio amplifier and
then fed to the speaker for sound reproduction. Thus radio receiver is a complete device that
receives the modulated radio waves from the receiving antenna or aerial, detects, amplifies and
makes us listen the signal or information. In India, since the broadcast is only amplitude
modulated, the receivers are also of AM detection type and called the AM radio receivers.
Broadly, there are two types of receivers viz. straight radio receivers and superheterodyne
receivers.

(a) Straight Radio Receiver: The important components of a straight radio receiver are shown in
a dashed block in Fig. 22.57. The individual components are described below:

1. Selector Circuit: Antenna receives various modulated signals of different frequencies

from various stations and the desired frequency is to be tuned in. This is accomplished
by a selector circuit which is a parallel resonant circuit and by varying the capacitance of
the circuit, resonance at the desired frequency can be obtained. Thus the desired carrier
is selected and the other carriers that may be reaching antenna are rejected.
2. RF Amplifier: The selected radio communication (carrier along side-bands) is amplified
by RF amplifier and then fed to the detector.
3. Detector is meant for detecting the envelope of the modulated carrier after
amplification.
4. AF amplifier is meant for amplifying the detected audio frequency signal containing the
intelligence and then fed it to the speaker.
5. Loudspeaker is meant for converting electrical signals into sound signals.

Straight radio receivers were used in early days of radio communication and now have been
replaced by superheterodyne receivers because of its following limitations:

 In straight radio receivers, the value of capacitance of gang capacitors is varied for tuning
to the desired station, therefore, there is a significant variation of Q between the closed
and open positions of the gang (or variable) capacitors. Thus the sensitivity and
selectivity of the radio receivers are adversely effected.
 The adjacent frequencies overlap and produce interference

(b) Superheterodyne Receiver: The superheterodyne method of reception is widely used for
both amplitude and frequency modulated signals.

It is very difficult to design amplifiers which provide uniformly high gain over a wide range of
radio frequencies used in commercial broadcast stations. However, it is possible to design
amplifiers which can provide high-gain uniform amplification over a narrow band of
comparatively low frequencies, known as intermediate frequencies (IF).

The superheterodyne receiver was developed to improve the adjacent channel selectivity by
placing most of the frequency selectivity in the fixed tuned intermediate frequency (IF) stages
after the frequency conversion. Superheterodyne action takes place when two signals of
different frequencies are mixed together. Mixing involves adding and passing the resultant
through a nonlinear device (or multiplying together) so that the output contains the product of
the two signals as well as the two original signals. The product term can be separated into two
signals, one at the sum frequency and one at the difference frequency.

In the frequency conversion process, the oscillator frequency may be placed above or below the
signal frequency, and either the sum or difference frequency may be used as the output. For an
up-conversion, the sum frequency is used as the output, with the oscillator either above or
below the signal. For a down-conversion difference frequency is used as the output, with the
oscillator either above or below the signal frequency. In the superheterodyne receiver, a down-
conversion is usual, where the received radio communication signal at frequency fs is mixed
with the signal from a local oscillator at f0 (usually located above fs), and the difference
frequency produced is taken as the intermediate frequency (IF) as

IF is always adjusted to 455 kHz. The local oscillator frequency is always chosen to be higher
than radio frequency of the broadcasting station. For example if the radio frequency is 800 kHz,
then the local oscillator will be operated to provide frequency of 800 + 455 i.e., 1,255 kHz.

The block diagram of a typical AM superheterodyne receiver is shown in Fig. 22.58. The first
stage is a tuned RF amplifier, using two variable tuned circuits that track each other and the
local oscillator. The two tuned RF circuits form a bandpass filter to pass the desired RF signal
frequency while blocking others.

This stage acts to boost the weak signal level from the antenna above the noise level to give
some signal selectivity and to avoid reradiation of the local oscillator signal.

The output signal from the RF amplifier is fed to one input of the mixer circuit and the local
oscillator signal to the other. While separate circuits may be used for the mixer and oscillator,
the two functions are frequently combined in the same circuit. The oscillator is also variably
tuned so as to track the incoming signal frequencies. In some receivers (especially older ones)
the variable tuning is done with a multigang variable capacitor especially cut to give proper
frequency tracking. Newer receivers mostly make use of varactor diode tuning, which allows
remote control and very compact circuits.

The mixer output is fed to two cascaded tuned IF amplifiers which are fixed-tune and provided
with sufficient selectivity to reject adjacent channel signals. Older receivers typically used tuned
transformers for the filtering action, but many recent receivers use inexpensive ceramic
resonator filters with a high-gain IC amplifier.

The output from the IF amplifier chain is fed to the detector (or demodulator) to retrieve the
modulating signal. Usually, diode detector circuit is employed as it causes low distortion and
provides excellent audio-fidelity. The detector also provides signals for automatic gain control
(AGC) and for automatic frequency control (AFC) in FM receivers. The AGC signal is used as a
bias signal for reducing the gain of the RF and the IF amplifiers to avoid detector overload on
strong signals. The AFC signal is used to adjust the frequency of the local oscillator so that it
“locks” to the average of the received signal frequency and to counteract minor mistuning
problems.

The audio signal from the detector (or demodulator) is passed through a low-pass filter (LPF) for
removal of unwanted high frequency components and then through a volume control to an
audio amplifier (AF). The AF is usually one low level audio stage followed by a power amplifier
and a speaker, which converts the audio signal into sound waves corresponding to the original
sound at the broadcasting station.

The superheterodyne receiver has the following advantages:

1. Large Amplification: The amplification is carried out at intermediate frequency which is

much lower than radio frequency, so the signal can be amplified to a higher level (RF
amplification at low frequencies is more stable because of reduced feedback via stray
and interelectrode capacitance).
2. Improved Selectivity: The selectivity is the characteristic of the receiver that determines
the extent to which the receiver is capable of distinguishing between the desired signal
and the signals of other frequencies. The quality factor Q of the tuned circuit, because of
smaller losses at intermediate frequency, is improved and, therefore, the amplifier
circuits operate with maximum selectivity.
3. Smaller Cost: The superheterodyne receiver is cheaper than straight radio receiver
because in superheterodyne receiver fixed RF amplifiers are used.
Choosing the Right Coaxial Cable for Your VHF
A couple of years ago we unstepped and repainted our mast. While it was horizontal and easy to
work with, I inspected the wiring. Some of it, like the wiring for the radar and windspeed was
fairly new, but the wiring for the lights and the coaxial cable for the VHF antenna were original
equipment, and at least 25 years old. It was definitely time to replace it. Finding replacement
cable for the lights was easy. There are several types of coaxial cable, however, and deciding
which one to use for the VHF required more research.

Coaxial cable, or coax (pronounced COE-axe), is a cable that has a center conductor enclosed in
a shield and protected by an outer plastic jacket. The conductor and shield are kept apart by a
thick insulation layer. This type of cable is called coaxial because the conductor and shield share
a single common axis. It is used for carrying high frequency radio waves, and comes in many
varieties depending on the application.

When the VHF radio is transmitting, a radio frequency wave travels along the wire that connects
the radio to the antenna, and this high frequency signal tries to radiate away from the
conductor. If a wire without a shield was used, the entire length of the wire from the back of the
VHF to the top of the mast would become a very inefficient antenna, and most of the output
signal would be lost inside the boat and mast before it ever reached the antenna. Coax cable,
with its concentric shield, prevents most of this radiation from occurring by reflecting the signal
back towards the center conductor rather than letting it radiate outward.

When the VHF is in receive mode, a weak radio signal is picked up at the antenna and
conducted along the coax to the radio. The coaxial shielding prevents RF noise from other
sources like motors, generators, HF radios and pumps, from interfering with the received signal.
There are dozens of different types of coax cable, but for a marine VHF application, the choices
are narrowed down considerably. Most fixed mount marine VHF radios have a maximum output
power of 25 watts, have an output impedance of 50 ohms and operate in the frequency range
of 156Mhz to 164Mhz. The three most commonly used coax types that are available in marine
stores that meet these specifications are RG-58U, RG-8X, and RG-213 (which replaced the older
RG-8U). Which one you choose is a trade-off between the amount of signal loss in the cable, the
cost and the wire size.

Table 1 below illustrates some of the differences and trade-offs for these three types of coax.
The second column provides the outside diameter of each type of wire. In general, a larger
diameter wire will have lower losses than a smaller diameter. Sometimes the deciding factor in
selecting a type of coax cable is the size of the wire. If a better grade wire just will not fit inside
the space allowed, the only choice may be to use a lesser grade.

The values in column 3 represent how much signal will be lost per 100 feet (30,48m) of cable at
150 Mhz, and is expressed in decibels (dB). Every 3 dBs equates to a 50% loss in signal power.
This is the specification most manufacturers provide to quantify the signal loss for its coax cable
at various frequencies. It is important to have the value for 150 Mhz, which is the radio
frequency for a marine VHF. Often, the loss in decibels will be provided for 100Mhz instead of
150Mhz. In this case, a reasonable approximation can be calculated by multiplying the loss at
100Mhz by 1.25.

The fourth and fifth columns show how much of the transmitted 25 watts of power actually
makes it to the antenna after the losses due to the coax cable. For example, if there is 75 feet of
RG-58U cable between the radio and the top of the mast, after the losses in the cable, only 8.5
watts would be transmitted. That means two thirds of the signal is lost due to the cable! It is
easy to see from these values that if the cable run is short, RG-58U coax is marginal and RG-8X
may be acceptable, but for a long cable run, even the RG-213 cable will have a 40% signal loss.
 Loss from 25 Watt Loss from 25 Watt
Loss -dB/100' at Power Out 25' Power Out 75'
Type OD transmitted power transmitted power
150MHz (dB) Cable (Watt) (25')
Cable (Watt) (75')
RG-58U 0.187" -6.5 17 32% 8.5 66%
RG-8X 0.25" -4.7 19 24% 11 56%
RG-213 0.405" -2.8 21 16% 15 40%

I found that if I was willing to compromise slightly, there was another alternative. Amateur radio
suppliers carry a type of coax that is the same size as RG-213 coax but incorporates a double
shield, resulting in a cable with much less loss. It can be found with a tinned copper outer
shield, and an aluminum inner shield and with an expected UV resistance of 20 years. It is used
in offshore oil rigs which see many of the same conditions as a boat does. I have compared its
specifications with RG-213 coax in Table 2 below. I have also listed a few sources for the wire in
the notes at the end of this article. The biggest drawback is that the inner conductor is not
tinned, making it more susceptible to corrosion.

Loss from 25 Watt Loss from 25 Watt

Loss -dB/100' at Power Out 25' Power Out 75'
Type OD transmitted power transmitted power
150MHz (dB) Cable (Watt) (25')
Cable (Watt) (75')
RG-213 0.405" -2.8 21 16% 15 40%
LMR-400 0.405" -1.5 23 8% 20 20%

I felt the improved performance was worth the compromise, however, and this is the type coax I
decided to use in my mast. I rationalized that if the connections were properly waterproofed
and the inner conductor was tinned back to the insulation, I could prevent the inner conductor
from corrosion. The same caveat applies to this type of coax as for the other types, however.
There is good quality and bad quality wire, so it is important to review the manufacturer's
specifications before buying.

Connections
One last topic is making the connections. At the very least, there will be a connection between
the coax and the antenna, and a connection between the coax and the VHF radio. I also wanted
a connector near the base of the mast to make it easier to un-step and step the mast in the
future. It is possible to buy cables made to length with the connectors already in place, but it
isn't difficult to install a connector on the end of the wire. I purchased the wire by the foot and
bought the necessary connectors. I made one cable that extended from the antenna base at the
top of the mast, down through the mast and about two feet beyond the bottom. I made
another cable that could be routed from the mast to the radio located at the Nav station.

On the end of each cable section, I installed a PL-259 connector. There are solderless, crimp
type versions of these connectors available, but I prefer the type that is soldered in place. The
PL-259 connectors are available for all three varieties of coax cables. Follow the manufacturer's
instructions for installing the connectors. I used a PL-258 double-female socket to connect the
two cables together at the base of the mast.

The last step is to seal the connectors to prevent moisture ingress. I first coated the connector
bodies and threads with Lanacote. Silicone grease will also work well. Then I slid an adhesive
lined length of heat shrink tubing over the connection and used a heat gun to shrink the tubing
and melt the adhesive. To make a watertight seal around these connectors, the heat shrink
tubing must have at least a 4:1 shrink ratio and should be 0.75” ID (before shrinking).

Another method to seal the connectors is to use self amalgamating tape. This tape is like a
stretchy, thick electrical tape, except that it has no adhesive. The tape is stretched as it is
wrapped, and it forms a tough, long lasting, watertight seal. It is sometimes referred to as cold
shrink tape. The photo below shows both types of seals.

David and Marcie Lynn have lived aboard Nine of Cups, their 1986 Liberty 458 cutter since
purchasing her in Kemah, TX in 2000. Since that time, they have sailed her over 70,000 nautical
miles in their ever so slow world circumnavigation and are currently cruising the south coast of
Australia. Find them on their website at www.nineofcups.com or their daily blog at
www.justalittlefurther.com.
VHF (Very High Frequency) signals typically fall within the range of 30 MHz to 300 MHz. This
band is commonly used for various applications like radio and television broadcasting, two-way
radios, and certain types of long-distance communication.

Applications:

 Radio and Television Broadcasting: VHF is used for transmitting radio and television
signals.
 Two-Way Radios: Many two-way radios, including those used in business, marine, and
amateur radio, operate within the VHF band.
 Long-Distance Communication: VHF signals can travel relatively long distances in open
areas, making them suitable for certain types of long-range communication.
 Aviation: VHF is used for aviation communication in the 100 MHz band, with specific
frequencies designated for different purposes.

What’s the difference between how HF and VHF/UHF radio

waves travel?
Using field radio equipment for reliable communications requires you to understand the way
radio waves travel. Once you’ve got a grasp of how High Frequency (HF) and Very High
Frequency/Ultra High Frequency (VHF/UHF) radio waves carry information from A to B, you can
optimise your radio network for more dependable communications.

This ensures you’ll never be stuck when you need to contact others and that your investment in
establishing an interconnected HF/VHF network pay for itself in improved communications
accuracy. So, back to basics – what is the difference between HF and VHF/UHF transmission?

How do HF radio waves travel?

HF frequencies (between 3-30 megahertz) are transmitted from a base unit or handheld
transceiver into the Earth’s atmosphere. These radio signals ‘bounce’ off the ionosphere and
return to land, where they are received by another transceiver tuned into the same radio band.
This form of propagation means HF radio signals can be sent and received over hundreds or
even thousands of kilometres, making HF radio an excellent tool for communicating between
field locations or radio base stations across wide expanses.

How do VHF/UHF radio waves travel?

VHF radio waves operate in a band between 30-300 megahertz, while UHF radio signals are
propagated within 300 megahertz and 3 gigahertz. These radio waves travel over line of sight,
making them ideal for local communications over a few kilometres. Indeed, UHF radio
frequencies best suit communications within a one kilometre radius – perfect for indoor
applications.

What are the benefits of HF radio vs VHF/UHF radios?

Each mode of radio wave propagation is useful in different settings. HF radio, for example, is
vital for base stations communicating with each other over vast distances, thanks to ionospheric
transmission. HF radio is also useful for linking remote regions to the outside world, as HF radio
communications is not reliant on conventional communications infrastructure.

Similarly, VHF/UHF radio is the perfect tool for field communications between numerous
locations. As long as terranean objects such as hills or mountains don’t block the signal path,
this radio wave improves communications accuracy significantly.

BANDWIDTH
Definition

1. Bandwidth (BW) is a range of frequencies, or information, that a circuit can handle or

the range of frequencies that a signal contains or occupies. Example: An AM broadcast
 radio channel in the US has a bandwidth of 10kHz, meaning that it occupies a 10kHz-
wide band, such as the frequencies from 760kHz to 770kHz.
2. The amount of data a digital channel or line can handle, expressed in bits per second
(bps), kilobits per second (kbps), baud, or a similar measure.