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Course Code: CE 42D

Course Name: HYDRAULICS
Course Description: This course deals with the analysis and hydraulic design of by
systems such as reservoirs dams, spillways, gates, open channels, pipe networks, pumps and
turbines; sediment transport in rivers and reservoir; computer hydraulic modeling.

Objectives:
After completing this course, the student must be able to:

1. Develop a good understanding of the principles of water behavior

under the influence of forces.
2. Understand the principles involving physical ideas, as well as mathematical
ones, and includes derivations and analysis of resulting equations which describe
water behavior.
3. Develop skills in solving practical problems, which involve numerical
calculations from working formulas used for hydraulic analysis design.
4. Make solutions and decisions on a particular problem incorporating social and
moral impact and put into mind that a mediocre solutions could cause a loss of
life and/or property.

Suggested References:

1. Mays, Larry W. 2004. Water Resources Engineering, 2005 Edition. USA.

2. Robert L. Daugherty, Joseph B. Franzini and E. John Finnemore. 2002. Fluid

Mechanics with Engineering Applications, SI Metric Edition. USA.

3. Linsley, Ray K. ; Franzini, Joseph B.; Freyberg, David L.; Tchobanoglous, David L.
1992. Water Resources Engineering, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill.

4. John J. Cassidy & M. Hanif Chaudhry. 1988. Hydraulic Engineering, Second Edition.
USA.

5. H.W. King, J.O. Wisler and J.G. Woodburn. 1980. Hydraulics, 5th Edition. R. E.
Krieger Publishing Company.

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Lesson 1: Fluid Flow Measurement

Fluid Flow Measuring Devices:

1. Venturi Meter
2. Nozzle.
3. Pitot Tube

Meter Coefficients

Coefficient of Discharge (C)

is the ratio of the actual discharge through the device to the ideal or theoritical discharge which
would occur losses.

Qa = CQt

Coefficient of Velocity (Cv)

is the ratio of the actual mean velocity to the ideal or theoritical velocity which would occur
without any lossses.

Va = CVt

Coefficient of Velocity (Cc)

is the ratio of the actual mean velocity to the ideal or theoritical velocity which would occur
without any lossses.

a = CcA

Relationship of C, Cv, Cc.

C = C vC c

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Venturi Meter: Is an instrument used in measuring the discharge through pipes. It consist of a
converging tube which is connected to the main pipe at the inlet and ends up in a cylindrical
section called throat, and a diverging section which is connected to the main pipe. A differential
manometer is attached to the two piezometer rings.

EGL
V12/2g
V22/2g

P1/
w P1/
1 2

Inlet Throat
Outlet
z1 z2
Datum

Apply Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem (BET):

Combining the kinetic and potential energies:

Venturi principle states that “the increase in kinetic energy is equal to the decrease in potential
energy”.

Relationship between velocities, V1 and V2 using Continuity equation:

Q 1 = Q2
A1V1 = A2V2

Example 1: The 30 cm by 15 cm venturi meter is installed in a vertical pipe. The vertical

distance from the inlet to the throat is 30 cm. The flow is upward through the differential
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manometer containing liquid (s = 1.5) is attached from the inlet to the throat, and the deflection
being 80 cm. Determine the flow of water through the meter if the meter coefficient is 0.97.
Determine also head lost from the inlet to the throat.

15 cm

30 cm
30 cm
80 cm

liquid, s = 1.5

Solution:

Apply BET:

continuity equation:

(0.3)2V1 = (0.15)2V2
V1 = 0.25V2 2

Sum up pressure heads in m of water:

+ x -1.5(0.8) – y =

- = x - y – 1.2 3
where:
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x + 0.3 = 0.8 + y
x – y = 0.8 – 0.3
x – y = 0.5 4

substitute eq. 4 to eq. 3

- = 0.5 - 1.2

- = -0.7 5

substitute eq. 2 & eq. 5 to eq. 1

-0.9375V22 = -7.848
V2 = 2.89 m/s

thus,
Qt = A2V2=
Qt = 0.051 m3/s

Qa = CQt
Qa = (0.97)(0.051)
Qa = 0.049 m3/s

To solve head loss, use the actual flow

Q1 = Q2 = 0.049 m3/s
A2V2 = 0.049 m3/s
= 0.049 m3/s
V2 = 2.77 m/s
V1 = 0.25(2.77) = 0.69 m/s

Apply BET with HL:

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HL = 0.033 m

Exercises:

Problem 1: A 150 mm diameter Venturi meter is installed in a 450 mm diameter water main.
The deflection of mercury in the differential manometer connected from the inlet to the throat is
375 mm. (a) Determine the discharge neglecting head loss, (b) Compute the discharge if the
head lost from the inlet to the throat is 300 mm of water, and (c) what is the meter coefficient?
Answers: (a) Qt = 0.1712 m3/s (b) Qa = 0.1657 m3/s (c) C = 0.968

300
mm Hg

Problem 2: A vertical Venturi meter, 150 mm in diameter is connected to a 300-mm diameter

pipe. The vertical distance from the inlet to the throat is 750 mm. If the deflection of mercury in
the differential manometer connected from the inlet to the throat is 300 mm, determine the flow
of water through the meter if the meter coefficient is 0.68. Determine also the head lost from
the inlet to the throat. Answers: Qa = 0.1171m3/s, HL = 2.238 m

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150
mm
800
mm 300 mm

400
mm

Nozzle: Nozzle is a converging tube installed at the end of a pipe or hose for the purpose of
increasing the velocity of the issuing jet. It is also used to measure the flow of fluid in a pipe or
hose. The nozzle is shaped like a frustum of a cone.

Base
Tip

2
1

Head loss in a nozzle (HL)

HL =

where:
Cv = correction factor
Va = actual velocity
Power (P)
P =QE

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where:
 = unit weight of liquid
Q = actual discharge

Total energy lost at the nozzle or velocity head of the jet (E)

E=

where:
Va = actual velocity

Example: A nozzle 10 cm x 4 cm is projected vertically upward. At a point 30 cm below the tip,

the pressure is maintained at 145 kPa. If the available power in the jet is 2.6 kW. Find;
A. the value of Cv
B. the height through which the jet of water will rise.
C. the diameter of the jet 6 m above the tip of the nozzle
(Note: neglect air resistance)

h =?

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Solution:

A.
4

3
h =?

d2 = 0.04 m
2 Datum

0.03 m

1 d1 = 0.10 m

Apply BET: (from 1 to 2)

continuity equation:

(0.1)2V1 = (0.04)2V2
V1 = 0.16V2

head loss was considered thus, V2 = Va

V1 = 0.16Va

P =QE
P = A2Va

2.6 kW = 9.81
Va = 16.05 m/s
subst. V1, Va to eq. 1
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1.6865 =

0.128 =

1.128 =
Cv = 0.941 (A)
Apply BET: (from 2 to 4)

h = 13.13 m (B)
Alternate sol:
Given:
Vi = Va = 16.05 m/s
Vf = V 3 = 0
g = 9.81 m/s
Sol:

2gh =
2(9.81)h = (16.05)2
h = 13.13 m (B)

Apply BET: (from 2 to 3)

V4 = 11.83 m/s
continuity equation:

(0.04)2(16.05) = (11.83)
d4 = 0.047 m or 4.7 cm (C)
Exercises:
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Problem 1: A 150 mm by 50 mm nozzle is attached to the end of a 100 mm pipe. The

pressure at the base of the nozzle where it joins the pipe is 415 kPa and the coefficient of
velocity, Cv = 0.98. Determine the velocity of the jet. Also determine the head loss of the
nozzle.

Problem 2: A 62.5 mm fire hose discharges water through a nozzle having a jet diameter of 25
mm. The lost of head in the nozzle is 4 percent of the velocity head in the jet. If the gage
pressure at the base of nozzle is 412 kPa.;(a) compute the discharge in gpm.
Ans. 221.92

Problem 3: A 2.5” in fire hose discharges a 1.25 in jet. If the head lost in the nozzle is 6 ft,
what gage pressure must be maintained at the base of the nozzle to throw a stream to a
vertical height of 100 ft, neglecting air resistance?

Problem 4: A power nozzle throws a jet of water which is 2 in. in diameter. The diameter of the
base of the nozzle and of the approach pipe is 6 in. If the power in the jet is 42 hp and the
pressure head at the base of the nozzle is 180 ft, compute the headlost in the nozzle.

Pitot Tube: A pitot tube is a vent L-shaped tube with both ends open which is used to
measure the velocity of fluid flow.

While the water directly upstream the liquid enters the Pitot tube, point 2, its velocity is
approaching zero since the water inside the Pitot tube is static. The point near the end of the
Pitot tube, point 2 is called the stagnation point and the pressure at this point is called the
stagnation pressure.There is a pressure build-up at this point due to the impact of velocity
against the opening of the tube. Pressure head Po/w at stagnation point is the head in the Pitot

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tube. The pressure head Ps/w at static point, point 3, is the head in the piezometer tube a little
distance upstream from the stagnation point.

Apply BET: (from 1 to 2)

V1 = V; P1/ɣ = h1; P2/ɣ = h2;

; V2 = 2g(h1 - h2)

Problem: A glass tube with 900 bend is open at both ends. It is inserted into a flowing stream of oil (sp.
gr. = 0.90) so that one of the openings is directed upstream and the other is directed upward. If the oil
inside the tube is 50-mm higher than the surface outside, determine the velocity measured by the tube.
Answer: v = 0.99 m/s

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Lesson 2: Orifice

Orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter made in a wall or partition through which fluid
flows. It is used primarily to measure or to control the flow of fluid. The circular sharped-crested
orifice is most widely used because of the simplicity of its design and construction.

Most Common Type of Orifice

1. circular sharped-crested orifice
2. square orifice
3. rectangular orifice
Note:
when the area of tank is more than 16 times the area of orifice, neglect velocity of
approach.

P1 P2

Ai
r1
Ai
h r
2

Apply BET:

when: Vt = V2 let: H = or H = Eupstream - Edownstream

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Theoretical velocity:
(m/s, ft/s)

Actual velocity:

Va = CvVt
Va = C v
(m/s, ft/s)

Coefficient of contraction

Contraction of the jet – when the fluid from upstream and leave through the orifice cannot
make an abrupt change in their direction and they move in a curvilinear
paths, thus causing the jet to contract.

Vena contracta – approximately D/2 from the upstream face.

D/2

vena contracta

A D a
o

a = CcAo

where:
Cc = coefficient of contraction
D = diameter of the orifice
Ao = area of the orifice
a = area at the vena contacta or area of the jet

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Theoretical discharge:
Qt = AoVt
Qt = A o
(m3/s, ft3/s)
Actual discharge:

Qa = CQt
Qa = CAo
(m3/s, ft3/s)

or
Qa = CcCvAo
(m3/s, ft3/s)

or
Qa = aVa
(m3/s, ft3/s)

where:
Cv = coefficient of velocity
Cc = coefficient of contraction
C = coefficient of discharge
C = Cv x C c

Head loss in an orifice (HL)

HL =

where:
Cv = coefficient of velocity
Va = actual velocity

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Example 1: Calculate the actual velocity and discharge through the 140 mm diameter orifice
shown. Assume CC = 0.85, Cv = 0.93.

PA = 40 PB = 10 kPa
kPa
Air

Air
2m

water

water

Va = C v

H = Eupstream – Edownstream
H=
H = 5.06 m
Va = (0.85)
Va = 8.47 m/s

Qa = CvCc Ao

= (0.85)(0.93)( )

Qa = 0.121 m3/s

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Example 2: A calibration test of a 12.5 mm circular sharped-edge orifice in the vertical side of
a large tank showed a discharge of 590 N of water in 81 sec. at a head of 4.7 m. Measurement
of the jet showed that it traveled 2.35 m horizontally while dropping 30 cm. Compute the meter
coefficients, C, Cv and Cc.

Ai
r

4.7 m

water

Solution:

Air

4.7 m
V2Y
V2x

water 0.30 cm

2.35
mm

Qa = 0.00074 m3/s
Qa = CAo

0.00074 m3/s = C( )

C = 0.63

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y = V2yx +

0.30 cm =
t = 0.247 sec.

x = V2xt
2.35 m = V2x(0.247 sec)
V2x = 9.51 m/s
thus,
Va = V2x = 9.51 m/s

V a = Cv
9.51 m/s = Cv
Cv = 0.99

C = CvCc
0.63 = 0.99Cc
Cv = 0.64

Exercises:

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1. In the figure shown the diameter of the orifice is 3 in., and C = Cv = 0.95. With h = 5 ft,
determine the discharge and the head lost in the orifice.

PA = 10 psi PB is
atmospheric
Air

Air
5 ft

water

water

Figure
A
2. The orifice in Exercise #1 is 2 inches in diameter and is sharp-edged,with liquid is water with
Cc = 0.62 and Cv = 0.98. Pressures PA and PB are atmospheric (open tank). The liquid is water
with h =16 ft. Determine the diameter of the jet, the actual velocity of the jet, and the discharge.

3. An open cylindrical tank, 1.2 m in diameter and 6 m tall has 0.6 m of oil (S = 0.80),
0.40 m of gasoline (S = 0.90), and 0.80 m of sea water (S = 1.06). An orifice 100 mm in
diameter is located at the bottom with a discharge of 0.029 m3/s. Determine the coefficient of
discharge.
Ans. 0.66
4. The orifice at the bottom of a closed tank is 50 mm square with C = 0.60. The height of the
liquid above the orifice is 6 m. If the upper 3 m of liquid is oil (S = 0.82) and the rest is water,
compute the discharge flowing in the orifice.
Ans. 0.0155 m3/s
5. The jet from a standard 12 mm orifice (in a vertical wall) under a 5.4 m head, strikes at a
point 1.5 m horizontally and 120 mm vertically from the center of the contracted section. The
discharge is 400 li in 569 sec. Compute the coefficient of contraction.

6. An open cylindrical vessel has 62 mm dia. orifice under a head “h” . The jet strikes 24 m
horizontally and dropping 10 m vertically. If Cv = 0.98, determine the value of “h”.

Unsteady Flow: Falling Head (when the flow through orifice, weirs or tubes is said to be
unsteady if the total head producing flow (H) is not constant).
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Q=

dQ =

dt = dh
As
h1
t= h
h2

For constant cross-sectional area:

t=

where:
h1 = initial head
h2 = final head

Example 1: A 1.20 m diameter vertical tank, 3 m high contains 2.5 m of water. A 100-mm
diameter circular sharp-crested orifice is located at its bottom. Assume C = 0.64,

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(a) How long will it take to lower the level to 1 m?

(b) How long will it take to lower the level by 1 m?
(c) How long will it take to empty the tank after opening the orifice?

Solution:

dh
As
h1
h
h2

As = =1.131 m2

A0 = = 0.00785
h1 = 2.5 m, h2 = 1 m

t = 101.59(0.581)
t = 59.04 sec. (a)

As = 1.131 m2
A0 = 0.00785
h1 = 2.5 m, h2 = 1.5 m

t = 36.21 sec. (b)

As = 1.131 m2
A0 = 0.00785
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h1 = 2.5 m, h2 = 0

t = 160.63 sec. (c)

Example 2: A tank, which is the frustum of a cone having its bases horizontal and axis vertical,
is 10 ft high and filled with water. It has a diameter of 8 ft at the top and 3 ft at the bottom.

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What is the time required to empty the tank through a sharp-dege orifice 3 in square with a C
of 0.61.

dh
As
h1
h
h2

a = 1.5 + b

b = 0.25h
a = 1.5 + 0.25h

As = (1.5 + 0.25h)2 = (2.25 + 0.75h + 0.0625h2)

A0 = = 0.0625 ft2

t = 389.64 sec.

Exercises:

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Problem 1: A vertical cylindrical tank has an orifice in its vertical side at a point 0.60 m above
the bottom. If the discharge reduces the depth of water in the tank from 6 m to 4 m in 78 sec.,
what is the time required to reduce the depth from 3.60 m to 1.60 m.

Problem 2: A tank in the form of a frustum of a right circular cone, 1.5-m diameter at the
bottom, 3-m diameter at the top, and 3.5 m high is full of water. The bottom of the tank
contains an orifice with C = 0.62. What size of the orifice is needed to empty the tank in 8
minutes?
Ans. 156.44 sec
Problem 3: A cylindrical vessel 4ft in diameter and 6 ft high has a round edge circular orifice 2
in in diameter in the bottom. C for the orifice is 0.95. If the vessel is filled with water how long
will it take to lower the surface by 4 ft?

Problem 4: A 1.0 m diameter vertical tank, 4 m high contains 3 m of water. If it takes 2

minutes to make the level of water to 0.5 m above the bottom, what is the diameter of the
orifice located at the bottom of the tank? Assume C = 0.86.

Lesson 3: Weirs

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Weirs are overflow structure which are built across an open channel for the purpose of
measuring or controlling the flow of liquids. Weirs have been commonly used to
measure the flow of water, but it is now being adopted to measure the flow of the
liquids.

Drop-down L
curve

Crest
d

Weir
plate

Classification of Weirs
1. Rectangular
2. Trapezoidal
3. Triangular
4. Circular
5. Parabolic, etc.
Terms:
1. Nappe – the overflowing stream in a weir
2. Crest of weir – the edge or top surface of a weir in which the flowing
liquid comes in contact.
3. Drop-down curve – the downward curvature of the liquid surface before the
weir.
4. L = width of weir
5. Head, H – the distance between the liquid surface and the crest of the
weir measure before the drop-down curve.
6. P – height of weir
7. d – effective depth of channel.

d=P+H

Rectangular Weir
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A. Suppressed Rectangular Weir - having its length being equal to the width of the
channel.

Q=

or ( If )

Q=

where:
hv = (velocity of approach)
C = coefficient of discharge
Cw = weir factor

Neglecting Va:

Q=
Q=
or

 FRANCIS Formula (Cw = 1.84)

Q=

Neglecting Va:

Q=

B. Contracted Rectangular Weir – weirs having sides sharp-edge so that the nappe is
contracted in width, either one or both end contraction.
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For one-end contraction:

L = L – 0.10H
H

Q= L

For two-end contraction:

L = L – 0.20H
H
Q=
L

Triangular Weir

 H

Q=

For V-notch weir:

 = 90º

Q=

Trapezoidal Weir

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/2 /2 H

Q= +

Cippolleti Weir
are trapezoidal weirs with side slope of 1 horizontal to 4 vetical

4   4 H
1 1
 

where
 = 14.036
 = 75.9640
Q=

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Example 1: The discharge over a rectangular suppressed weir is 0.333 cu.m/sec. Water
stands 1.0 m deep at the back of the weir. Find the length of the crest of the weir if the head is
20 cm. Consider velocity of approach and use the Francis formula.

H = 0.20
d = 1.0 m
m

Q=

Q = AV a
0.333 = (1.0)(L)Va
Va =

hv =

0.333 =

By Trial & Error:

L= 2m

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Example 2: A suppressed weir, 7.5 m long, is to discharge 10.125 m3/s of water into a
channel. The weir factor C = 1.88. To what height P may the weir be built, if the water behind
the weir must not exceed 1.80 m deep?

L = 7.5 m

d = 1.80
m P=?

P=d-H
Q=

Q1 = Q2 = AVa

10.125 = 1.80(7.5)Va
Va = 0.75

hv = = 0.02867 m

10.125 =
H = 0.7768 m

P = d – H = 1.80 – 0.78
P = 1.02 m

Exercises:

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Problem 1: Find the discharge through the rectangular suppressed weir, if L = 2.4 m, H = 18
cm. Neglect velocity of approach and use Francis Formula.
Ans. 0.337 m3/s

Problem 2: The discharge over a rectangular suppressed weir is 0.333 cu.m/sec. Water
stands 1.0 m deep at the back of the weir. Find the length of the crest of the weir if the head is
20 cm. Consider velocity of approach and use the Francis formula.
Ans. 2 m

Problem 3: Determine the discharge through a trapezoidal weir whose sides are at an angle of
14º 211" from the vertical and crest length is 1.5 m long. The head on the weir is 0.30 m.
Ans. 0.458

Problem 4: If the discharge over an 80º triangular weir is 300 mm, determine the discharge in
liters per second. Assume C = 0.60.
Ans. 58.63

Problem 5: The crest length of the Cippollete weir is five times its head. Find the length if the
discharge is 0.82 m3/s.
Ans. 1.893 m

Problem 6: A suppressed weir, 6.5 m long, is to discharge 9.36 m3/s of water into a channel.
The weir factor C = 1.86. To what height P may the weir be built, if the water behind the weir
must not exceed 1.60 m deep?
Ans. 0.79 m

Problem 7: Determine the head of a 900 triangular weir if the discharge is 190 li/s.
Ans. 0.45 m
Problem 8: A symmetrical trapezoidal weir with side slope of 1H = 3V has waste water flowing
through it, if the head is 0.65 and crest length of 6.25 m with C = 0.60 (for rectangle) and C =
0.63 (for triangle). Determine the discharge.
Ans. 5.972 m
Problem 9: Determine the head of suppressed rectangular weir if the discharge is 0.556 m3/s
and the length is 3 times its head. Neglecting velocity of approach and use C = 0.62.
Ans. 0.34 m

Problem 10: Determine the discharge of one-end rectangular contracted weir if its width is 5 m
and its head is one-fourth of its width.
Ans. 12.54 m3/s

Lesson 4: Pipes
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Pipes are closed conduits (usually circular) through which fluid flows in full.

Two Types of Steady Flow

1. Laminar Flow – when the flow of particles are moving along straight, parallel paths.
Re  2000
2. Turbulent Flow – when the flow of particles are moving in irregular path.allel paths.
Re > 2000

Reynolds Number – is the ratio of the inertia force to viscous force.

or

where:
V = mean velocity (m/s, ft/s)
D = diameter of pipe (m, ft)
 = absolute or dynamic viscosity (Pas, psfs)
 = kinematic viscosity (m2/s, ft2/s)

 = density of liquid

For non-circular pipes, (use: D = 4R)

where:
R = hydraulic radius

A = cross-sectional area of the pipe

P = perimeter

Major Head Lost Due to Pipe Friction in Pipe Flow

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Major Head Lost (Frictional Losses)

Darcy-Wesbach Formula

(m, ft)

Use:
(For Laminar flow)
D = 4R (For non-circular pipe)

For circular pipes (S.I.)

MAnning’s Formula (S.I.)

where:
R = hydraulic radius =

S = slope of EGL =

Use:
D = 4R (For non-circular pipes)

For circular pipes (S.I.)

Hazen-William’s Formula

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Q=

where:
C1 = Hazen-William’s coefficient
S = slope of EGL =

Minor Losses

1. Due to contraction:

2. Due to enlargement:

3. Due to obstructions:

4. Due to bends or curves in pipe:

Exercises:

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Problem 1: Water is flowing in a 500 mm dia. new cast iron pipe at a velocity of 2.0 m/s. If the
head loss is 0.67 m per 100 m of the pipeline, compute the value of the Hazen’s coefficient C.
Ans. 131.03

Problem 2: An oil (S = 0.87) having an absolute viscosity of 0.0814 Pas flows through a cast
iron pipe at a velocity of 1.0 m/s. The pipe is 45 m long and has diameter of 150 mm. Find the
head loss due to friction.
Ans. 0.612 m

Problem 3: What is the Reynolds number for a flow of oil(s = 0.80),  = 0.002 psfs in a 6"
diameter pipe at a flow rate of 10 ft3/s. Is this flow laminar or turbulent?
Ans. 19,740.3

Problem 4: Water having kinematic viscosity v = 1.4 x 10-6 m2/s flows in a 75 mm diameter
pipe at a velocity of 5.2 m/s. Is the flow laminar or turbulent?
Ans. 278,571.43

Problem 5: For laminar flow conditions, what size of pipe will deliver 8 liters per second of oil
having kinematic viscosity of 6.4 x 10-6 m2/s?
Ans. 0.796 m

Problem 6: If glycerin with a kinematic viscosity of 0.002 ft2/s weighs 54 lb/ft3, what will be the
flow rate and head loss in a 3600 ft length of 4" dia. pipe when the Reynolds number is 1600?
Ans. 0.838 m3/s, 618.22 ft

Problem 7: The headloss in 80 m of 12 cm diameter pipes is 8 m when oil (s = 0.9) of viscosity

0.04 Ns/sq.m flows at 0.05 m3/s. Determine the Reynolds number.
Ans. 11,936.63

Problem 8: A square concrete conduit having a side of 0.80 m carries water at a rate of 0.04
m3/s. Using Hazen Williams Formula with C1 = 120, compute the head loss if the length of the
conduit is 45 m
Ans. 0.45

Problem 9: A 36" concrete pipe is 4,000 ft long has a head loss of 12.7 ft. Find the discharge
capacity for this pipe using Hazen Williams formula with C = 120.
Ans. 131.03

Problem 10: Determine the diameter of a riveted pipe to transport 1.01 m3/s of water a
distance of 845 m with a headloss of 1.11 m. Use Hazen’s Coefficient C =130
Ans. 1,003.27 mm

Pipe Discharging from Reservoir

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h
H

2
datum

E1 – HL = E2

Pipe Connecting Two Reservoirs

2
datum

E1 – HL = E2

H – HL = 0
HL = H
Series Connection

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1 2 3

Q1 Q2 Q3

Discharge:

Q1 = Q 2 = Q 3

Head loss:

HL = hf1 + hf2 + hf3

Parallel Connection

1 Q1

2 Q2

3 Q3

Discharge:

QT = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 3

Head loss:

HL = Hf1 = Hf2 = Hf3

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Example 1: Pipes 1, 2 and 3 are 300 m, 150 m, and 250 m long and of 25 cm, 12 cm, and 20
cm diameter with f1, f2, and f3 equal to 0.019, 0.021, and 0.020 respectively and are connected
in series. If the difference in height between pipe 1 and pipe 3 is 10 m,
(a) find the rate of flow.
(b) find the equivalent single pipe that could replace all the three pipes.

Q1 = Q2 = Q3
HL = hf1 + hf2 + hf3

Q1 = 0.0286 m3/s

Example 2: The flow rate from point 1 to 5 is 0.020 m3/s. Compute the head loss from point 1
to 5.
Pipe Length Diameter f
2 360 m 50 mm 0.031
3 400 m 100 mm 0.028
4 600 m 75 mm 0.028

2 3

1 5

hf4 = hf2 + hf3 1

Q2 = Q3 2
Q1 = Q2 + Q4 = 0.020 3

subst. 2 to 4
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Q2 = 0.438Q4 5

subst. 5 to 3
0.438Q4 + Q4 = 0.020
Q4 = 0.014 m3/s

hf4 = 114.61 m
Exercises:

Problem 1: A 20-mm-diameter commercial steel pipe, 30 m long is used to drain an oil tanker.
Determine the discharge when the oil level in the tank is 3 m above the exit of the pipe.
Neglect minor loses and assume f = 0.12.
Ans. 0.000179 m3/s

Problem 2: A 1.5-m-diameter pipe of length 1500 m conveys water between two reservoirs at
the rate of 8.5 m3/s. What must be the difference in water-surface elevations between the two
reservoirs. Neglect minor losses and assume f = 0.018.
Ans. 21.22 m
Problem 3: Three new cast iron pipes are connected in series. The first has a diameter of 300
mm, 360 m long, and f = 0.02. The second has a diameter of 600 mm, 600 m long, and f =
0.019. The third has a diameter of 450 mm, 450 m long and f = 0.020. Neglecting minor
losses, (a) find the total head loss if the discharge is 215 LPs. (b) find the diameter of an
equivalent single pipe that could replace all the three pipes (use f = 0.020).
Ans. 13.74 m, 379 mm
Problem 4: The roughness coef. of all pipes,n = 0.015. Find the rate of flow (in li/s) if the total
head loss is 64 m.

1 2 3

1600 m 900 m 400 m

350 mm 300 mm 250 mm

Ans. 130

Problem 5: Three pipes are parallel connected. The pipe characteristics are as follows:

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Pipe Dia. (cm) L (m) f

1 15 600 0.020
2 10 480 0.030
3 20 900 0.025

Find the rate of flow in pipe A, if the difference in head at the ends is 40 m.
Ans. 0.0554 m3/s
Problem 6:
Pipes 1, 2, and 3 are connected parallel to each other and the difference in head at the ends is
25 m. If the fourth pipe having a diameter of 150 mm, length of 600 m and
f = 0.020 were attached at the end of the three pipes, what would be the difference in head
from the old start to the new end?

Pipe Dia. (mm) L (m) f

1 75 300 0.018
2 100 400 0.022
3 50 250 0.010

new pipe
3

Ans. 42.13 m

Three Reservoir Problems

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Case1: Given the discharge of one of the pipes and pipe properties.

1. Solve the head lost (hf) from a reservoir of known elevation.

2. Determine the elevation of the EGL at the junction of the pipes (P') by adding
or subtracting the head lost in the pipe from the elevation of the water surface in the
reservoir.

Elev. 90
A
hf1
P
Q1
hf2
1
B

2
P hf3
Q3
3

Elev.40

3. Draw the line from P' to the surface of the other reservoir. The difference in
elevation between P' and the surface of the reservoir is the head lost in the
pipe.

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Case 2: Given all elevation in the reservoir and pipe properties.

1. The flow in each pipe is due to gravity. The flow in pipe 1 is obviously away from
reservoir A and the flow in pipe 3 is towards reservoir C but the flow in pipe 2 is either
away or towards reservoir B.

Elev. 90
A

Q1

Elev. 70
1
B
Q2 =?
2
P
Q3
3

Elev. 40
C

2. To determine the direction of Q2, assume Q2 = 0 thus, hf2 =0, hf1 = 20 and hf3 = 30

Elev. 90

Q1 hf1 =20
Elev. 70
P
1
B
Q2 =?
2
P hf3 = 30
Q3
3
Elev. 40

If Q1 > Q3, the flow of Q2 is towards B. This means that the supply of reservoir A
is enough to supply pipe 3.

If Q1 < Q3, the flow of Q2 is away from B. This means that the supply of reservoir
A is not enough to supply pipe 3.

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Example: Determine the flow in each pipe in the three reservoirs shown.

Elev. 80
A

Pipe 1:
1800 m
400 mm Elev. 50
f = 0.02 B

Pipe 2:
P 2000 m
500 mm
f = 0.025
Pipe 3:
Elev. 10 4000 m
800 mm
C f = 0.03

Solution:

Elev. 80
A

Pipe 1:
1800 m
400 mm Elev. 50
f = 0.02 B

Pipe 2:
P 2000 m
500 mm
f = 0.025

Elev. 10
C

hf1 = = = 290.39

hf2 = = = 132.16

hf3 = = = 30.25

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Assume Q2 = 0 thus, hf2 =0, hf1 = 30 and hf3 = 40

Elev. 80

Q1
hf1 =30
Elev. 50
P
1
B
Q2 =?
2
hf3 = 40
Q3
3
Elev. 10

hf1 = 30 = 290.39 , Q1 = 0.321 m3/s

hf3 = 40 = 30.25 , Q3 = 1.15 m3/s

since Q1 < Q3, this means the supply from reservoir A is not enough to supply pipe 3. thus, Q 2
is away from reservoir B.

Elev. 80

Q1 hf1
Elev. 50

1 hf2
Q2 B
P

2
P hf3
Q3
3
Elev. 10

Q1 + Q2 = Q3 
hf1 + hf3 = 70 
hf2 + hf3 = 40 

simplifying eq.
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hf1 + hf3 = 70
290.39 + 30.25 = 70
290.39 = 70 – 30.25
Q1 = 
simplifying eq. 
hf2 + hf3 = 40
132.16 + 30.25 = 40
132.16 = 40 – 30.25
Q2 = 

subst. eq.  and eq. to eq. 

Q1 + Q2 = Q3
+ = Q3
Trial and error
Q3 = 0.808 m3/s

subst. Q3 to eq. 
Q1 = = = 0.416 m3/s
subst. Q3 to eq. 
Q2 = = = 0.392
Check:
Q1 + Q2 = Q3
0.416 + 0.392 = 0.808
0.808 = 0.808 OK

Example 2: Determine the flow into or out of each reservoir in the pipe system shown. use n =
0.11 in all pipes.
L1 = 1200 m D1 = 30 cm
L2 = 900 m D2 = 20 cm
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L3 = 500 m D3 = 15 cm

Elev. 30 m
A

Elev. 24 m
B

Elev. 15 m
C

hf1 = = = 91,847.77

hf2 = = = 598,802.05

hf3 = = = 1,542,945.91

Assume Q2 = 0 thus, hf2 =0, hf1 = 30 and hf3 = 40

Elev. 30 m

A
hf1 =6 m
Q1
Elev. 24 m
P
1
B
Q2 =?
2
Q hf3 = 9
Q3 2 m
3

Elev. 15 m

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hf1 = 6 = 91,847.77 , Q1 = 0.00808 m3/s

hf3 = 9 = 1,542,945.91 , Q3 = 0.0024 m3/s
since Q1 > Q3, this means the supply from reservoir A is enough to supply pipe 3. thus, Q 2 is
towards reservoir B.

Elev. 30

A
hf1
Q1
P
hf2
1 Elev. 24
Q2 B

2 hf3
P
Q3
3
Elev. 15

Q1 = Q2 + Q3 
hf1 + hf2 = 6 
hf1 + hf3 = 15 

simplifying eq.
hf1 + hf2 = 6
91,847.77 + 598,802.05 =6
598,802.05 = 6 – 91,847.77
Q2 = 
simplifying eq. 
hf1 + hf3 = 15
91,847.77 + 1,542,945.91 = 15
1,542,945.91 = 15 – 91,847.77
Q3 = 

subst. eq.  and eq.  to eq. 

Q1 = Q2 + Q3
Q1 = +
By trial and error:
Q1 = 0.00525 m3/s
thus,

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Q2 = = = 0.0024 m3/s Q3 =
= = 0.00284

Exercise:

Problem 1: A 1200-mm-diameter concrete pipe 1800 m long carries 1.35 m 3/s from reservoir
A, whose water surface is at elevation 50 m, and discharges into two concrete pipes each
1350 m long and 750 mm in diameter. One of the 750-mm diameter pipe discharges into
reservoir B in which the water surface is at elevation 44 m. Determine the elevation of the
water surface or reservoir C into which the other 750-mm-diameter pipe is flowing. Assume f =
0.02 for all pipes.

Elev. 50
A

Pipe 1:
1800 m
1200 mm Elev. 44
B

Pipe 2:
P 1350 m
750 mm

Pipe 2:
Elev. ? 1350 m
750 mm
C

Ans. 43.05 m

Problem 2: Reservoir A is at elevation 240 m. From reservoir A a 450 mm pipe, 600 m long
leads to point B at elevation 210 m. The discharge on this 450 mm pipe is 200 li/sec. At point
B, it divides into a 300 mm pipe 3,900 m long to reservoir C at elevation 195 m and into
reservoir D at elevation 135 m which is 1,200 m long. Neglecting minor losses in the pipes,
determine the diameter of the pipe that discharges to D. Use f = 0.02 in all pipes.
Ans. 160 mm

Problem 3: From the given three reservoirs shown, the elevation of reservoir A is 346 m, B is
at elev. 301 m, and C is at elevation 241 m. Rate of flow at pipe 1 is 200 liter/sec. Compute the
diameter of pipe 3.
Pipe Length Diameter Hazens
(m) (mm) C

1 600 450 120

2 3600 300 100

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3 1200 ? 110

Elev. 346 m
A

Elev. 301 m
1
B
2

Elev. 241 m
C

Problem 4: The three reservoirs A, B and C are connected by pipelines A, B, and C

respectively. The elevation of reservoir A is equal to 200 m while that of C is 178 m. The
discharge flowing towards reservoir B is 0.60 m3/s. Reservoir B is higher than that of C.
(a) Compute the rate of flow out of reservoir A.
(b) Compute the rate of flow towards reservoir C.
(c) Compute the elevation of reservoir B.

Pipe Length Diameter Friction Factor

(m) (mm) f
A 1500 800 0.0158
B 450 600 0.0168
C 1200 450 0.0175

Ans.(a) 1.01 m3/s, (b) 0.41 m3/s, (c) 190.91 m

Lesson 5: Open Channel

Open Channel is a conduit in which a liquid flows with a free surface.

CHEZY Formula

V=C

where:
C = Chezy coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of EGL
use:
Manning

C=
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Kutter

C=

where:
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of EGL

Darcy-Weisbach

C=

MANNING’S Formula (S.I.)

where:
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of EGL

Uniform Flow

Uniform flow is the simplest of all open channel problem. For this condition, the
velocity, depth of flow, and the cross-sectional area of flow at any point of the stream is
constant.

d1
d2

Boundary shear stress ()

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The average boundary (), acting over the wetted surface of the channel is given by

 = liq RS
where:
liq = unit weight of liquid
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of the EGL (S < 0.10)

Specific Energy
Is defined as the energy per unit weight relative to the bottom of the channel.

H=

where:
V = mean velocity of flow
d = depth of flow

Most Efficient Sections

 Rectangular sections

b = 2d
R= d

 Trapezoidal sections (half hexagon)

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x = 2y
y y d
R=
60° 60°

 Triangular sections

R = 0.354d
d
90°

 Semi-circles

b
b = 2r
R= d=
r

 Circular sections

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max velocity: d = 0.82D

max discharge: d = 0.938D D
d
R=

Alternate stages of flow

d
EG
L stage
upper

Qmax
lower stage critical depth,
subcritical depth dc
supercritical
depth
Q
variation of discharge vs.
depth
Characteristics of Stages of Flow

Lower stage Critical depth Upper stage

Flow is rapid or turb. Velocity is critical velocity Flow is tranquil or
quite
supercritical depth Slope is called critical subcritical depth
slope
F > 1.0 F = 1.0 F < 1.0

Froude Number: The ratio of the inertia force to gravity force and is given by the expression.

F=

where:
V = mean velocity of flow
d = depth of flow
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Critical Depth: Is defined as the depth at which for a given total head, the discharge is
maximum, or conversely, the depth at which for a given flow, the specific energy is minimum.

For Rectangular sections:

dc =

q = Vd =

For any sections

dc

where:
A = cross-sectional area of flow
B = width at the top
Example 1 : A trapezoidal canal is carrying a discharge of 34 m 3/s with an average velocity of
1.5 m/s. The roughness coefficient is 0.02. (a) Determine the depth of the canal for the most
efficient section, (b) Determine the depth of the canal if the depth is only one half that of the
base width and has sides slope of 1V to 2H, and (c) Determine the slope of the channel in
situation (b).

Solution:
(a)

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60°
60° y y d
y
60° 60°

Q = AV
34 m3/s = A(1.5 m/s)
A = 22.67 m2

A = 3AT
22.67 m2 = 3(½•y2•sin 60°)
y = 4.18 m
thus,
sin 60 =

sin 60 =

d = 3.62 m

(b)

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x = b + 2a
a a

d
1 1
2 2

d=
b = 2d
By ratio and proportion:
=
a = 2d

From solution in problem (a):

A = 22.67 m2

A= (b + x)

22.67 m2 = (b + b + 2a) = (2b + 2a)

22.67 m2 = (2•2d + 2•2d)

22.67 m2 = 4d2
d = 2.38 m
sin 60 =

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(c)

x = b + 2a
a = 4.76 a = 2d = 4.76

y d
y
1 1
2 2

b = 2d = 4.76

S=?
Given:
V = 1.5 m/s
n = 0.02
d = 2.38 m (from situation b)
A = 22.67 m2 (from situation a & b)

Solving for R:
R=
P = b + 2y; y= =
y = 5.32 m
thus,
P = b + 2y
= 4.76 + 2(5.32)
P = 15.4 m
thus,
R= =
R = 1.47 m

V=

1.5 m/s =

S = 0.000538

Example 1

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Example 2: Water is flowing at a depth of 1.5 m in a 3-m-wide rectangular channel having n =

0.013 and S = 0.0009. (a) What is the stage of flow (b) Determine the critical depth, and (c)
determine the critical slope.

d = 1.5

b=3m
Solution:
(a) V=
Given:
n = 0.013
S = 0.0009

Solving for R: A = bd = 3(1.5) = 4.5 m2

P = b + 2d = 3 + 2(1.5) = 6 m
thus,
R= =
R = 0.75 m

V= =
V = 1.905 m/s

F= =

F = 0.497 < 1.0 (subcritical)

(b)
dc = q = Vd = 1.905(1.5) = 2.86 m3/s per m

dc =

dc = 0.94 m

(c)
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Vc =
Solving for Vc:
q = Vcdc
2.86 = Vc(0.94)
Vc = 3.04 m/s
Solving for Rc:
Ac = bdc = 3(0.94) = 2.82 m2
Pc = b + 2dc = 3 + 2(0.94) = 4.88 m
thus,
Rc = =
Rc = 0.58 m
thus,
Vc =

3.04 m/s =

Sc = 0.00323

Exercises:
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Problem 1: A trapezoidal canal with a bottom width of 1.5 m and with a side slopes of 2
horizontal to 1 vertical has a velocity of 1.2 m/s. If the depth of flow is 2.4 m and n = 0.014,
compute the discharge and the slope of the canal
Ans. 18.14 m3/s, 0.000213
Problem 2: A flow rate of 2.10 m3/s is to be carried in an open channel at a velocity of 1.30
m/s. Determine the required slope if the cross-section is rectangular with depth equal to one
half the width. Use n = 0.020
Ans. 0.0097
Problem 3: Compute the discharge capacity of the most efficient trapezoidal canal with a
depth of 2.5 m and a velocity of 0.90 m/s.
Ans. 9.74 m3/s
Problem 4: The bottom width of a trapezoidal canal is 2.5 m and its sides are both inclined at
50° with the horizontal. Water flows at a depth of 3m. Using s = 0.0008 and n = 0.03,
determine the discharge using; (a) manning’s formula and (b) chezy’s formula
Ans. (a) 18.24 m3/s, (b) 18.48 m3/s
Problem 5: A rectangular channel has a depth of 2 m and a base width of 2.4 m. Roughness
coefficient is 0.014. Compute the slope of the channel if the discharge is 4.6 m 3/s.
Ans. 0.000264
Problem 6: A trapezoidal channel with a side slope of 1 : 1 is to carry a discharge of 45 m 3/s
and a mean velocity of 0.60 m/s. If n = 0.015 and base width is 5.30 m, determine the depth of
the channel.
Ans. 6.41 m
Problem 7: A rectangular channel has a bottom width of 3 m. The channel is to carry a
discharge of 6.5 m3/s and a roughness coefficient of 0.012. What is the velocity of the channel
for optimum section?
Ans. 1.44 m/s
Problem 8: The discharge flowing in a trapezoidal canal is equal to 30 m3/s and a velocity of
1.2 m/s. What would be the width of the canal for the most efficient section?
Ans. 4.39 m
Problem 9: The discharge of 1.2 m3/s flows on an open channel with a slope of 0.0062. If the
roughness coefficient is 0.012, compute the depth of the channel for an optimum discharge of
(a) semi-circular section, (b) rectangular section, and (c) triangular section.
Ans. (a) 0.53, (b) 0.485, (c) 0.686 m

Problem 10: The diameter of the sewer pipe is 500 mm, coefficient of roughness is 0.012 and
slope of the energy gradient is 0.002. Determine the (a) depth of flow, (b) maximum discharge.
Ans. (a) 469 mm, (b) 197 li/sec
Problem 11: The diameter of the sewer pipe is 800 mm, coefficient of roughness is 0.012 and
slope of the energy gradient is 0.001. Determine the (a) depth of flow, (b) maximum velocity.
Ans. (a) 656 mm, (b) 197 li/sec

Example: A triangular channel (n = 0.012) shown is to carry water at a flow rate of 10 m 3/s.
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Find the critical depth

B = 2a
a a

dc
1 1
3 3

(a)

By ratio and proportion:

=
a = 3dc
thus,
B = 2a = 2(3dc) = 6dc
A = ½(6dc)dc = 3
thus,

10.194 =

2.265 =
dc = 1.18 m

Exercises:

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Problem 1: Determine the critical slope for a rectangular smooth flume (n = 0.013), 4.5 m wide
which carry 4.5 m3/s per meter width of channel.

Problem 2: Find the flow in 15-m-wide rectangular channel for which the critical depth is 3 m.

Problem 3: A rectangular channel carries 60 m3/s. For width of 4 m and n = 0.020, compute
the (a) critical depth, (b) critical velocity, and (c) critical slope.
Ans. (a) 2.84 m, (b) 5.28 m/s, (c) 0.009

Problem 4: For the right triangular cross-section shown, n = 0.012, rate of flow of 4 m 3/s.

dc
90°

Ans. (a) 1.267 m, (b) 2.49 m/s, (c) 0.0026

Problem 5: Water flows at the rate of 25 m3/s in a trapezoidal channel having a base width of
3 and side slope of 4H:3V. If the canal is lined with concrete (n=0.013), determine the (a)
critical depth, (b) critical velocity, and (c) the critical slope.
Ans. (a) 1.52 m, (b) 3.26 m3/s, (c) 0.00193

Problem 6: A rectangular channel 9 m wide carries 7.65 m3/s when flowing 0.90 m deep.
 compute the specific energy
 compute the critical depth
 compute the critical velocity
Ans.  0.945 m,  0.42 m

Problem 7: The radius of a semi-circular channel is 0.60 m and carries water at depth of 0.60
m. If n = 0.014, compute the (a) critical velocity, (b) critical slope, and (c) critical discharge.

Non-Uniform Flow

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Usually occurs in natural stream because of changes in depth, width and depth of flow.

Hydraulic jump

d2
d1

 

General equation

A2 – A1 =

where:
= dist. from centroid to the top surface of sec. 1
= dist. from centroid to the top surface of sec. 2
For Rectangular section

Head lost in the jump: Is an abrupt rise in water surface which results from retarding water
flowing at the lower stage.

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Example: A hydraulic jump occurs in a triangular flume having sides slope 1:1. If the depth
before the jump is 0.40 m and the depth after the jump is 0.70 m. Determine the discharge.

0.70 m
0.30 m

0.60 1.40
0.30 0.30 0.70 0.70

h1 h2
 
0.30 0.70
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1




A2 – A1 =

A1 = ½(0.60)(0.30) = 0.09 m2
A2 = ½(0.70)(1.40) = 0.49 m2
= 0.30/3 = 0.10 m
= 0.70/3 = 0.23 m

(0.49)(0.23) – (0.09)(0.10) =

Q = 0.335 m3/s

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PROBLEM SET 12

Problem 1

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Water is moving with a velocity of 0.3 m/s and a depth of 0.9 m in a rectangular channel. It
approaches a smooth rise in the channel bed of 0.3 m. What should the estimated depth be
after the rise?

Problem 2 (CE Nov 1998)

A hydraulic jump occurs in a trapezoidal channel with side slope of 1:1 and base width of 4m. If
the upstream depth is 1.0 m and the downstream depth is 2.0 m, compute the (a) discharge
and the (b) head lost is the jump.
Ans. (a) 26.47 m3/s, (b) 0.18 m

Problem 3
A stream having a width of 4 m carries a flow rate of 14.88 m3/s with a velocity of 5.18 m/s at
an initial point. (a) Compute the deep after a hydraulic jump occurs, and (b) the Froude number
after the hydraulic jump.
Ans. (a) 1.65 m, (b) 0.558
Problem 4
A hydraulic jump occurs in a rectangular channel having a discharge of 3.72 m3/s of water per
meter width. The approach depth is 0.718 m. Calculate the depth after the jump.

Problem 5
Water in an open channel is seen to go through a hydraulic jump where the depth jumps from
3 m to 7 m. The width of the channel is 10 m. What is the rate of discharge?
Ans. 320.9 m3/s

DAMS

 are built for the purpose of impounding water. Since the water level is raised on the upstream
side, the dam is subjected to hydrostatic forces. These forces cause the dam to slide
horizontally on its foundation and overturn it about its downstream edge or toe. These
tendencies are resisted by friction on the base of the dam and gravitational forces which
causes a moment opposite to the overturning moment. The dam also be prevented from
sliding by keying its base.

Purpose of dams
1. Water supply
2. Irrigation
3. Power supply

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W1
x1
W2

x2

W3
h x3
W4
P

x4
Heel Toe

Rx

Uplift pressure diagram

U2
x
Ry
U1

 FORCES ACTING ON DAMS (Consider 1 m strip)

 Weight of the water
W1 = wV1
 Weight of the dam
W2 = cV2
W3 = cV3
W4= cV4
 Hydrostaic Uplift
U1 = wVu1
U2= wVu2

 Horizontal force

P = lig A
 REACTIONS:
 Vertical Reaction
Ry = Fy

 R y = W 1 + W 2 + W 3 + W 4 – U1 – U2 Horizontal Reaction
Rx = Fx
Rx = P

 MOMENT ABOUT THE TOE:

 Righting Moment, RM (rotation towards the upstream side)
RM = W1x1 + W2x2 + W3x3 + W4x4
 Overturning Moment, OM(rotation towards the downstream side)

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OM = Py + U1z1 + U2z2
 LOCATION OF Ry ( )

Ry ( ) = RM – OM
where:
w = unit weight of water = 9.81 kN/m3
c = unit weight of concrete = 23.5 kN/m3

 FACTOR OF SAFETY
 Against Sliding, FSs:

FSs =

 Against Overturning, FSo:

FSo =

 FOUNDATION PRESSURE

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Heel Toe

fh
ft

e
x
Ry

cg 1m

B/2 B/2

From combined axial and bending stress formula:

f=
where:
P = Ry
A = B(1) = B
M = Ry(e)
I=

fh =

If :
e=
Use:
(+) for ft
(–) for fh

e=
If :
Use:
(–) for ft
(+) for fh

Example :
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A concrete dam retaining water is shown . If the specific weight of concrete is 23.5 kN/m 3, find
the factor of safety against sliding. Assume there is a hydrostatic uplift from full hydrostatic
head at the heel of the dam to zero at the toe and that the coefficient of friction between dam
and foundation is 0.45.

4m

3m

12 m

3m

3m

15 m

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PROBLEM SET 9

Problem 1
A concrete dam retaining water is shown. Find the (a) factor of safety against sliding,
(b) factor of safety against overturning and (c) min. and max. pressure intensity at the
foundation. Assume there is no hydrostatic uplift and that the coefficient of friction between the
dam and the foundation soil is 0.48.

2m

1m

6m

5m

Ans. (a) 1.47, (b) 4.92, (c) 115.88 kPa, 100.32 kPa

Problem 2
A masonry dam of trapezoidal cross-section, with one face vertical, has a thickness of 2 ft at
the top and 10 ft at the bottom. It is 22 ft high and has horizontal base. The vertical face is
subjected to water pressure, the water standing 15 ft above the base. Where will the resultant
pressure intersect the base, and what will be the intensity of pressure at the heel and at the toe
assuming: (a) that there is no hydrostatic uplift; (b) that there is hydrostatic uplift which varies
uniformly from that due to a full head at the heel to zero at the toe.
Ans. (a) 4.78 from toe, (b) 4.20 ft from toe
Problem 3 (CE May 2000)
A trapezoidal dam 4 m on top, 18 m at the bottom and 25 m high has water 20 m deep acting
on its vertical sides. What is the stress at the heel?

Ans. 446.39 kPa

Problem 4
A masonry dam of trapezoidal cross-section, with one face vertical, has a thickness of 2 ft at
the top and 10 ft at the bottom. It is 22 ft high and has horizontal base. The inclined face is
subjected to water pressure, the water standing to a depth of 15 ft above the base. If there is
no hydrostatic uplift, where will the resultant intersect the base.

Ans. 2.41 ft from toe

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Problem 5
In the figure shown, find the width b of the concrete dam necessary to prevent the dam from
sliding. The specific gravity of concrete is 2.4 and the coefficient of friction between the base of
the dam and the foundation is 0.43. Use 1.65 as the factor of safety against sliding.
b

8m
6m

5m

Ans. 3.60 m
Problem 6
The section of a masonry dam is shown in the fig. If the uplift pressure varies uniformly from
full hydrostatic at the heel to full hydrostatic at the toe. Find the (a) factor of safety against
overturning, (b) factor of safety against sliding if the coefficient of friction between the base and
foundation is 0.60?

5m

8m

10 m

5m

15 m

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