UNIT 2

Transmission Media and Switching

➢ Criteria for selection of Transmission Media.

Different Medias have different properties like bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and
maintenance. The data transmission capabilities of various Media vary depending upon the various
factors. These factors are:
1. Type of Media (Wired or Wireless).
2. Flexibility In order to expand network.
3. Bandwidth. It refers to the data carrying capacity of a channel or medium. Higher bandwidth
communication channels support higher data rates.
4. Reliability The consistency of transmission media (effect of weather conditions).
5. Radiation It refers to the leakage of signal from the medium due to undesirable electrical
characteristics of the medium.
6. Noise Absorption It refers to the susceptibility of the media to external electrical noise that can
cause distortion of data signal.
7. Attenuation. It refers to loss of energy as signal propagates outwards. The amount of energy lost
depends on frequency.
8. Number of receivers. The number of users to be connected.
9. Transmission Rate.
10. Cost and Ease of Installation.
11. Distances, etc

Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.

Define guided and unguided communication media. 2M

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)
 Guided communication media: Guided transmission media are known as the wired communication.
The electromagnetic signals travel between the communicating devices through a physical
medium/conductor.

Unguided communication media: The unguided media is also called wireless communication.
It does not require any physical medium to transmit electromagnetic signals.
In unguided media, the electromagnetic signals are broadcasted through air to everyone.

➢ Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media

(a) Twisted pair cable

(i) Shielded twisted pair
(ii) Unshielded twisted pair
(b) Co-axial cable
(c) Fiber Optic Cable

➢ Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media

(a) Radio wave

(b) Microwave
(c) infrared
(d) satellite

1. Twisted Pair cable

The least expensive and most widely used guided transmission medium.

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 It is lightweight, cheap, can be installed easily, and they support many different types of network.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
Typically, a number of these pairs are bundled together into a cable by wrapping them in a tough
protective sheath.
Over longer distances, cables may contain hundreds of pairs.
Twisted pair (TP) maybe used to transmit both analog and digital signal.
For analog signals amplifiers are required about every 5 to 6 kms.
For digital signals repeaters are required every 2 to 3 kms.

Why twist a cable?

The twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk (EMI) interference between adjacent pairs in a cable.
Neighboring pairs in a bundle typically have somewhat different twist lengths to reduce the crosstalk
interference.

There are two types of twisted pair:-

A. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
B. Shielded twisted pair (STP).

A. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):-

• Usually consists of two copper wires wrapped in individual plastic insulation.
• UTP cables are the most common telecommunications medium.
• The frequency range of the twisted pair cables enable both voice and data transmission.
• UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ11 connector and 4
pair cable use RJ-45 connector

Advantages:
• Installation is easy
• Flexible

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 • Cheap
• It has high speed capacity,
• 100-meter limit
• Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.
Disadvantages:
• Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable
• Provides less protection from interference (EMI).

2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

The only difference between STP and UTP is that STP cables have a shielding in usually of aluminum
or polyester material between the outer jacket and wire.
• The shield makes STP less vulnerable to EMI, because the shield is electrically grounded.
• The metal mesh around the insulated wires eliminates crosstalk.
• Crosstalk occurs when one line picks up some of the other signals traveling down another line.

2. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by an insulating layer,
surrounded by a conductive shielding.
Two conductors share the same axis.
Electrical signal flows through the center conductor.

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 This construction ensures signals are enclosed within the cable and prevents electrical noise from
interfering with the signal.
The wire mesh protects the wire from EMI. It is often called the shield.
A tough plastic jacket forms the cover of the cable, providing protection and insulation.
Co-axial cable is much less vulnerable to interference and cross talk than the twisted pair.
Co-axial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signal.

Application –
Co-axial cable is widely used in the wide variety of applications.
1. TV distribution: -
Co-axial cable is spreading rapidly as a means of distributing TV signals to individual homes –cables TV.

2. Long distance telephone transmission:-

Co-axial cable has traditionally been as important part of the long distance telephone n/w using FDM
(frequency division multiplication) a co-axial cable can carry over 10,000 voice channels
simultaneously.

3. Short distance communication links: -

Co-axial cable is also commonly used for short range connection between devices.
E.g. can be used to provide high speed I/O channels for an PC system.

4. LAN: -
Co-axial cable can be support a large number of devices with a variety of data and traffic types over
distance that covers single building or a complex of building.

State any two advantages of coaxial cable. 2M

1. Transmits digital signals at a very high speed of 10 Mbps
2. Greater channel capacity.
3. Greater bandwidth
4. Lower error rates.
5. Data Transmission without distortion.
6. It has great flexibility, so it is easy to install and scaled as per need.

3. Fiber Optic cable

Q] Explain the construction of fiber optic cable with suitable diagram. 4 M

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
An optical fiber has an cylindrical shape and consists of 3 concentric section –
Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)
 (i) Core
(ii) Cladding
(iii) Jacket

1. Core:- It’s the inner most section made of plastic or glass through which the light propagates
The core diameter is in the range of 8 to 50 µm.
2. Cladding: - The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index of refraction than the
core, to keep all the light in the core. The cladding acts as a reflector to light that would otherwise
escape the core. Its diameter is 125 µm.
3. Jacket: - The outer most layers surrounding cladding is the jacket.
Jacket is composed of plastic or other material layer to protect against moisture, cut, crushing
and other environmental dangers.

Optical Fiber Communication

• A transmitter (Light Source) at senders end sends a Light across the fiber.
• A receiver at the other end makes use of Light Sensitive transistor to detect the absence or
presence of light to indicate 0 or 1.
• The transmission medium is an ultra-thin fiber of glass.

• Light enters the cylindrical glass or plastic core at small angles are reflected and propagates along
the fiber.
• The detector generates an electrical pulse when light falls on it.

Applications
• Telephones
• Internet
• LANs - local area networks
Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)
 • Security - closed-circuit TV and intrusion sensors
• Military

Q] Describe advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber cable.

Advantages:-
Higher bandwidth : Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence data
rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable.
Less signal attenuation: Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of other
guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration.
Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic cables.
Resistance to corrosive materials: Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than copper.
Light weight: Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
Greater immunity to tapping: Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than copper cables.
Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.
Lesser number of repeaters
Electrical isolation: - Optical fibres are fabricated from glass or plastic polymers which are electrical
insulators. Hence they do not exhibit earth loop.
Signal security: - The light from Optical fibre does not radiate significantly & therefore they provide
a high degree of signal security.

Disadvantages:-
Installation: Not easy to install.
Maintenance: Its maintenance require expertise.
Unidirectional light propagation: Propagation of light is unidirectional. Two fibers are needed for
bidirectional communication.
Cost: The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided media. If the
demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be justified.

Q] Differentiate between twisted pair coaxial cable and fiber optic cable (any 4 points). [6 M]

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)
 Unguided Media
Unguided media transmit electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
This is also called as wireless communication.
Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device
capable of receiving them.

The types of wireless media are as follows:

• Radio wave communication
• Microwave communication
• Infrared communication
• Satellite Communication

1. Radio Wave Transmission

• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequency between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio
waves.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna sends radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions. This defines that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
• A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
• Radio waves are those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances.
• Radio waves, particularly of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls.
• It is an advantage because, an AM radio can receive signals inside a building.

OmniDirectional Antenna
Applications
• The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in which
there is one sender but many receivers.
• AM and FM radio,
• Television,
• Cordless phones and paging.

2. Microwave Transmission

• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1GHz and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
• Microwave systems use very high-frequency radio or television signals to transmit data through
space.
• Microwaves are unidirectional.
• When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused.
• This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
• Since it is unidirectional, it allows multiple receivers in a row to receive the signals without
interference.

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 • Microwaves use line-of-sight transmission.
This means that microwaves must be transmitted in straight line and no obstructions, such as
buildings or mountains, between microwave stations.
To avoid possible obstructions, microwave antennas often are positioned on the tops of buildings,
towers, or mountains.

3. Infrared
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm),
• Used for short-range communication.
• Infrared communication is achieved using transmitters/receivers (Transceivers) that modulate
non-coherent infrared light.
• Transceiver must be in line of sight of each other either directly or via reflection from light colored
surface such as the sealing of the room.
• One important difference between infrared and microwave transmission is that they don’t penetrate
walls.
• The remote controls used for televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use infrared communication.
• They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build.

Applications
o TV Remote control
o Guidance in weapon system
o Wireless keyboards and mouse.

4. Satellite communication
Explain Satellite communication with diagram.

Satellites are the bodies that revolve around the earth just in same way moon revolves around the
earth. Satellite communication is similar to terrestrial microwave communication except that
satellite acts as one of the station. Satellite performs the functions of an antenna and the repeater
together. Ground station A sends information to ground station B via the satellite.

Two frequency bands are used for signals from earth to satellite (uplink) and from satellite to earth
(downlink). Satellite takes uplink signal coming from sender, processes it and converts to downlink
frequency and transmit it towards earth. The coverage area over which the signal of satellite is
available is called as footprint of satellite.

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 Q] "In satellite communication different frequency bands are used for uplink and downlink".
Explain.

Uplink frequency is used for transmission of signals from earth station transmitter to satellite.
Downlink frequency is used for transmission of signals from satellite to earth station receiver.
Both the frequencies are different because:
1. The satellite transmitter generates a signal that would jam its own receiver if both uplink and
downlink shared same frequency.
2. Trying to receive and transmit an amplified version of the same uplink waveform at same satellite
will cause unwanted feedback or ring around from downlink antenna back to the receiver.
3. Frequency band separation allows the same antenna to be used for both receiving and transmitting
simplifying satellite hardware.

Applications of Satellite Communication

• Radio broadcasting and voice communications
• TV broadcasting such as Direct To Home (DTH)
• Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data transfer, GPS applications,
Internet surfing, etc.
• Military applications and navigations
• Remote sensing applications
• Weather condition monitoring & Forecasting
Advantages
• Area of coverage is more than that of terrestrial systems
• Each and every corner of the earth can be covered
• Transmission cost is independent of coverage area
• More bandwidth and broadcasting possibilites
Disadvantages
• Launching of satellites into orbits is a costly process.
• Propagation delay of satellite systems is more than that of conventional terrestrial systems.
• Difficult to provide repairing activities if any problem occurs in a satellite system.
• Free space loss is more
• There can be congestion of frequencies.

State the two advantages and disadvantages of unguided media 4M

Advantages:
1 .Use for long distance communication.
2. High speed data transmission.
3. Many receiver stations can receive signals from same sender station

Disadvantages :
1.Radio waves travel through Lowest portion of atmosphere which can have lot of noise and
interfering signals
2. Radio wave communication through unguided media is an insecure communication.
3.Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rain, thunder and storm etc.

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 Switching
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the
destination.
A network switch forwards data packets between devices.
It creates temporary connections between two or more devices.

Q] Describe the principles of packet switching and circuit switching techniques with neat
diagram.
Circuit Switching:
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is called
circuit switching.
There is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels and no other data is permitted.
In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be established so that the data transfer can take
place.
Circuits can be permanent or temporary.
Applications which use circuit switching may have to go through three phases:

➢ Phases of Circuit Switch Connection:

Circuit Establishment: In this phase, a dedicated circuit is established from the source to the
destination through a number of intermediate switching centers.
The sender and receiver transmits communication signals to request and acknowledge establishment of
circuits.
Data Transfer: Once the circuit has been established, data and voice are transferred from the source
to the destination. The dedicated connection remains as long as the end parties communicate.
Circuit Disconnection: When data transfer is complete, the connection is relinquished. The
disconnection is initiated by any one of the user. Disconnection involves removal of all intermediate
links from the sender to the receiver.
Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example of circuit
switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between callers and called is established over
the network.

The diagram represents circuit established between two telephones connected by circuit switched
connection. The blue boxes represent the switching offices and their connection with other switching
offices. The black lines connecting the switching offices represent the permanent link between the
offices.

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 ➢ Packet Switching:
Packet Switching is a method of transferring data to a network in the form of packets.
The entire message is broken down into smaller chunks called packets.
The switching information such as source address, destination address and sequence number is
added in the header of each packet and transmitted independently.
Packet Switching uses the Store and Forward technique while switching the packets.
That means while forwarding the packet each hop first stores that packet then forwards.
It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size packets and they do not take
much resource either on carrier path or in the internal memory of switches.

Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple applications can be multiplexed
over the carrier. The internet uses packet switching technique. Packet switching enables the user to
differentiate data streams based on priorities. Packets are stored and forwarded according to their
priority to provide quality of service.

Why is circuit switching preferred over packet switching in voice communication?

Circuit switching is preferred over packet switching in voice communication because:
• In circuit switching, a dedicated path is established between sender and receiver which is
maintained for entire duration of conversation.
• It provides continuous and guaranteed delivery of data.
• During the data transfer phase, no addressing is needed.
• Delays are small.
• It uses connection oriented service.
• Message received in order to the destination

State the need of switching.

Switching is needed to establish connections between all the nodes on a network without the need for
single connections between each pair of nodes. Therefore, we require switching technology that
provides a mechanism to establish connectivity as and when required. Once a connection has been made,
information can be sent and received

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 ➢ Multiplexing
Q] Describe Multiplexing techniques 4M
Ans
Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of transmission can be
simultaneously processed over a shared link.
Multiplexing divides the high capacity medium into low capacity logical medium which is then
shared by different streams.
Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media (cable), and light
(optical fiber).
All mediums are capable of multiplexing.
When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called Multiplexer divides the
physical channel and allocates one to each.
On the other end of communication, a De-multiplexer receives data from a single medium, identifies
each, and sends to different receivers.

Different multiplexing techniques are

1. Frequency Division multiplexing
2. Time division multiplexing

Frequency Division Multiplexing:

When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used.
FDM is an analog technology.
FDM divides the spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to each
channel.
Each user can use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it.
All channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each other.
Channels are separated by guard bands. Guard band is a frequency which is not used by either
channel.

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 Time Division Multiplexing:

TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as well.
In TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot.
Each user can transmit data within the provided time slot only.
Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent to time slot i.e. frame of an optimal size which can
be transmitted in given time slot.
TDM works in synchronized mode.
Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and Demultiplexer are timely synchronized and both switch to next
channel simultaneously.

When channel A transmits its frame at one end, the De-multiplexer provides media to channel A on the
other end. As soon as the channel A’s time slot expires, this side switches to channel B. On the other end,
the De-multiplexer works in a synchronized manner and provides media to channel B. Signals from
different channels travel the path in interleaved manner

Q] What advantages does TDM have over FDM in a circuit switched network? 4 M
Ans In TDM, each signal uses all of the bandwidth some of the time, while for FDM, each signal uses a
small portion of the bandwidth all of the time.
TDM uses the entire frequency range but dynamically allocates time, certain jobs might require less or
more time, which TDM can offer but FDM is unable to as it cannot change the width of the allocated
frequency.
TDM provides much better flexibility compared to FDM.
TDM offers efficient utilization of bandwidth
Low interference of signal and minimizes cross talk

Need of multiplexing
• In a communication systems there are large numbers of users involved
• It is not possible to lay a separate pair of wires between each source and destination this is very
expensive and practically impossible.
• Instead we can use a communication medium such as coaxial cable or optical fiber cable to carry
many telephone signals from different sources together
• Multiplexing is a technique that allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals over
common transmission path
• Multiplexing is used to send multiple signals simultaneously , reduce the cost of Transmission and
to make effective use of available bandwidth

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 Sr. Key TDM FDM

TDM stands for Time Division FDM stands for Frequency Division
Definition Multiplexing. TDM divides and Multiplexing.
1 allocates certain time periods to FDM divides the channel into two or more
each channel in an alternating frequency ranges that do not overlap
manner

Signal TDM works well with both analog as FDM works only with analog signal.
2
well as digital signals.

3 Interference TDM has low Inteference. FDM has high Interference.

4 Wiring Wiring or Chip of TDM is simpler. Wiring or Chip of FDM is complex.

5 Efficiency TDM is efficient. FDM is quiet inefficient.

6 Sharing Time is shared in TDM. Frequency is shared in FDM.

Required Syncronization pulse is mandatory in Guard Band is mandatory in FDM.

7
Input TDM.

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 Multiplexing Hierarchy in FDM
In FDM hierarchy different levels of the multiplexer are shown in a combined manner. The various
levels are shown below:

• Level 1 denotes the “basic group” in which 12 voice channels are multiplexed together.
• Level 2 is the “supergroup” in which 5 basic groups are multiplexed together and as each basic
group has 12 voice channels so in level 2 we have 60 voice channels.
• Level 3 is the “master group” in which 10 supergroups are mixed together and have up to 600
voice channels.
• Level 4 denotes the “jumbo group” which has 6 multiplexed master groups and up to 3600 voice
channels.

Types of Connections ( Transmission )

1. Point-to-point:-
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the
link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

2. Broadcast networks
Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared or used by all the machines
on the network. Short messages called packets sent by any machine are received by all the others.
Broadcast systems generally use a special code in the address field for addressing a packet to all the
concerned computers.
This mode of operation is called broadcasting.

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)

 Line of sight communication
• Line of sight (LoS) is a type of communication that can transmit and receive data only where
transmit and receive stations are in view of each other without any sort of an obstacle between
them.
• Transmitting and receiving media should be in line of sight.
• In line of sight communication, very high frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines
directly from antenna to antenna.
• Antenna must be directional, facing each other, and either tall enough or close enough together
not to be effected by the curvature of earth.
• Above 30 MHz, neither ground wave nor sky wave propagation modes operate, and
communication must be by line of sight

The figure depicts this mode of propagation very clearly.

The line-of-sight propagation will not be smooth if there occurs any obstacle in its transmission path.
As the signal can travel only to lesser distances in this mode, this transmission is used for infrared or
microwave transmissions.

Data Communication and Comp. Networks) Arrow Computer Academy (8788335443)