Introduction to Contrastive Analysis

EIC 556
“There are no boring
subjects, just
disinterested minds”.

G.K. Chesterton
1. What is
CA?
Contrastive Analysis is...

… the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to

identifying their structural differences and similarities.
Chan Mali Chan (Folk Song)
(MALAY) (ENGLISH)
Di mana dia anak kambing saya? Where is he, my little goat
Anak kambing saya yang makan daun talas My little goat is eating taro leaf
Di mana dia buah hati saya? Where is he, my loved one,
Buah hati saya bagai telur dikupas My loved one is like a shelled egg

Chan mali chan, chan mali chan, Chan mali chan, chan mali chan,
Chan mali chan, ketipung payung Chan mali chan, ketipung payung
2. Why is it
relevant?
Contrastive Analysis on Different Levels
Contrastive Analysis (CA) can be conducted at various linguistic levels to compare
two or more languages. These levels help identify similarities and differences,
which can predict difficulties in second-language learning and translation.

● Phonological Level (Sound System)

● Lexical Level (Vocabulary and Meaning)
● Morphological Level (Word Formation)
● Syntactic Level (Sentence Structure)
● Semantic Level (Meaning of Words and Phrases)
● Pragmatic Level (Language Use in Context)
Example: Phonology – English and Arabic
●English has the sounds /b/ and /p/, while in Arabic
there is only the sound /b/ the Arabic script of which
is /‫ب‬/.
○Problem
○Paper

●Lughat al-daad letter /‫ض‬/, a sound unique to the

Arabic language, since in English we only have /d/.
Example: Pragmatics – English and Malay

● English speakers may use direct speech: Close the

door.

● Malay speakers often use indirect speech to be

polite: Boleh tutup pintu? (Can you close the door?).

● Malay has honorifics like Encik/Puan (Mr./Mrs.), while

English mainly uses Mr./Ms./Dr.
So, when performing CA…
● We contrast two languages.
● We analyse each language from all levels and aspects.
● We study the words of the language, the grammar, the
semantics, the pragmatics and so on.

● In this course, we are going to compare (discuss similarities)

and contrast (discuss differences) between the English
language and Bahasa Melayu.
But why?
● The goal is to find the types of differences and similarities between
the two languages.

● When we search for the differences and similarities, we can

○ search for the points where the language learners would make
mistakes.
○ compile words to be included in the dictionary
○ translate texts
○ communicate across cultures
3. Contrastive
Analysis
Hypothesis
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
• The theoretical foundations for what became known as the Contrastive
Analysis Hypothesis were formulated in Lado's Linguistics across Cultures
(1957). In this book, Lado claimed that

"those elements which are similar to [the learner's] native language will
be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult".

● The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) proposes that the differences

between a learner's first language (L1) and the target language (L2)
influence the ease or difficulty of language learning. Specifically, it
suggests that:
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
1. L1 Interference: Learners transfer patterns from their native language
when acquiring an L2.

 If the L1 and L2 share similar structures, learning will be easier (positive

transfer).
 If the structures differ significantly, learning will be harder, leading to errors
(negative transfer or interference).

2. Error Prediction: By comparing L1 and L2, linguists and educators can predict
where learners will struggle based on structural differences.
Strong vs. Weak Version of CAH

Strong Version:
• The strong version states that all errors in second language learning can be predicted based on differences
between the learner’s L1 and L2.
• It assumes that L1 interference is the main cause of difficulties in L2 learning.

Example: Since Malay does not have the /θ/ sound (as in think) or the /ð/ sound (as in this), Malay speakers learning
English will struggle with these sounds and likely substitute them with /t/ or /d/.
Expected Errors:
think → pronounced as "tink“ and this → pronounced as "dis"

Criticism:
• Research showed that not all learner errors are due to L1 interference. Some errors arise from overgeneralization
of L2 rules (e.g., saying “goed” instead of “went” in English).
• Some L1-L2 differences do not cause major difficulties. Learners may acquire some different structures more
easily than expected.
Strong vs. Weak Version of CAH

Weak Version:
• The weak version does not claim that all errors are predictable from L1-L2 differences.
Instead, it explains errors that have already been observed.

Example: If a French speaker learning English often says "He has 20 years" instead of "He is 20 years old", a
weak version approach would analyze this after observing the error, noting that the mistake comes from a
direct translation of the French phrase "Il a 20 ans".

• It acknowledges that L1 influence is just one of many factors in second language learning,
alongside cognitive development, exposure, learning strategies, and linguistic universals.

Strengths:
• More realistic than the strong version because it allows for multiple sources of errors, not just
L1 transfer.
• Acknowledges that some errors might be universal in language learning rather than just L1-
based.
Strong vs. Weak Version of CAH

Conclusion

● The strong version of CAH has been largely discredited because second
language errors are not solely caused by L1 interference.

● The weak version is more widely accepted because it acknowledges L1

influence but also considers other factors in second language acquisition.

● Modern theories, such as Interlanguage Theory (Selinker, 1972), provide a

more balanced approach by viewing L2 learning as a dynamic process
where learners develop their own evolving system.
Model of Prediction (Practor, 1967)

Level 4: Over differentiation

Level 3: Reinterpretation

Level 2: Under differentiation

Level 1: Coalescence

Level 0: Transfer
Hierarchy of
Difficulty
Practor’s (1967) Model of Prediction in CA
• Practor (1967) proposed a model for predicting language learning
difficulties based on Contrastive Analysis (CA).

• His model focused on how linguistic differences between a learner’s

first language (L1) and second language (L2) could lead to learning
challenges.

• Practor’s model aimed to be more systematic and practical in

identifying potential language learning difficulties.
Level 0: Transfer
1. No difference or contrast is present between the two languages.
(Similar sounds, lexical items or similar structures in two languages
are seen ( positive transfer)
2. The learner can simply transfer (positively) a sound, a structure or
lexical item form the native language to the target language.
3. Concepts of negation and interrogation in two languages are the
same.
4. Word order in two languages has the same pattern.
5. Such transfer makes no difficulty; hence the label of "level zero" is
given to it.
Level 1: Coalescence
• Coalescence occurs when two or more linguistic elements in the first language (L1)
merge into a single element in the second language (L2).

• Since this is Level 1 difficulty, it may cause minor challenges, but learners can adjust with
some exposure and practice.

Example: Malay vs. English – Pronouns "Kita" and "Kami" vs. "We"

• In Malay, there are two words for "we":

• Kami → Exclusive "we" (excluding the listener).
• Kita → Inclusive "we" (including the listener)

• In English, both meanings merge into one word: We (no distinction between inclusive
and exclusive).
Level 2: Under Differentiation
● Under differentiation occurs when a linguistic feature exists in the
learner’s first language (L1) but does not exist in the second language
(L2).

●This means learners must stop using a feature that is natural in their L1
because the target language does not have an equivalent form.

Example:
Malay: Saya datang ke sini untuk belajar.

English 1 came here to study.

:
Level 3: Reinterpretation
● Reinterpretation occurs when a linguistic feature exists in both the first
language (L1) and second language (L2), but it is used differently in
each language.

● The learner on the basis of native language structures, makes an

inference that is very different from that made by a native speaker of
the target language.

● Since this is Level 3 difficulty, it requires a significant adjustment, as

learners need to modify their interpretation of a familiar structure to
match the target language’s usage.
Level 3: Reinterpretation
Example: Malay vs. English – The Verb "Have" vs. "Ada“

● In Malay, the word ada is commonly used to indicate both possession (mempunyai) and
existence (wujud):

• Saya ada kereta. → ("I have a car.")

• Ada orang di dalam rumah. → ("There is someone in the house.")

● In English, "have" is only used for possession, while "there is/there are" is used for existence:

✅ "I have a car." (Correct)

❌ "I have someone in the house." (Incorrect, should be "There is someone in
the house.")
Level 4: Over differentiation
● Over differentiation happens when a linguistic feature exists in the second language (L2) but has
no equivalent in the first language (L1).

● This means that learners must learn a completely new concept or grammatical structure that does
not exist in their native language.

Example: English Plural Markers vs. Malay Contextual Plurality

• In English, plural nouns require an explicit marker (-s, -es, etc.):

• ✅ "I have three cats."
• ✅ "She owns many dresses."

• In Malay, plurals are often understood through context or repeated words (reduplication):
• Saya ada tiga kucing. ("I have three cat[s]." No need for a plural marker.)
• Dia memiliki banyak baju. ("She owns many dress[es]." No need for a plural marker.)
4. L1 and L2
Acquisition
 Feature L1 learning L2 learning
Age - Baby to young child - Usually primary and secondary
school.
- It can also continue in adulthood
Ways of learning - Exposure to and picking up - Sometimes through exposure but
language often by being taught specific
- Strong motivation to language
communicate - Strong/ little/ no motivation to use
- Interaction with family and the language
friends - The need to produce language soon
- Talking about things after it has been taught
present in the child’s - Often by using the language in
surroundings controlled practice activities.
- Listening to and taking in
language for many months
before using it (silent
period)
 Feature L1 learning L2 learning
Context - The child hears the language - The learner is not exposed to the
around him/ her all the time L2 very much - often no more
- Family and friends talk to and than about 3 hours per week
interact with the child a lot - The learner receives little
- The child has a lot of individual attention from the
opportunities to experiment teacher
with the language - Teacher generally correct the
- Caretakers simplify their learners a lot
speech to the child
- Caretakers rarely correct the
form and accuracy of what
the child says in an obvious
way

Differences between first and second language learning

5. Interference
Theory
Theory of Interference in CA
● In Contrastive Analysis (CA), the theory of interference refers to the influence
of a learner’s first language (L1) on their second language (L2) in a way that
leads to errors.

● This happens when learners apply L1 rules, structures, or sounds incorrectly

in L2, causing negative transfer (also known as linguistic interference).

● Interference can occur at different levels:

 Phonological interference (pronunciation)

 Grammatical interference (sentence structure)
 Lexical interference (word choice)
 Semantic interference (meaning differences)
1. Phonological Interference (Pronunciation Errors)

🔹 Malay → English:

• Error: A Malay speaker may pronounce "three" as "tree" because

Malay does not have the /θ/ ("th") sound.
• Cause: The closest Malay equivalent is /t/, leading to incorrect
pronunciation.
2. Grammatical Interference (Sentence Structure Errors)

🔹 Malay → English:

• Incorrect: "I very like this book."

• Correct: "I really like this book."
• Cause: In Malay, intensifiers like "sangat" (very) can be placed before

verbs.
(e.g., "Saya sangat suka"), but in English, "very" cannot modify
verbs directly.
3. Lexical Interference (Word Choice Errors)

🔹 Malay → English:

• Incorrect: "I follow you to the market."

• Correct: "I go with you to the market."
• Cause: In Malay, "ikut" can mean "follow" or "go with", but in English,
"follow" has a different meaning.

🔹 English → Malay:

• Incorrect: "Saya perasan dia di sana." (Intended: "I noticed him there.")
• Correct: "Saya nampak dia di sana."
• Cause: In Malay, "perasan" means "to think highly of oneself" (boastful),
whereas "nampak" means "to notice" or "to see."
4. Semantic Interference (Meaning Differences)

🔹 Malay → English:

• Incorrect: "I am shy to ask."

• Correct: "I am embarrassed to ask."
• Cause: The Malay word "malu" can mean both "shy" and
"embarrassed", but English differentiates between the two.

🔹 English → Malay:

• Incorrect: "Saya bosan sekarang." (Intended: "I am bored now.")

• Correct: "Saya rasa bosan sekarang."
• Cause: In English, "bored" is an adjective, but in Malay, "bosan" is a
verb, so "rasa" (feel) is needed.
Generally,
● You see that the rule systems of the source and target languages are
different and sometimes the rules of languages interfere with each
other.

● Studying contrastive analysis can help you to understand and know

these interferences.

● If certain elements of a second language differed greatly from the

student’s native language, that student would likely encounter
difficulties (Lado 1957).
Self-reflection
As students of English as a second language, you unconsciously
commit certain mistakes that you do not know about, but why
don‘t you know about the mistakes you make?
Any questions?