Fundamentals of

Integrated Transformers:
from Principles to Applications

Andrea Bevilacqua
University of Padova
[email protected]

© 2020 IEEE
International Solid-State Circuits Conference
 Outline
 Introduction
 Physical principles
 Self and mutual inductance
 Integrated transformers
 Interim Q&A session
 Transformers in amplifiers
 Baluns
 Couplers and combiners
 Matching networks
 Transformers in oscillators
 Doubly-tuned resonators
 Varactor coupling
 Multiple resonance tanks

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 Conventional Use of Transformers

 Electrical energy distribution network (grid)

 Conversion of electrical energy
 Power management

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 Transformers in Integrated Circuits
20MHz power transfer

22-30GHz PA

[Wang19]

[Pellerano19]

2-3GHz DPLL 71-76GHz TRX

[Yue19]
[Liu19]
 Transformers are ubiquitous in analog, RF and mm-wave integrated circuits
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 What Can I Do with a Transformer?
 Galvanic isolation  ac coupling
 Single-ended to differential conversion (balun)
 Signal/power combining
 Phase inversion  feedback networks
 Passive voltage/current gain
 Impedance transformation (matching network)
 Higher-order resonator  useful for LC oscillators and filters
 Multi-mode oscillator
 Phase noise optimization
 Implicit frequency multiplication

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 Working Framework of this Tutorial
 Quasi-static approximation
 Lumped element devices
 We will not discuss higher frequency phenomena:
 Distributed circuits (t-lines)
 Radiative effects (antennas)
 Others topics we will not touch are:
 EM simulation techniques
 Inductor/transformer compact modeling and circuit simulation
 Design rule related issues (e.g. density rules-compliant layouts)
 Measurement and characterization techniques

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 Ampère’s Law

Orientation of contour C and

direction of current I are
related by right-hand rule

A.-M. Ampère

 Relates magnetic field (H) to its sources (currents)

 It is a powerful tool to compute H in case of

cylindrical symmetry

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 Magnetic Field in a Solenoid

 Because of symmetry the field

lines are along the coil axis
 Assuming very long core can
show that H is approximately:
 Uniform within the core
 Null outside the core

 Ampère’s law yields:

Core with
permeability μ>μ0

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 Magnetic Flux and Inductance
 Magnetic flux is

 Flux density is B=μΗ, hence:

 Flux is proportional to current

Core with Inductance

permeability μ>μ0

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 Flux Linkage
Core with
permeability μ>μ0

 The flux produced by current I2 crossing surface S1 is

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 Mutual and Self Inductance
μ>μ0

 Swapping the roles of the coils:

Mutual
 Mutual coupling is reciprocal: inductance

 Mutual (M) and self (L) inductance only depend on the geometry of the
system and the properties of the core material (μ)

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 Faraday’s Law
μ>μ0 Orientation of contour C
and surface S are related
by right-hand rule

M. Faraday

 Big discovery: crossed by a time-varying magnetic flux the coil behaves as a

generator!

 Induced emf creates a magnetic field opposing the flux that generated it
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 Coupled Inductors
μ>μ0
 Consider magnetic flux density
generated by both coils 1 and 2
 Conveniently define voltages V1
and V2 as:

 Combine Faraday’s law and

definition of self and mutual
inductance to describe the
coupled inductors as a two-port

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 Dot Convention
dot convention
swapped port
polarity

 Current flows into the dot of one coil  the induced voltage has positive
polarity at the dotted terminal of the other coil  M is positive
 If we swap the polarity of one electrical port (e.g. V’2, I’2)  180° phase shift
 M is negative
 Self inductances L1, L2 are always positive, but mutual inductance can be M≷0

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 Flux Leakage
 In general, some of the flux density B generated by one coil does not link to
the other coil  flux leakage
μ>μ0

 Only the smaller coil surface (between S1 and S2) crossing the flux of B1 and
B2 is relevant for the mutual inductance
 Hence M2 ≤ L1L2  Define magnetic coupling k
 |k| ≤ 1
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 Equivalent Circuit for Coupled Inductors
 Can describe coupled inductors with an equivalent circuit: leakage
inductance

magnetizing
inductance ideal
transformer
 Magnetizing inductance  models the need to establish magnetic flux
 Leakage inductance  models flux leakage
 Ideal transformer with ratio 1:nk  V’2/V1 = -I’1/I2 = nk
 Turn ratio:
 Impedance transformation  V’2/I2 = (-V1/I’1)n2k2

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 Magnetic Transformer
 The coupled inductors make a magnetic transformer, that approximates an
ideal transformer if |k|1 and L1∞

|k|1
L1∞

 Materials with high permeability μ, coils with many turns and large coil
section (to have large inductance), and tightly wound coils (to have |k|1)
help implementing a good transformer  Transformers are inherently bulky

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 Inductor Series Resistance

 Coil wire has resistivity ρ≠0 μ>μ0

 Inductor is lossy

 Assuming a wire with diameter d

the inductor series resistance is:

Wire section Total coil length

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 Inductor Quality Factor
μ>μ0
 Assume to connect the inductor to a
lossless capacitor  LC resonator with
resonance frequency
 The resonator quality factor is defined as:
Stored energy

Dissipated power
 Only the coil has losses, that we assume only due to the wire resistance R
 The inductor quality factor is:

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 Integrated Inductors
center tap

 Integrated inductors are implemented as a planar version of the solenoid

geometry  spiral shape
 Can have several shapes: circular, octagonal, square, etc…
 Can be symmetric and have a center tap

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 Estimation of Integrated Inductance
 Computation of the inductance is complex. Can approximately say [Mohan99]:

Square Octagonal
K1 2.34 2.25
K2 2.75 3.55

Assuming octagonal coil, w=10μm, s=5μm:

L [nH] N dout [μm]

0.1 1 70
1 2 170
10 7 300
Fill factor

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 Limitations of Integrated Inductors
 Magnetic materials are typically not available (μ=μ0)  larger device size for
a given inductance
 Planar device  Non-uniform H field  L prop. to coil diameter, not area
 Spiral shape  Limited coupling between turns (inner turns have smaller
area)  Inductance is not proportional to N2  larger size
 Inner turns contribute less additional inductance and more loss  hollow spiral
layout (typically limit fill factor ρd<0.5)
 Inductance is proportional to Np with p<2, but series resistance still
approximately increases with N  Q is proportional to Lb with b≈0.2, 0.3
 The circle has the best area/perimeter ratio  highest Q
 Circular inductor are not always allowed by design rules
 Regular polygon can approximate a circle  Octagon is usually all right
 Square inductor has higher Q than rectangular inductor
 Bottom line: try use hollow (i.e. few turns) octagonal inductors

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 Inductor Self Resonance

 Parasitic capacitance between inductor traces and substrate and from trace to
trace  inductor turns into a capacitor beyond self resonance frequency ωsrf
 Approximately: 
 Want operation frequency to be a fraction of ωsrf  there is a maximum
value of inductance that can be used for a given operation frequency
 progressively more difficult to use large inductances at higher frequencies
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 High Frequency Losses
 At higher frequency the current is not Simulation
at 300 MHz
uniformly distributed in the coil trace
 The current tends to flow on a thin region
near the trace surface (skin effect)
 The thickness of this region is related to the
skin depth
 Trace resistance increases as δ decreases
 Simulation
 Current tends to flow along the least at 60 GHz
inductance path  crowds at inner coil side
 Substrate coupling increase losses
 Capacitive coupling
 Eddy currents
 More relevant for larger inductors
Current density
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 Integrated Transformers

 Stacked layout  Coplanar  Concentric

 k=0.6-0.8 interwound layout coplanar layout
 Larger capacitive  k=0.5-0.7  k=0.3-0.5
parasitics  Can use thicker  Minimum capacitance
 Lower coil made of metal for both coils between primary and
thinner metal secondary

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 Transformer Design Considerations
 The requirements on desired magnetic coupling influence the transformer
layout to be selected
 Larger k trades off with larger capacitive parasitics between primary and
secondary coils
 Typical achievable k ranges from 0.2 to 0.8  leakage inductance is never
negligible
 To have n»1 or n«1 we need one inductor much larger than the other, but:
 Larger inductors have a lower self resonance frequency and more substrate losses
 Mutual coupling depends on the coil with the smaller area  limited magnetic
coupling if coils have very different sizes
 Typical achievable turn ratio for integrated transformers: 0.5<n<2
 For a given technology, same achievable Q as for inductors, except if:
 One coil is implemented in a thinner metal (stacked layout)
 Layout requires the use of lower (and much thinner) metals for the underpasses

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 Design Example (1)

dout ≈ 280μm
w ≈ 9μm

[Vallese09]

 Operation frequency: 3—5 GHz

 Coplanar interwound layout
L1 [nH] L2 [nH] k Q1 Q2
 Relatively large turn ratio
1.8 6.4 0.7 8 10

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 Design Example (2)

dout ≈ 100μm
w ≈ 4μm

[Padovan16]

 Operation frequency: 15—40 GHz

 Hybrid interwound/stacked layout
 Moderate magnetic coupling
L1 [pH] L2 [pH] k Q1 Q2
 Compact size
680 580 0.65 21 20

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 Physical Principles Summary
 In integrated processes high permeability materials are typically not available
 large area for inductors and transformers
 Self and mutual inductance depend on device geometry
 Mutual inductance depends on the area of the smaller coil
 integrated transformers have limited magnetic coupling
 Self resonance frequency limits the maximum inductance for a given
frequency of operation
 Quality factor increases (although weakly) with inductance for small
inductors; use of large inductances is limited by substrate losses and ωsrf
 Skin effect, current crowding and substrate coupling limit Q at higher
frequencies
 Cannot effectively couple inductors with very different inductance values
 limitation in achievable transformer turn ratios

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 Interim Q&A Session
Please ask questions that you feel is
essential to follow the rest of this tutorial

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 Outline
 Introduction
 Physical principles
 Self and mutual inductance
 Integrated transformers
 Interim Q&A session
 Transformers in amplifiers
 Baluns
 Couplers and combiners
 Matching networks
 Transformers in oscillators
 Doubly-tuned resonators
 Varactor coupling
 Multiple resonance tanks

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 Balun
 Can use transformer for single-ended to differential signal conversion
balanced port

if L2=L3
and k12=k13

 If L2=L3 and k12=k13  No common-mode ac signal at balanced port

 Layout symmetry is essential
 Can use center tap to provide bias at balanced port  Galvanic isolation
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 Balun Non-Idealities
 Magnetizing and leakage inductance are
unwanted but unavoidable

ideally

actually

 How do we cope with it?

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 Embedding Balun Parasitics in a Ladder
 Can conveniently embed magnetizing and leakage inductance in amplifier
input/output networks
 Example: LNA with inductive degeneration  Use transformer parasitics as part of
a ladder network
explicit cap +
pad parasitics

2-section
ladder

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 Coupled Input and Degeneration Inductors
 Coupling Lg and Ls in an inductively degenerated amplifier allows to reduce
the inductor size

additional

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 Layout of Coupled Lg and Ls
 Coupling Lg and Ls leads to a particularly
compact and convenient layout, especially
in a differential design
 Can easily route signals to transistors

[Padovan16]

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 DM/CM Inductance
 Take two identical symmetrically-wound coils
 bifilar transformer with unitary turn ratio
 Different behavior in differential mode or
common mode
 Differential mode: I2=I1 For each branch:

I1

 Common mode: I2=-I1 For each branch:

 Can also change coil winding to get k<0

I2
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 Differential Artificial T-Line
 Can use symmetric bifilar transformer to implement
a differential artificial t-line with compact layout
 Example: lumped-element Wilkinson divider
[Caruso14]

section of differential artificial t-line

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 Quadrature Hybrid

 Lumped element implementation of quadrature hybrid directional coupler

 Useful for I/Q generation
 Power combining (balanced amplifier, Doherty amplifier)

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 Design of Quadrature Hybrid
 Design equations:

 Operating frequency:

 Layout example of a
differential implementation
[Park15]

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 Series Power Combiner
 Combine the power of NS amplifiers
by series connecting the secondary
windings of identical transformers
 Load voltage is shared among
amplifiers: VL=NSV2  decreased
voltage stress
 Intrinsic load impedance
transformation: IL=-I2, VL=NSV2

If k=1  m=n
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 Parallel Power Combiner
 Combine the power of NP amplifiers
by parallel connecting the secondary
windings of identical transformers
 Intrinsic load impedance
transformation: IL=- NPI2, VL=V2

 Can also do series/parallel combiner

 As for the balun, we need to embed
transformer parasitics into the
combiner network (e.g. as a ladder)

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 Transformer-Based Matching Networks

interstage network

input network output network

 Transformers are broadly used in input, interstage and output networks

 Inherent impedance transformation
 It is key to embed parasitics in network design  ladder or doubly-tuned
networks
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 Doubly-Tuned Matching Network (1)
explicit or
parasitic caps

 When shunt capacitances C1 and C2 are not negligible  doubly-tuned

matching network
 Two magnetically-coupled LC tanks
 Fourth-order resonator
 We derive equivalent 2nd order circuits in order to more easily evaluate:
 The transformed load impedance at resonance
 The equivalent loss resistance  network efficiency

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 Doubly-Tuned Matching Network (2)
 The loading effect of RL on the
reactive network is quantified by:

 If QS»1  two parallel resonances

 Transformer behavior explicit or
parasitic caps
 If QS<1  degenerate case
 Single resonance
 Impedance inverter behavior

 Network behavior depends on ratio

ξ of LC products of coupled tanks

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 Parallel Resonances (High-QS Case)
 The two parallel resonance frequencies are:

 Pole splitting occurs as the magnetic coupling k is increased:

ξ=1 ξ«1

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 Equivalent Circuit in the High-QS Case
 In the neighborhood of the parallel resonances the doubly-tuned matching
network can be approximated as a second-order circuit

ωL

ωH

 Load impedance gets transformed by factor Av21

 R’=RL/(Av21)2
 For ξ = 1  |Av21|=n regardless the value of k R’(ωH) is
proportional to ξ2
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 Loss Resistance at ωL

 Req models the losses of the matching network  can use to assess network
efficiency (smaller Req  lower efficiency)
 At ωL a higher magnetic coupling results in a larger Req,L

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 Loss Resistance at ωH
 Similarly at the higher frequency resonance we have:

 Req,H is approximately proportional to ξ2

 A larger magnetic coupling results in a smaller parallel loss resistance Req,H
 higher k results in lower efficiency
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 Low-QS Case
impedance
inverter

 If QS is low  C2 is negligible as it is shunted by a low RL

 Circuit degenerates and shows a single parallel resonance at
 In the neighborhood of resonance the circuit behaves as an
impedance inverter  Zin(ωS)=(Z0)2/(RL+Req,S)

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 Design of the Matching Network

matching network High-QS Case

efficiency
(power gain)

Low-QS Case

 More degrees of freedom but more complexity than second-order tank

 Design constraints: desired input impedance and operating frequency ω0
 Desired design goal: minimization of the power loss of the doubly-tuned
transformer matching network  want to maximize network efficiency
 High-QS case: for a given operating frequency it is more convenient to work
at the lower parallel resonance  ωL=ω0

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 Impedance Step-Down

 Typical situation in the design of a (CMOS) power amplifier

 Efficiency η is maximized if Req,L is maximized
 Req,L is maximized if transformer inductances and k are maximized
 Req,L is maximized if ξ is about unity (L2C2≈L1C1)
 Impedance transformation ratio achieved by using turn ratio n

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 Step-Down Design Example
Q1=Q2=20
η 87%
pad capacitance
k 0.85
L1 75pH
L2 150pH
C1 200fF
C2 100fF

 30GHz 18dBm differential power amplifier with 1V supply  R’=25Ω

 Assume given pad capacitance C2=100fF
 Select ξ=1, maximize inductance and k
 Set ωL=ω2/(1+k)1/2=ω0
 Set n=1.4 to transform RL=50Ω into desired R’

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 Impedance Step-Up

 Often the case in inter-stage matching networks

 Large inductors and small RL  low QS case  R’≈(Z0)2/RL

 Should minimize Req,S  minimize n

 There is an optimum value of the magnetic coupling k that minimizes Req,S
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 Step-Up Design Example
Q1=Q2=20 η 56%
k 0.5
L1 220pH
L2 110pH
C1 166fF
C2 100fF

 30GHz inter-stage network for a cascode amplifier: RL=10Ω, R’=200Ω

 Set n=0.7 and select k=0.5 which is optimum if Q1=Q2
 Desired impedance transformation ratio yields Z0 and thus sets L2
 Adjust C1 to set ωS=ω1/(1-k2)1/2=ω0
 Value of C2 is not relevant as long as it is not too large

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 Broadband Matching Network

 Can use doubly-tuned transformer network to achieve broadband operation

 To achieve R’(ωL)=R’(ωH)=RL/n2  ξ=1
 Minimize ripple between ωL and ωΗ  |k|QS=1
 The choice of k sets the bandwidth
 Req,L > Req,Η but Req,Η proportional to ξ2  can equalize losses increasing ξ
 Increasing ξ over unity increases bandwidth  can compensate decreasing k

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 Broadband Matching Design Example
Q1=Q2=20
amplifier gain
k 0.85
L1 405pH
L2 810pH
matching network
C1 133fF efficiency
(power gain)
C2 125fF

 Wideband 30GHz power amplifier

 Maximize bandwidth  k=0.85
 Set n=1.4 to transform RL=50Ω into R’=25Ω
 First set ξ=1 and |k|QS=1  obtain L1, L2, C1, and C2
 Then increase ξ to 1.9 by decreasing C1 to 133fF to equalize response
 Passband is from 8 to 53GHz
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 Transformers in Amplifiers Summary
 Transformers are key in amplifier design as they provide Galvanic isolation,
single-ended to differential conversion, power/signal combining and
impedance transformation
 Coupling inductors also enables area savings and different circuit behavior in
differential and common mode operation
 Transformers can be conveniently used in lumped-element implementations
of distributed components
 In integrated implementations magnetizing and leakage inductances cannot
be made negligible  it is imperative to embed them into the design:
 Ladder networks
 Doubly-tuned networks

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 Outline
 Introduction
 Physical principles
 Self and mutual inductance
 Integrated transformers
 Interim Q&A session
 Transformers in amplifiers
 Baluns
 Couplers and combiners
 Matching networks
 Transformers in oscillators
 Doubly-tuned resonators
 Varactor coupling
 Multiple resonance tanks

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 Oscillators with Transformer Resonator

 Use doubly-tuned network as

resonator  two possible
oscillation modes at ωL and ωH
 Connect resonator to negative
resistance  1-port oscillator
 Close feedback around
resonator  2-port oscillator
 Topologies that combine both
approaches are possible

1-port oscillator 2-port oscillator

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 Start-up of 1-Port Oscillator
Q1/Q2=1

region with
oscillations
at ωL
region with
oscillations
at ωH
boundary depends
on Q1/Q2

 Oscillations start if GmReq>1

 Req,H is proportional to ξ2 while Req,L is weakly dependent on ξ=(L2C2)/(L1C1)
 oscillations start at ωH if ξ is large enough, otherwise start at ωL
 Can select oscillation mode choosing the port where -Gm is connected
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 Start-up of 2-Port Oscillator
Root locus

Gm<0 Gm>0
ω0=ωH ω0=ωL

 Oscillations start if Av21GmReq>1

 Sign of Av21 is positive at ωL and negative at ωH  choosing the sign of Gm
(the connections of the transconductor) we select the oscillation mode

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 Tank Equivalent Reactive Components

 Leq,L,H and Ceq,L,H have non-trivial expressions, but:

 Notice that Ceq,L,H is larger than both C1 and C2
 For ξ=1  Leq,L,H=L1(1±|k|)/2 and Ceq,L,H=2C1
 The resonator quality factor is QL,H=Req,L,H/(ωL,HLeq,L,H)=ωL,HCeq,L,HReq,L,H

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 Quality Factor of Transformer Resonator
Q1/Q2=1 Q1/Q2=1

region with
oscillations at ωH
in 1-port oscillator

ΨL ΨH

 Resonator quality factor can be written as: QL,H=Q1(ωL,H) ΨL,H(ξ,k,Q1/Q2)

 ΨL,H is symmetric in ξ only if Q1/Q2=1  if Q1/Q2=1 choose ξ=1 for best Q
 If operating at single frequency ω0  Operate at ωL=ω0 for higher Q
 If want to use both modes  Can get QL≈QH as Q1 increases with ωL,H

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 Comparison with LC tank
parallel inductors
transformer tank at ω0
resonator at ωL=ω0

Same Q

series inductors
tank at ω0

 Mutual inductance increases Q of transformer

resonator at ωL
 The same happens if primary and secondary
are wired as a single inductor
 No intrinsic Q improvement due to transformer
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 Phase Noise
 Neglecting flicker noise, phase noise is:

transistor excess
noise factor

 Transformer resonator helps achieving a 1-port osc.

smaller Req for a given Q
2-port osc.
 For a target amplitude of oscillation V1
phase noise improves but current
consumption increases
 Can leverage Av21 to decrease excess
noise factor F in 2-port oscillator

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 Varactor Coupling
varactor
bipolar

 Transformer provides low-loss ac varactor

coupling, particularly at mm-waves CMOS
 Can use all tuning curve with single-supply
 Can use turn ratio to decrease swing on the
varactor (especially useful for pn-varactors)
 If C1«C2  ξ»1 and ωL≈ω2  tuning as in LC tank

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 Using Multiple Resonances

 Using both modes of oscillation at ωL and ωH expands the tuning range

[Bevilacqua06], [Li12]
 Setting ωH to 2nd harmonic resonance decreases 1/f noise upconversion
[Shahmohammadi15], [Murphy15]
 Simultaneous resonances at fundamental and 3rd harmonic increases the
slope of the voltage waveform  class-F oscillator [Babaie13]
 Tuning ωH to 3rd harmonic enables 3rd harmonic extraction  implicit
frequency multiplication [Zong16], [Hu18]

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 Example of Dual-Mode Oscillator

Phase noise at 3MHz offset

 Dual mode resonator with simple mode-selection circuitry

[Bhat19]
 40% tuning range from 25-to-38GHz
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 Example of 2nd Harmonic Resonance

 4GHz inverse class-F oscillator [Lim18]

 Limits 1/f noise upconversion into phase noise
 Improves the power efficiency (1.2mW power
consumption)
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 Example of Harmonic Generation
Phase noise at 1MHz offset

10GHz oscillator 30GHz buffer

 10GHz VCO with 3rd harmonic

extraction [Hu18]
 14% tuning range
 Low 1/f3 flicker corner
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 Papers to See at ISSCC 2020
 Session 17 “Frequency Synthesizers & VCOs”
 17.4 “A 18.6-to-40.1GHz 201.7dBc/Hz FoMT Multi-Core Oscillator Using E-M
Mixed-Coupling Resonance Boosting”
 17.9 “A 9mW 54.9-to-63.5GHz Current-Reuse LO Generator with a 186.7dBc/Hz
FoM by Unifying a 20GHz 3rd-Harmonic-Rich Current-Output VCO…”
 Session 24 “RF & mm-Wave Power Amplifiers”
 24.2 “A Reconfigurable Series/Parallel Quadrature-Coupler-Based Doherty PA in
CMOS SOI with VSWR Resilient Linearity and Back-Off PAE for 5G MIMO Arrays”
 24.6 “An Instantaneously Broadband Ultra-Compact Highly Linear PA with
Compensated Distributed-Balun Output Network…”
 24.7 “A 15 dBm 12.8%-PAE Compact D-Band Power Amplifier with Two-Way
Power Combining in 16nm FinFET CMOS”
 Session 29 “Emerging RF & THz Techniques”
 29.3 “Non-Magnetic 0.18μm SOI Circulator with Multi-Watt Power Handling Based
on Switched-Capacitor Clock Boosting”
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 Summary
 Microelectronic planar processes limit the obtainable magnetic coupling k and
turn ratio n of integrated transformers
 Magnetizing and leakage inductance will not be negligible, so try and embed
them in your design
 Magnetically coupling inductors allows to decrease coil footprints and help
implement lumped element versions of distributed passive circuits
 Transformers are key to amplifiers’ design, especially at mm-waves, because
they provide low loss ac coupling, yield impedance transformation, and
enable power combining
 Transformers do not increase the resonators’ Q per se, but they are useful to
make oscillators with low phase noise and wide tuning range

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27.[Zong16] Z. Zong, M. Babaie and R. B. Staszewski, "A 60 GHz Frequency Generator Based on a
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