Electrical Instrument and

Measurement
by
Mr. Jateslid Singsathien

Aeronautical Engineering Division

Aeronautical Engineering Division
Civil Aviation Training Center, Thailand (CATC)
Civil Aviation Training Center, Thailand (CATC)
Lecture 3

Alternating-Current MeterDivision
Aeronautical Engineering

Civil Aviation Training Center, Thailand (CATC)

 Alternating-Current Meters
1. Fundamental Review
2. Half-wave Rectification
3. Full-wave Rectification
4. Loading Effects of AC Voltmeters
5. Electrodynamometer Movement
6. Three Wattmeter Method
7. Two Wattmeter Method
8. Clamp-on AC Ammeter

Jateslid Singsathien 3
 sin wave
1. Fundamental Review ·
peak peale
AC signal

&
𝑽 𝒑

Gπ
𝑽𝒑 𝒑

f =
30 Hz or
roun
-

Comstone so ra peak
• Alternating current describes the flow of charge that changes
direction periodically. ~Amplitude

• AC wave's amplitude and frequency determine its output value. ~ Direction

• Frequency (f) - The number of complete cycles that happen ~Frequency

•
every second. mar : Garlandscape 15 .
Period (T) - The time it takes to perform one complete cycle .
~Time Period
murodl

mulea : regardin about 1 on

Jateslid Singsathien 4
 1. Fundamental Review

~
Average Voltage Equation

Jateslid Singsathien 5
 1. Fundamental Review
Average Voltage Equation

“ The quotient of the area under the waveform with respect to time. ”

“ The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity, such as a sine

wave, is the average value measured over only one half of a cycle, since as we
have just stated, the average value over one complete cycle is zero regardless of
the peak amplitude. ”

Jateslid Singsathien 6
 1. Fundamental Review
Average Voltage Equation
Area under the curve
S

The area under the curve can be Up

found by:
function
since
8
de
°

187
Area = 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
; Vpeak
3
"
=
Vp( -

coso)
! =
-

Vp(coST cosO) =

=
-

Vp)
-
1 -

1) =

aVp
• 0 and π are the limits of integration since we are determining the
average value of voltage over one half a cycle.
• Then, the area below the curve is finally given as Area = 2𝑉 .

Jateslid Singsathien 7
 1. Fundamental Review
>
-
Area
Average Voltage Equation :
o wa
We can determine the average value of positive (or negative) region of a sinusoidal
waveform by integrating the quantity over half a cycle and dividing by half the period:

Area
1
𝐸 = 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
un
d
𝜋
S
~
.

𝑉 𝜋 2𝑉
T
= (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = T
𝜋 0 𝜋 /

𝐸 = 0.637 𝑉
-

Jateslid Singsathien 8
 1. Fundamental Review

RMS Value Equivalent

Jateslid Singsathien 9
 1 -- Fums = 10V
1. Fundamental Review
-
E Source -

- -
auzisos di
-
,
RMS Value Equivalent Edc = 10V

“Equal to the value of the direct current that would produce the same average
power dissipation in a resistive load.”

“ When used to compare the equivalent RMS voltage value of an alternating

sinusoidal waveform that supplies the same electrical power to a given load as an
equivalent DC circuit, the RMS value is called the effective value ”
Eas ,
ursingers
240
Voms X
240VpC For example,

The mains supply is 240Vac. (indicate an

effective value of 240 Vrms). This means
that the sinusoidal rms voltage is capable
of producing the same average positive

3power as 240 volts of steady DC voltage.

Jateslid Singsathien 10
 1. Fundamental Review
RMS Value Equivalent

A periodic sinusoidal voltage is constant. Then, we can calculate the root-mean-

square (rms) value of a sinusoidal voltage as:

1 my /Square 1 3
𝐸 = 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇
& Y
2𝜋

1 𝑉
= (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 2
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 =
2 1
1 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 2𝜋
= (𝜔𝑡 − )
2𝜋 2 2 0

Jateslid Singsathien 11
 1. Fundamental Review
RMS Value Equivalent

A periodic sinusoidal voltage is constant. Then, we can calculate the root-mean-

square (rms) value of a sinusoidal voltage as:

1 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(2𝜋) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(0)
𝐸 = [(2𝜋 − 0) − ( − )]
2𝜋 2 2 2

=
1 𝑉
(2𝜋) =
3
𝑉
2𝜋 2 2
RMS stands for
𝑉 “Root-Mean-Squared” - the square
𝐸 = = 0.707𝑉 root of the mean square (the arithmetic
2 mean of the squares of a set of numbers).

Jateslid Singsathien 12
 1. Fundamental Review
𝐸 = 0.637 𝐸

Average Voltage Equation

𝐸
𝐸 = = 0.707𝐸
2

Jateslid Singsathien 13
 misin
1. Fundamental Review • 1 .
Forward Bias
• 2. Reverse Bias
Diode Pine

Positive +
Negative
-

>
PN-Junction
P N

-
Depletion Region

Jateslid Singsathien 14
 Ideal and Real Characteristics

1. Fundamental Review

Diode

+ ov -

Bin
-
3 5
.
+ 0 7 +
.
IR =
0

Ideal Characteristics Real Characteristics

Jateslid Singsathien 15
 1. Fundamental Review

Diode and Rectifier

Half wave

4 Go

Full wave

Jateslid Singsathien 16
 2. Half-wave Rectification
In order to measure ac with the d’Arsonval meter movement, we must first rectify the
alternating current by use of a diode rectifier to produce unidirectional current flow.

·s serenierissurdsey
Fors =

E
at put Farg
g O
0.ty Faug =
0 637
.
+ 0

2
input
= 0 318.
e
Eug =

=
0 45
0 318

.
. (raFums)
Eums

DC voltmeter circuit modified to measure AC voltage

Ede = 0 45 . Erms

The voltage across the meter movement is just the positive half-cycle of the sine wave
because of the rectifying action of the diode.

Jateslid Singsathien 17
 2. Half-wave Rectification
The peak value of the 10-V rms sine wave is

𝐸 = 10 𝑉 × 2 = 14.14 𝑉 (3-1)

In the form of average value:

𝐸 = 0.637 × 𝐸 = 0.637 × 14.14

The dc meter movement will
=9𝑉 respond to the average value Faug
of the ac sine wave where the
The diode action produces an approximate average, or dc value, is equal
half sine wave across the load resistor. to 0.318 times the peak value

This is written as
𝐸 =𝐸 = 0.318 × 𝐸
𝐸 -

𝐸 = = 0.45 × 𝐸
𝜋

Jateslid Singsathien 18
 2. Half-wave Rectification
The average value of this voltage is referred to as the dc voltage.

For example,

If the output voltage from a half-wave rectifier is 10

V, a dc voltmeter will provide an indication of
approximately 4.5 V.

• The pointer that deflected full scale when a 10-V dc signal was applied
deflects to only 4.5 V when we apply a 10-V rms sinusoidal ac
waveform.
sensitivity
: mato

• This means that ac voltmeter using half-wave rectification is only

approximately 45% as sensitive as a dc voltmeter

Jateslid Singsathien 19
 R = E
F
RT =
SX Range
2. Half-wave Rectification xEd
=
1
= xVRT
Ifs
The equivalent dc voltage is equal to 45% of the rms value of the ac voltage,
we can express an equation for computing Rs.
Roe0 45 Fr .

**
𝐸 0.45 𝐸
𝑅 = −𝑅 = −𝑅 (3-2)
𝐼 𝐼

The derived formula of the multiplier (Rs) from dc voltmeter Ri =

Sdc Eda
* =
SdcX (0 .
43
Fums)
(1)
We can infer from Eq. 3-2 for a half-wave rectifier as RT =
SacXEac =
SacX Fums (2)

𝑆 = 0.45 𝑆 (2)/(1) : (3-3a)

where SacX Fums

𝑆 - ac sensitivity (sensitivity of ac meter) = Sda X 0 45 Fums
.

𝑆 - dc sensitivity (sensitivity of dc meter)

Jateslid Singsathien 20
 2. Half-wave Rectification
Problem 1. Compute the value of the multiplier resistor for a 10-V rms ac
range on the voltmeter shown in the figure using following equation:
1
(a) 𝑆 =

(b) 𝑆
𝐼
= 0.45 𝑆
.a Sac
===
0.45 𝐸
R+ = SdcXEda
(c) 𝑅 = −𝑅
𝐼 Rs + Rm =
Sdcx (0 . 45 Erms)
Rs 14 (0 45x107 300

n
5
-

= .

=
4 . 2k
-
T

Jateslid Singsathien 21
 2. Half-wave Rectification
Problem 1. (con’d)

b .
Sac = 0 45
. Sdc = 0 . 45(14) =
4502/
RT = SacX Fac

Rs = SacX Fums-Rm
=
(450X18) -

308

Rs = 4 .
2km

c .
Rs =
0 45
.
Frms-Rm = 0 45(8)
.
-
300
Ifs Im
=
4 2 kit
.

Jateslid Singsathien 22
 2. Half-wave Rectification
Problem 2. Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance (Rs1, Rs2, Rs3), Sac,
Total resistance (RT) in each range for the multiple-range ac voltmeter.

Step : V: Rs + Rm =
SdcX Ed
Rs1 =
SdcX (0 45 Erms) .
=
Rm

=
1x(0 45x18) .
-

200
100M
Rs1 =
44 8 koz
,

0 45.
Erms

50
Step 2 : Va : RsatRsi + Rm =

Sdcxt
100 10 Rse =ux(0 . 43x50) -

(44 84 + 2007
.

Ifs = 100 µA
= 180 Um
Rm = 200 Ω

Jateslid Singsathien 23
 2. Half-wave Rectification
Problem 2. (con’d)

X(0 45X00) (44 Sh + 18 20

=
+
Rsz
-

Step :
.
.

= 22s kr

Jateslid Singsathien 24
 2. Half-wave Rectification
Commercially produced ac voltmeters that use half-wave rectification also
have an additional diode ac voltmeters and a shunt.

• This double-diode arrangement in a single package is called an instrument

rectifier.
• D2 is reverse-biased on the positive half-cycle and has no effect on the
behavior of the circuit.

Jateslid Singsathien 25
 2. Half-wave Rectification
111111I'

Ifs + Ish
Ifs , Im

Ish
-

bias

enaissano
now reverse

• In the negative half-cycle, D2 is forward-biased and provides an alternate path for

reverse-biased leakage current that would flow through the meter movement and
diode D1.
ima Iminsain
De Punsiniatures
• The purpose of the shunt resistor Rsh is to increase the current flow through D1
during the positive half-cycle so that the diode is operating in a more linear portion
of its characteristic curve. However, it also further reduces the ac sensitivity.

Jateslid Singsathien 26
 2. Half-wave Rectification
Problem 3. In the half-wave rectifier shown in the figure, diode D1 and D2 have
an average forward resistance of 50 Ω and are assumed to have an infinite
resistance in the reverse direction. Calculate the following. R = 0

(a) The value of the multiplier Rs Open Cicinsin)

(b) The ac sensitivity Range 45Fum
RT=SX
(c) The equivalent dc sensitivity It
on It : It = Em + Ish
If = Im + Ish
=

Um
Vsh =
Vm
=

Imm Im s +

+ cool o

200 00
200
208
:
In
Jateslid Singsathien 27
 2. Half-wave Rectification
Problem 3. (con’d)
22h e
Ry
= x(0 45x10) =
.

C Soa
B
.

RT =
+ Rde + Rsh/Rm
188 1 .
Sac = 0 45
. So
22 Sk = Rs + 58 +
(200/200)
Sac 2 25 k
.

= .

Rs =
22 35 Ku
.
. 45
&

sha
b . Sac : Ry =
Sac * Fums

Sac = 22 .
Sk
2 .
Sa =

# door
18 =

Shr
= 2 .

25km/
Jateslid Singsathien 28
 2. Half-wave Rectification
Problem 4. Using the E-I curve, you can determine the diode in the circuit to
have 1-kΩ static resistance with full-scale deflection current of 100 µA through
it. Compute (a) the value of the multiplier resistor using the value Rd at full-scale
deflection. Compute (b) the diode resistance with 20- µA current and (c) the
value of input voltage that would cause 20 µA to flow.

Ein 180 1900 ZOMA ZOMA , Ed = 0 04V

.

20

0 04
.

Jateslid Singsathien 29
 2. Half-wave Rectification
Problem 4. (con’d)

Jateslid Singsathien 30
 2. Half-wave Rectification ↑

Problem 5. Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance (Rs1, Rs2, Rs3) for
the multiple-range ac voltmeter. + F =
Ish Im =

vm
In Ry Rse :
= ImBm + ImP
Ash Am
It =
200 MA
RD IT
Fums
= x(0 45
Re .

Im = 100 µA
= 1x(0 45x90) .

200M
Ry = 67 Ski
.

Ry
50
30 RD = 50 Ω + Rdi + Rsh/Rm

Rsh = 200 Ω
Rs1 = 67 35
.
ki

Jateslid Singsathien 31
 2. Half-wave Rectification
Problem 5. (con’d)

at 30 Voms x(0 45x50) 112 h as

Re =
=
: .

31 67 35k 2001/200

=
so
112
.

Re + Rsi + Rd +
RshXRm

Rsa = 45 4r

Jateslid Singsathien 32
 3. Full-wave Rectification
Full-wave rectification, bridge-type rectifier, is more desirable to use in ac
voltmeter because of the higher sensitivity rating.

During the positive half-cycle, current flows through diode D2, through the meter
movement from positive to negative, and through diode D3.

Jateslid Singsathien 33
 3. Full-wave Rectification
• The polarities in circles in circles on the transformer secondary are for the
positive half-cycle.
• Since the current flows through the meter movement on both half-cycles, we
can expect the deflection of the pointer to be grater than with the half-wave
rectifier, which allows current to flow only on every other half-cycle; if the
deflection remains the same, the instrument using full-wave rectification will
have a greater sensitivity.

Jateslid Singsathien 34
 3. Full-wave Rectification
Y Eavg =
0 637 + 0 637
. .

2
IIII ,IIIIIs x
= 0 597 .

Ep
Faug = 0 637
.
(raFums)
M .. Edc = 0 9 .
Foms

Half : Sac = 0 45
. Sda

DC voltmeter circuit modified to measure AC voltage

Full : Sac = 0 9
. So

The peak value of the 10-Vrms signal is computed as with the half-wave rectifier
as
𝐸 = 2×𝐸 = 14.14 𝑉
Sacfull Sachate
The average, or dc, value of the pulsating since wave is
𝐸 = 0.637 × 𝐸 = 9 𝑉

Jateslid Singsathien 35
 3. Full-wave Rectification
Alternatively, this can be computed as

𝐸 = 0.9 × 𝐸 = 0.9 × 10 = 9 𝑉

Therefore, we can see that the 10-Vrms voltage is equivalent to 9 Vdc.

• When full-wave rectification is used, the pointer will deflect to 90% of full scale. (full-
wave rectification has a sensitivity equal to 90% of the dc sensitivity, or has twice the
sensitivity of a circuit using half-wave rectification.)
• As with the half-wave rectifier, the circuit would be designed for full-scale deflection,
which means the value of the multiplier resistor would be only 90% of the value for a
10-V dc voltmeter written as

𝑆 = 0.9𝑆 (3-3b)

Jateslid Singsathien 36
 3. Full-wave Rectification
Problem 4. Compute the value of the multiplier resistor for a 10-V rms ac range
on the voltmeter in the figure.

Solution 1 i Solution 2

Rs = SacxEac-Rm Rs =
SdaxEde- Rm
= 10 .
95dc) XFoms-Rm =
Sdc * (0 9 Fums)
.
-

Rm

Jateslid Singsathien 37
 3. Full-wave Rectification
Problem 5. Each diode in the full-wave rectifier circuit shown in the figure has
an average forward resistance of 50 Ω and is assumed to have an infinite
resistance in the reverse direction. Calculate the following.
(a) The value of the multiplier Rs
(b) The ac sensitivity
It = Ish + Im
= Im
=
ImRm Im

9
+
(c) The equivalent dc sensitivity Rsh
17
E
=
& MA Be =
=
0 .

50 It Ish + Im
=
=
4 941
,

Rai
Vsh Um
=

57

Rd2
↓ Ish

Jateslid Singsathien 38
 3. Full-wave Rectification
Problem 5. (con’d)

RT =
Rd1 + Rs + Rsh//Rm + Rda

4 .
34 = 50 + Rs + 300/98 + 50

Rs = 4 15422
.

b. on Sac : Ry =
SacagFrms c .
Sa
= -

4 .
Sh = Sacx (10) Sac = 0 .
95d

Sac = 450
e/ :
Sdc =
500r/

Jateslid Singsathien 39
 3. Full-wave Rectification
Problem 6. Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance (Rs1, Rs2) for the
-

multiple-range ac voltmeter.

from Jasion : Rsi = 4 15 he

.

at 30Voms : In = 2 MA

9Eums
0
Re =
.

=
0 . 93

3
am

hr

Be
=
13 5 ,

50 Ω

SRDa
13 .

+ RshRm + RD4Rs2 = ah
Jateslid Singsathien 40
 3. Full-wave Rectification
Problem 6. (con’d)

Jateslid Singsathien 41
 4. Loading Effects of AC Voltmeters
• The sensitivity of ac voltmeters, using either half-wave or full-wave
rectification, is less than the sensitivity of dc voltmeters.
• Therefore, the loading effect of an ac voltmeter is greater than that of a dc
voltmeter.

Jateslid Singsathien 42
 4. Loading Effects of AC Voltmeters
Problem 7. Determine the reading obtained with a dc voltmeter in the circuit
shown in the figure when switch S is set to position A; then set the switch to
position B and determine the reading obtained with a half-wave and a full-wave
ac voltmeter. All the meters use a 100-µA full-scale deflection meter movement
and are set on their 10-V dc or rms ranges.
18 Vdc so 10 Voms
Range position A: Ry = SX Range

+Rm
Rs xRagan

100km 1
Rs = x(18)
100M

=
100km
Rm

Jateslid Singsathien 43
 4. Loading Effects of AC Voltmeters
Problem 7. (con’d) source

Voltage Divider : VRa =

Ra/Rs
X
(R2YRs) + Ry

=
loh//100k x 20
Coh//180k) + 10h

VR2 = 9 524V
.

Position B : Half-wave : Ry = 0 45 Erms

. 0 . 45(10)
=

Ifs 100M
Rs =
45hr
Rs
.

=he is

Jateslid Singsathien 44
 4. Loading Effects of AC Voltmeters STO-A
>
-

Problem 7. (con’d) · Uranu x20

+ 10h
(18h//4sh)
= 9V

Full-wave 0 9Erms
:
Rs =
.

Ifs
=
0 . 9(10)
188M
Rs = 90kr

90k/1k
Vra = x20 = 9 . 474V
Caoh // 10n) + 10h

Jateslid Singsathien 45
 5. Electrodynamometer Movement

Wattmeter

“ The instrument whose working depends on the reaction between the magnetic
field of moving and fixed coils is known as the Electrodynamometer Wattmeter.
It uses for measuring the power of both the AC and DC circuits. ”

The working principle concept

“ Their working depends on the theory that the

current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic
field experiences a mechanical force. This
mechanical force deflects the pointer which is
mounted on the calibrated scale. ”

Jateslid Singsathien 46
 5. Electrodynamometer Movement

Construction of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

1. current coil
Power : P =
VI Candangers)
-

series
-

fixed coil

2. Voltage coil

· crasendors b)

&
parallel
-

coil
moving
-

R limit nieurs

I hiusein
Voltage coil

Jateslid Singsathien 47
 5. Electrodynamometer Movement

Wattmeter

Construction of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

1. Fixed Coil

• The fixed coil is divided into two equal parts and these are connected in series
with the load, therefore the load current will flow through these coils.
• The reason of using two fixed coils instead of one is that it can be constructed to
carry considerable amount of electric current. These coils are called the current
coils of electrodynamometer type wattmeter.
• Earlier these fixed coils are designed to carry the current of about 100 amperes,
but now the modern wattmeter are designed to carry current of about 20 amperes
in order to save power.

Jateslid Singsathien 48
 5. Electrodynamometer Movement

Wattmeter

Construction of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

2. Moving Coil

• Moving coil moves the pointer with the help of spring control instrument.

• A limited amount of current flows through the moving coil to avoid heating. To limit
the current, we connect the high value resistor in series.
• The moving coil is air cored and is mounted on a pivoted spindle and can moves
freely. In electrodynamometer type wattmeter, moving coil works as Potential coil.
• Hence, the moving coil is connected across the voltage and thus the current flowing
through this coil is always proportional to the voltage.

Jateslid Singsathien 49
 5. Electrodynamometer Movement

Wattmeter

Construction of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

3. Control
• The control system provides the controlling torque to the instruments.

• The Electrodynamometer Wattmeter uses spring control system – it is used for

the movement of the pointer. These springs act leads to the moving coil.

4. Damping

• The damping is the effect which reduces the movement of the pointer. In this
Wattmeter the damping torque produces because of the air friction.
• Air-friction damping is provided by a pair of aluminum vanes, attached to the
spindle at the bottom.

Jateslid Singsathien 50
 6. Three Wattmeter Method

&
5
T

A wattmeter is an instrument which consists of two coils called Current coil

and Potential coil.
• The current coil is connected in series with the load so that it carries the load current.
• The potential coil having the resistance is connected across the load and carries the
current proportional to the potential difference.

Jateslid Singsathien 51
 6. Three Wattmeter Method
Three-wattmeter method is used to measure power in a 3 phase, 4 wire system.

The connections for star connected loads for measuring power by three wattmeter method
is shown in the figure:

A
I =I

N
-

a &

B
+
C

Assume that the phase current 𝐼 lags behind their respective phase voltages by an angle
𝜃 and the phase current 𝐼 and 𝐼 leads their phase voltages by an angle 𝜃 and 𝜃

Jateslid Singsathien 52
 VAN

6. Three Wattmeter Method 𝑊 =VFr I cos

wa
θ

Therefore, the power measured by the wattmeter is

IA
𝑊 =V
=I cos θ
A
In 𝑊 =V I cos θ
N

B
- The coil of the three wattmeters W , W
Vo IB and W are connected to a common
C terminal known as the neutral point.
Is

The product of the phase current and line voltage represents phase power and is recorded
by an individual wattmeter.

The total power in a three wattmeter method 𝑃 of 𝑃 =W +W +W

power measurement is given as:

Jateslid Singsathien 53
 6. Three Wattmeter Method
Problem 8. The three-wattmeter method shown in the figure produces wattmeter
readings W = 840 W, W = 915 W, W = 800 W, respectively.
Find the total power absorbed.
PT =A +
Wi + Wa
=
840 + 915 + 888

PT =
25Ss W

A
or 2 553
.
kW

Jateslid Singsathien 54
 7. Two Wattmeter Method
• Two-wattmeter method can be employed to measure the power in a 3 phase
connected the balanced or unbalanced load.
Consider the balanced load 𝑍∠𝜃 13 phase ,
3 wires)
,
&

ref ,
-

In two wattmeter method, the current coils of the wattmeter are connected with any two
lines, the potential coil of each wattmeter is joined on the same line, the third line B as
shown in the figure.

Jateslid Singsathien 55
Power factor

1. Active Power (hostnats) : W

der 2 .
Reactive Power Critical reactivel : var

3
.
Apparent power crissimavany) : VA

⑤ a
source
into Proces
O :n des
magnetic field
or S
P : no 188s intrstores call

M
von ben loss Pugunind/reur

Electric Fan
PF =
P
S
= cosp
,
w =

Vogeg
PX ideal
-20 loss Posau

===
device)
PF

S-
 7. Two Wattmeter Method
Consider first the positive sequence component A, B,
and C

The power measured by the two wattmeters W and W will be obtained

W = V I cos θ W = V I cos θ

where θ is the phase difference between I and V .

θ is the phase difference between I and V .

From the phasor diagram, the power measured by the wattmeter W and W are

W = V I cos(30° + θ) W = V I cos(30° − θ)

Jateslid Singsathien 56
 7. Two Wattmeter Method
From the Trigonometry formula and Identities

cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵

cos 𝐴 − 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵

W + W = 3𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜃 (1) W − W = 𝑉 𝐼 sin 𝜃 (2)

The equation (1) is divided Therefor, the power measured by the

by (2), we get wattmeter is given by the equation
phase B-ref .

C-ref . A-ref.

3(W − W ) 3(W③3
−W ) 3(W − W )
tan 𝜃 = 33 tan 𝜃 = =
W +W W +W W +W

Jateslid Singsathien 57
 FA Fan
=

:= Iph
7. Two Wattmeter Method Positive Phase Sequence

IA Load :
-series -

VBN
VICOSQ 7
+
WasO
v
&
FAN VAN Wa
=COSO
VBV-N-- Von
-C

VAB =
VcB V =

VBN
Van VCB
-

t
. +
Ich
-

⑫
In Ic I
ref =
=

Vie IcA

I
=

In VAB
t
T
Ic -

VCB + Van-VBn =
O &
wires ja
3-phase
:
3
,
VCB =
Von-VBN Van
VL O
source : VAB VaB (Line Voltage) :

Van + C-VBN)
,

FA Ic ,
(Line current) : In Fan =
It
-

VAB + VAN-VBn
Load : VANs Ven Van (Phase Voltage) Uph
,
: =
0

FAN FBn Is (Phase current) : Iph

,
-

VBN
Vab =
Van-Ven =

Van
ms do no

Jateslid Singsathien 58
 lead
Views I : gg
CIVIL :

7. Two Wattmeter Method L : V-I

I mus V : 98
lag
Assume that the 3-phase inductive load is balanced with the positive sequence. -
Vab-InLoad : I lagv Figay t
Marga (load in wi)
Wa = VI cos , VI =
,
cos (30 + 0)
Wc =
V [cos =
VI ,
cos(30 -

0)
VCB Ic
,

Wa =
VI (cossocos-sineising) (1)

We =
Vl (cosnocoso + singosino) (2)
Y
(2) -

(1) :
We-Wa = VEsingosino-Vlessing
1Vlsing + Isino
=

Wc-Wa =
V I sing (3)

Jateslid Singsathien 59
 3(W − W )
tan 𝜃 =
W +W
7. Two Wattmeter Method
E E
(27 +(1) : Na + Wa = VE Cosscoso + VI, cosnocoso

=
13VI , COS8 (4)

VEN
(3)/(4) : Wi-WA =
To

We t WA

tano = B3 (W = - WA)
Wc + WA

Jateslid Singsathien 60
 7. Two Wattmeter Method
Problem 9. In the three-phase balanced load with the positive sequence shown in
the circuit, The two-wattmeter method produces wattmeter readings W =
6717 W, W = 2658 W.
Find the power factor of the load.
tano = B3 (W = - WA)
PF
= cosly
= Wc + WA

tano = v3 (2658-6717)
2658 + 6717

0 = -

36 867
.

:
Power factor = Cost = COS ( - 36 . 867)
=
8 8
.

Jateslid Singsathien 61
 8. Clamp-on AC Ammeter

• equipped with rigid jaws of made of ferrite iron.

• The jaws are wrapped by coils of copper wire.
Together, they form a magnetic core during
measurements. CT : Current Transformer
mmf NI
=
stornowa con
Go
= Vit Note
Magnetomotive Fore
=

name
𝑁 𝐼
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑁 𝐼
B
Ammeter jnd 4A
,
N2 = 15 turns.
N , I
E2 Il =
60A :

It works with one primary turn, or winding, which in nearly all cases is the conductor being
measured. The coils around the jaws serve as a secondary winding of the current
transformer. : and I any not Canadia annonce Ins)
CT/clamp-on
Jateslid Singsathien 62
 8. Clamp-on AC Ammeter
Current flowing through the
conductor generates an alternating
magnetic field that rotates around
it.
radivacion dintrusion I iva roars
This field is concentrated by the clamp’s iron core, inducing a flow of current in
the secondary windings in the meter. The measure of the amount of magnetic
field passing through the conductor (or any surface) is called magnetic flux.

-zizism 1508 Gu
The signal is proportional to the ratio of the turns. A much smaller current is
delivered to the meter’s input due to the ratio of the number of secondary
windings (those wrapped around the jaws of the clamp) vs. the number of
primary windings wrapped around the core.

Jateslid Singsathien 63
 8. Clamp-on AC Ammeter 𝑁 𝐼
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑁 𝐼
For example,

• If the secondary has 1000 windings, then the secondary current is 1/1000
the current flowing in the primary.
• 1 amp of current in the conductor being measured would produce 0.001
amps, or 1 milliamp, of current at the input of the meter. With this technique,
much larger currents can be easily measured by increasing the number of
turns in the secondary.

• Internally, the current flow in the conductor can be measured either as a

current—some older clamp accessories plug into the current jacks of a
digital multimeter—or can be converted to a voltage. Most clamp meters
now have mV output. Current transformer clamp meters only respond to ac
waveforms.

Jateslid Singsathien 64
 8. Clamp-on AC Ammeter

Jateslid Singsathien 65