MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

LESSON 5 ROLLING PROCESSES

STRUCTURE

METAL SPINNING

5.1 ROLLING OPERATION

5.2 HOT ROLLING

5.3 COLD ROLLING

5.4 ROLLING MILLS

5.4.1 TWO HIGH, PULL OVER

5.4.2 TWO HIGH, REVERSING

5.4.3 THREE HIGH

5.4.4 FOUR HIGH

5.4.5 CONTINUOUS MILLS

5.4.6 PLANETARY ROLLING MILL

5.4.7 UNIVERSAL ROLLING MILL

5.5 ROLLING PARAMETERS

5.6 THREAD ROLLING

5.7 DEFECTS IN ROLLED PLATES AND SHEETS

MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

METAL SPINNING
When dies are uneconomical to make for a forming operation because of small
number of parts to be made, spinning could be a solution.
Metal spinning is a term used to describe the forming of metal into seamless
(jointless), axisymmetric shapes by a combination of rotational motion and force.
Metal spinning typically involves the forming of axisymmetric components over a
rotating mandrel using rigid tools or rollers.

Figure 1 shows examples of products made from metal spinning. The range of
components include:
_ Bases, baskets, basins, and bowls
_ Bottoms for tanks, hoppers, and kettles
_ Canopies, caps, and canisters
_ Housings for blowers, fans, filters, and flywheels
_ Ladles, nozzles, orifices, and tank outlets
_ Pails, pans, and pontoons
_ Cones, covers, and cups
_ Cylinders and drums
_ Funnels and horns
_ Domes, hemispheres, and shells
_ Rings, spun tubing, and seamless shapes
_ Vents, venturis, and fan wheels

Figure 1: Various components produced by metal spinning.

The equipment for metal spinning is based on lathe technology, with appropriate
modifications for the components that are being formed. Typically, sheet performs
(flat sheet) are employed to allow relatively low forming stresses. Metal spinning can
be used to cost-effectively produce single or a small number of parts out of
expensive materials. In manual spinning, a circular blank of a flat sheet, or preform,
is pressed against a rotating mandrel using a rigid tool. The mandrel is mounted on
the lathe head stock and the live centre (tail stock) of lathe is used to hold the sheet
metal in place. The spinning tool is moved either manually or hydraulically over the
MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

mandrel to form the component, as shown in Figure 2 & 3. The forming operation
can be performed using several passes. As shown in figure 2 & 3. Then sheet metal
is formed over it (mandrel) by the spinning operation as shown in Figure 2 & 3.Tools
of different configurations can be used.

Figure 2: Metal spinning process, Figure 3: Spinning process to form sheet metal over
showing the deformation of a metal a revolving mandrel.
disk over a mandrel to form a cone
MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

Introduction
The process of shaping metals and alloys into semi-finished or finished condition
by passing between rolls is known as rolling. This process involves the plastic
deformation of the metal in which the thickness of the metal is reduced, while the
length and width are increased. There are two types of rolling process, flat and
profile (shape) rolling. In flat rolling the final shape of the product is either flat
sheet (typically thickness less than 3 mm, also called "strip") or plate (typically
thickness more than 3 mm). In profile rolling the final product may be a round rod
or other shaped bar, such as a structural section (rails for railway lines, girders
for bridges (I-beam), channel, joist, 900 angle section, etc). Rolling is the most
used metal forming process and accounts for about 90 percent of all metal
products produced by metal forming. Rolling is also classified according to the
temperature of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its
recrystallization temperature, then the process is termed as hot rolling. If the
temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is
termed as cold rolling.

Typical characteristics of rolling are:

1. Production of flat parts at high speeds
2. Production of various structural shapes
3. High capital investment
4. Low to moderate labor cost

5.1 Rolling Operation

The process of rolling consists of passing the ingot (the piece of metal to be
rolled) through two rolls rotating in opposite directions at a uniform peripheral
speed. The space between the rolls is adjusted to confirm to the desired
thickness of the rolled section. The rolls, thus, squeeze the ingot and as it comes
out of the rolls, its thickness or cross section is reduced and its width and length
are increased. The rolling process is shown in Figure 5.1.
Upper Roll

O
A Direction of travel
B C
Roll Pressure

Raw material Drawn material

pulled in pushed out B
A
Refined Grains
Elongated Grains Entrance Exit
Original
unworked Length of contact
grains Lower Roll
Figure 5.1 Rolling process and deformation of grains in Figure 5.2 Pressure variation in
rolling rolling

The structural changes that occur in the material during the rolling process are
shown in Figure 5.1. Because of squeezing, the grains are elongated in the
direction of rolling and the velocity of material at exit is higher than that at the
MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

entry. After crossing the stress-zone, grains start refining in the case of hot
rolling. In cold rolling, grains retain the shape acquired by them during rolling.

The rolls are in contact with the metal for a distance AB, as shown in Figure 5.1.
The angle AOB subtended at the center of the roll by the arc AB is known as
angle of contact or the angle of bite. It is the friction between the surfaces of the
metal and the rolls, which provides the required grip of the rolls over the metal
piece to draw the latter through them. The greater is the coefficient of friction
more is the possible reduction. However, energy is dissipated in overcoming
friction, so increasing friction means increasing forces and more power
consumption. Furthermore, high friction could damage the surface of the rolled
product. We therefore have to make a compromise. For obtaining low coefficients
of friction, effective lubricants are used.

The pressure distribution in rolling process is shown in Figure 5.2. The pressure
distribution is not uniform throughout, but varies as shown. It is seen from the
figure that it is minimum at both ends and maximum at a point C somewhere in
between A-B. From point A to point C the metal moves slower than the roll and
from C to B, the metal moves faster than the roll.

Note: It can be argued at this point that even by simply stretching the material, we can reduce
the thickness of the bar then why do we require rolling process? At the outset, the question
seems to be meaningful, but a moment’s thought will answer the question. Simply stretching the
material will not cause uniform deformation of the material, also, when the material is stretched
beyond its yield point, it may even cause the fracture of the material.

Roll-work contact length is reduced with a lower roll radius, and this leads to
lower forces, torque, and power. The four-high rolling mill uses two smaller
diameter rolls to contact the work and two backing rolls behind them. Another roll
configuration that allows smaller working rolls against the work is the cluster
rolling mill.

Rolling is often the first process that is used to convert material into a finished
wrought product. Thick starting stock (ingot) can be rolled into blooms, billets, or
slabs or these shapes can be obtained directly from continuous casting Ingot. It
is the initial product obtained by the casting of molten metal. It may be of circular,
square or any other convenient cross-section.

Bloom: It is obtained by hot rolling of an ingot. It is the product of the first rolling
down of the ingot. It is usually of square cross section with a cross-section area
above 225 cm2.

Billet: The minimum cross sectional area of a billet is about 4 cm by 4 cm.

However, in non-ferrous metallurgical terminology, a billet is any ingot which has
been subjected to hot working by rolling, forging etc. or the term refers to a
casting which is suitable for hot working.
MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

Slab: A slab refers to a hot rolled ingot with a cross sectional area greater than
100 cm2 and with a width at least twice the thickness.

Plate and Sheet: These are intermediate products obtained by rolling. The
difference between a plate and a sheet is determined by the thickness of the
product. In general, plate has a thickness greater than 6 mm and sheet has a
thickness less than 6 mm.

Sheet and Strip: These are rolled products with a thickness less than 6 mm.
Strip refers to the rolled product with a width less than 300 mm, while sheet
refers to the product of width above 300 mm.

Rolling of blooms, slabs, billets, and plates is usually done at temperatures

above the recrystallization temperature (hot rolling). Sheet and strip often are
rolled cold in order to maintain close thickness tolerances.

Figure 5.3: Flow chart for various flat rolling and shape rolling processes. White hot steel ingots
(continuous cast products) are passed through rolls which form the plastic steel into slab, billet,
bloom and semi-finished steel shapes. (Picture courtesy: Degarmo’s Manufacturing Process)
MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

Bloom is the product of first breakdown of ingot

Semi-finished (cross sectional area > 225 cm2).
products Billet is the product obtained from a further reduction
by hot rolling
(cross sectional area > 4x4 cm2).
Slab is the hot rolled ingot
(cross sectional area > 100 cm2 and with a width ≥ 2 x
thickness).
Further rolling steps
Plate is the product with a thickness > 6 mm.
Mill flat products Sheet is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and
width > 300 mm.
Strip is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and width
< 300 mm.
Table 1: Flat rolling products at a glance

Bloom Billet Slab Plate Sheet Strip

Figure 5.4: Flat Rolling Products

5.2 Hot Rolling

The distinctive mark of hot rolling is not a crystallized structure, but the
simultaneous occurrence of dislocation propagation and softening processes,
with or without recrystallization during rolling. The dominant mechanism depends
on temperature and grain size. In general, the recrystallized structure becomes
finer with lower deformation temperature and faster cooling rates and material of
superior properties are obtained by controlling the finishing temperature.

Hot rolling offers several advantages:

1) Flow stresses are low, hence forces and power requirements are relatively
low, and even very large workpieces can be deformed with equipment of
reasonable size.
2) Ductility is high; hence large deformations can be taken (in excess of 99%
reduction).
3) Complex part shapes can be generated.

5.3 Cold Rolling

Cold rolling, in the everyday sense, means rolling at room temperature, although
the work of deformation can raise temperatures to 100-200°C. Cold rolling
usually follows hot rolling. A material subjected to cold rolling strain hardness
considerably. Dislocation density increases, and when a tension test is
performed on this strain-hardened material, a higher stress will be needed to
initiate and maintain plastic deformation; thus, the yield stress increases.
However, the ductility of the material – as expressed by total elongation and
MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

reduction of area – drops because of the higher initial dislocation density.

Similarly, strength coefficient rises and strain-hardening exponent drops. Crystals
(grains) become elongated in the direction of major deformation.

Cold rolling has several advantages:

1) In the absence of cooling and oxidation, tighter tolerances and better
surface finish can be obtained.
2) Thinner walls are possible.
3) The final properties of the workpiece can be closely controlled and, if
desired, the high strength obtained during cold rolling can be retained or, if
high ductility is needed, grain size can be controlled before annealing.
4) Lubrication is, in general, easier.

5.4 Rolling mills

A rolling mill basically consists of
• rolls
• bearings
• a housing for containing these parts
• a drive (motor) for applying power to the rolls and controlling the speed

Figure 5.5: Typical roll-pass sequences used in producing structural I-Beam shape

Figure 5.6: Typical roll-pass sequences used in producing structural 900 angle shape

The arrangement of rolls at a rolling station is called a rolling mill. Rolling mills
are commonly of the following types:
1. Two high, pull over
2. Two high, reversing
3. Three high
4. Four high
5. Continuous mills
6. Planetary rolling mill
7. Universal rolling mill

Figure shows different types of rolling mills and their characteristics are
described below.
MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

(a) Two-high (b) Two-high rolling

rolling mill mill (reversing)

(c) Three-high (d) Four-high

rolling mill rolling mill
Figure 5.7: Different types of rolling mills

Two-high Rolling Mills the name implies, it consists of two rolls between which
the sheet or bar to be rolled is placed, as shown in Figure 5.7(a). The rolls rotate
in one direction and rolling process is done in one direction only. The workpiece
passes through the rolls and is taken over the rolls and returned to the original
position for re-rolling and the process is repeated.

If the direction of rotation of rolls can be reversed alternately, then it is called two
high reversing mill. This is shown in Figure 5.7 (b). Here the rolling is done in
both directions, alternately. That is, the workpiece travels through the rolls in both
the directions.

Three-high Rolling Mill Three-high rolling mill is shown in Figure. In this top and
bottom rolls are power driven where as middle roll rotates only by friction. In this,
first stage rolling is done with one pair of rolls and same material is rolled again
(second stage of rolling) through the other pair of rolls, simultaneously.

Four-high Rolling Mill This is as shown in Figure. This consists of two small
diameter-working rolls and two large diameter back-up rolls, placed behind the
working rolls. The back-up rolls provide support and rigidity to small diameter
working rolls. These types of mills require less power for rolling because of lesser
frictional contact area. These are generally used for sheet rolling.
MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

Cluster mills (sendzimir or /-mill): A cluster mill consists of two working

rolls of smaller diameter which are backed by four or more back-up rolls of
larger diameter [Fig. 5.7 (d)]. The sendzimir mill facility is extremely costly
and is mostly used for cold rolling of thin sheets of high-strength metals.
Common rolled widths are between 0.66 and 1.5 metres.

Unrolled material
Rolled material

Stand 1 Stand 2 Stand 3 Stand 4 Windup reel

Uncoiler
Figure 5.8: Continuous rolling mill with four rolling mill stands

Continuous Rolling Mill This is also known as tandem mill. Continuous mill is
commonly used for high production. Each set of rolls is called as stand or rolling
mill stand. The continuous mill is shown in Figure 5.8.

Since a different reduction takes place at each stand, the strip will be moving at
different velocities at each stage in the mill. Thus, the rolls at stand 2 should run
at exit velocity of material at stand 1 and rolls at stand 3 should run at exit
velocity of material at stand 2 and so on. The speed of each set of rolls must be
synchronized so that each successive stand takes the strip at a speed equal to
the delivery speed of the preceding stand. The un-coiler and the windup reel
accomplish the functions of feeding the stock to the rolls and coiling up the final
product.

Planetary Rolling Mill

Planetary rolling mill is used to reduce slabs to coiled hot rolled strips in a single
pass. This mill consists of a pair of heavy backing rolls surrounded by a large
number of small planetary rolls equi-spaced on its periphery. The smaller rolls
revolve about the axis of the larger roll as planets revolve around the sun. The
mill is shown in Figure 5.9. Each planetary roll gives an almost constant
reduction to the slab as it sweeps out a circular path between the backing roll
and the slab. As each pair of planetary rolls ceases to have contact with the
workpiece another pair of rolls makes contact and repeats that reduction. The
overall reduction is the summation of a series of small reductions by each pair of
rolls in turn following each other in rapid succession. The action in the planetary
mill is more like forging than rolling. It is necessary to use feed rolls to introduce
the slab into the mill, and a pair of planishing rolls may be needed on the exit
side to improve the surface finish.
MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

Backing roll
Planetory rolls

Direction
of feed

Rolled material
Unrolled material

Figure 5.9: Planetary rolling mill

Universal rolling mill Universal mill consists of two pairs of rolls, axes of one
pair are horizontal and the axes of other pair are vertical, mounted on a
common roll stand. The horizontal rolls roll the material as in a two-high rolling
mill and vertical mill does the function of giving a perfect edge to the rolled
product. This type of rolling mill is used for the rolling of beams; I-sections and
plate products that require rolled (finished) edges etc. This type of rolling mill is
shown in Figure 5.10.
Horizontal Rolls

Vertical Rolls
Figure 5.10: Universal rolling mill

5.5 Rolling Parameters

Let l1 be the initial length, b1 be the initial breadth and t1 be the initial thickness of
the workpiece, respectively. Similarly, let l2, b2 and t2 represent final length,
breadth and thickness of the workpiece, respectively, after rolling.

Absolute draught: Absolute draught also called as draft is defined as the

difference between the initial and final thickness of metal being rolled and is
expressed as
δ t = t1 − t 2 (1)
The maximum possible draft, is given by
MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

δmax = μ2R (2)

where μ = coefficient of friction between roll and work, and R = Radius of roll.

Thus, the higher the friction and the larger the roll radius, the greater is the draft
giving more reduction in thickness. This situation is similar to the use of large
tires and rough treads on farm tractors and off-road earth-moving equipment,
permitting the equipment to travel over rough terrain without skidding. You can
better understand it if you know why serrations are provided on the tyres of your
vehicle. The serrations are provided on the periphery to help in providing the grip
over the road surface. If there are no serrations, tyre will tend to slip on the road.
Similarly, if the surface of the roll and workpieces are smooth then, the rolls will
tend to slip over the workpiece surface without appreciable deformation.

Absolute elongation: It is the difference between final and initial length of the
work piece being rolled and is given by
δ l = l 2 − l1 (3)
Absolute spread: It is the difference between final and initial breadth of the work
piece being rolled and is given by
δ b = b2 − b1 (4)
Relative draught: It is the ratio of absolute draught to initial thickness of the
workpiece expressed as percentage of the same, and is given by
δt
Rt = × 100
t1 (5)
Elongation coefficient: It is the ratio of final length to initial length and is given by
l
μL = 2
l1 (6)
Angle of contact: It is the angle subtended at the center of the roll by the arc of
contact AB (see Figure 5.3). If α is the angle of the contact, it is given by

δt
cos α = 1 −
D (7)
where D = diameter of the roll.
Coefficient of friction: Coefficient of friction between roll and the work is given by:

μ = tan α (8)

Determine the maximum possible reduction for cold rolling a 300 mm thick slab
when μ = 0.09 and the roll diameter is 700 mm. What is the maximum reduction
on the same mill for hot rolling when μ = 0.09?
Solution We know that
δmax = μ2R
Hence for Cold rolling
δmax = (0.09)2 x 350
MEM 103 Unit 2, Lesson 5

= 2.835 mm
For Hot rolling
δmax = (0.5)2 x 350
= 87.5 mm

5.6 THREAD ROLLING

Thread rolling is essentially a cold working process in which a cylindrical
workpiece, having a diameter approximately equal to the pitch diameter of the
required thread, is rotated between hard dies having the negative contour of the
threads to be formed. Thread rolling is shown in Figure 5.6. In this process, the
part to be threaded is rolled between two flat dies-one stationary and the other
reciprocating. Reciprocating thread-rolling machines are highly versatile. Two or
three sets of flat dies each having a different thread form can be assembled in a
single machine for special applications such as the rolling of different threads
simultaneously, threading and knurling on the same part, rolling right and left
hand threads at the same time etc.
Workpiece

Thread Rolling
Die
Stationary Die
Blank

Reciprocating Die

Figure 5.11: Thread rolling

Defects in Rolled Plates and Sheets

Defects in hot rolled plates and sheets may occur on the surface or internally
in the rolled plates and sheets. Surface defects include: scale, rust,
scratches, pits, cracks, etc. These defects are caused by inclusions and
impurities present in the ingots or by other conditions related to material
preparation and rolling operation. Other defects are shown in Figure 5.12.

Figure 5.12: Defects in flat rolling

These are wavy edges on sheets due to roll bending: strip is thinner along
edges than its centre. Other defects, namely, zipper cracks in the centre of
strip and edge crack are due to poor material ductility at the rolling temperature.
Alligatoring defect is a complex phenomenon and may be because of non uniform
deformation during rolling or defects already present in the cast ingot.