DMS solutions

Part – I

1. Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the conditional statement

“The home team wins, whenever it is raining.”

Converse: "If the home team wins, then it is raining."

Inverse: "If it is not raining, then the home team does not win."
Contrapositive: "If the home team does not win, then it is not raining."

2. Write the logical expression of the sentence “you can access the Internet
from campus, only if you are a computer science major or you are not a
freshman.”
Logical expression: (A → (C ∨ ~F)), where A = access Internet, C = computer science
major, F = freshman.

3. For any four sets 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 & 𝐷, find |𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ∪ 𝐷|.

|A ∪ B ∪ C ∪ D| = |A| + |B| + |C| + |D| - |A ∩ B| - |A ∩ C| - |A ∩ D| - |B ∩ C| - |B
∩ D| - |C ∩ D| + |A ∩ B ∩ C| + |A ∩ B ∩ D| + |A ∩ C ∩ D| + |B ∩ C ∩ D| - |A ∩ B ∩
C ∩ D|

4. Write the converse of inverse of contrapositive of the statement “if I will

be the king of the state then I can’t change the economical status of the
people.”
Converse of inverse of contrapositive: "If I can change the economical status, then I
will not be the king."

5. When the propositions both p & q are true and false respectively, then write
truth value of the statement
~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ ~𝑞.
~(T ∧ F) ∨ ~F = ~(F) ∨ T = T ∨ T = T

6. Show that ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) are logically equivalent.

~(p ∨ q) = ~p ∧ ~q (De Morgan's law), so they are logically equivalent.
7. Write the examples of tautologies and contradictions using just one
propositional variable.
Tautology: p ∨ ~p, Contradiction: p ∧ ~p

8. Write the steps used in principle of mathematical induction.

Steps in mathematical induction:

a. Base case

b. Inductive hypothesis

c. Inductive step

9. State which rule of inference is used in the valid argument “It is below
freezing now. Therefore, it is either below freezing or raining now.”
Rule of inference: Addition

10. State which rule of inference is used in the valid argument: “If it rains
today, then we will not have a barbecue today. If we do not have a
barbecue today, then we will have a barbecue tomorrow. Therefore, if it
rains today, then we will have a barbecue tomorrow.”
Rule of inference: Hypothetical syllogism

11. What is the truth value of 𝑄(2,3,5) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(0,1,2) for the propositional
function 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) defined by 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑧.
Q(2,3,5): 2 + 3 = 5 (T), Q(0,1,2): 0 + 1 ≠ 2 (F)

12. Write the negation of the proposition ∃𝑥 ∈ ℕ, ∀𝑦 ∈ ℤ: 𝑥 ≥ 𝑦.

Negation: ∀x ∈ ℕ, ∃y ∈ ℤ: x < y

13. Define equivalence relation. Give a suitable example of a relation which is

symmetric, transitive, but not reflexive, where 𝐴 = {1,2,3}.
Equivalence relation: reflexive, symmetric, transitive. Example of symmetric,
transitive but not reflexive relation on A = {1,2,3}: R = {(2,2), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3)}

14. Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = {(1,2), (1,3), (3,1), (2,3)} on

𝐴. Check the given relation is symmetric or anti-symmetric ?
Relation R = {(1,2), (1,3), (3,1), (2,3)} is neither symmetric nor anti-symmetric.

15. Write the number of possible reflexive relations, symmetric relations on

set 𝐴 = {1,2,3,∙∙∙, 𝑛}.
Number of reflexive relations = 2^(n^2 - n), Number of symmetric relations =
2^(n(n+1)/2)

16. Write the number of anti-symmetric relations on set 𝐴 containing five

elements.
 Number of anti-symmetric relations = 2^n * 3^(n(n-1)/2) = 2^5 * 3^(5(5-1)/2) = 2^5 *
3^10

17. Give an example of a relation which is which is reflexive, symmetric, but

not transitive.
Example of reflexive, symmetric but not transitive relation: R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3),
(1,2), (2,1)} on A = {1,2,3}

18. Let R = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (1,1)} be a relation defined on the set A = {1,2,3}. Write
reflexive closure, symmetric closure of the relation R.

Reflexive closure: R ∪ {(2,2), (3,3)} = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (1,1), (2,2), (3,3)}
Symmetric closure: R ∪ {(2,1), (3,2), (1,3)} = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (1,1), (2,1), (3,2), (1,3)}

19. Let R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2), (3,1), (3,2)} be a relation defined on the set A = {1,2,3}.
Write transitive closure of the relation R by using composition of relation.

Transitive closure: R ∪ {(1,2), (3,3)} = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2), (3,1), (3,2), (1,2), (3,3)}

20. Find equivalence class of the relation R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5), (1,2), (2,1),
(4,5), (5,4)} on the set A = {1,2,3,4,5}.

Equivalence classes: {1,2}, {3}, {4,5}

21. Find partition of the set A = {1,2,3,4,5} on the relation R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4),
(5,5), (1,2), (2,1), (4,5), (5,4)}.

Partition: {{1,2}, {3}, {4,5}}

22. Write all possible equivalence relations on A = {1,2,3}.

23. {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3)}

24. {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,2), (2,1)}

25. {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3), (3,1)}

26. {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (2,3), (3,2)}

27. {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,2), (2,1), (1,3), (3,1), (2,3), (3,2)}

23. Define comparable and incomparable in a poset with suitable examples.

Comparable: Two elements a, b in a poset are comparable if a ≤ b or b ≤ a.

Incomparable: Two elements a, b in a poset are incomparable if neither a ≤ b nor b ≤ a.

Example: In the poset ({1,2,3}, ≤), 1 and 2 are comparable. In the poset ({a,b}, ⊆), {a} and {b}
are incomparable.

24. Define poset. Show that the poset (ℤ, ≤) is a totally ordered set on the set of integers.
Poset: A set with a partial order relation.
Totally ordered set: A poset where every two elements are comparable.

(ℤ, ≤) is a totally ordered set because for any two integers a, b, either a ≤ b or b ≤ a.

25. Show that the “greater than or equal (≥)’’ relation is a partial ordering on the set of
integers.

The ≥ relation is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive, so it's a partial ordering.

26. When we say a function invertible with suitable examples.

A function f is invertible if it has an inverse function f^(-1) such that f(f^(-1)(x)) = x.

Example: f(x) = 2x is invertible with inverse f^(-1)(x) = x/2.

27. Find the inverse of the real function f(x) = (2x-1)/(x+3).

f^(-1)(x) = (-3x-1)/(x-2)

28. If f(x) = 2x^2 and g(x) = 13x, then determine (f ∘ g)(x).

(f ∘ g)(x) = f(g(x)) = 2(13x)^2 = 338x^2

29. Write the standard form of the linear recurrence relation with constant coefficient.

a_n = c_1a_(n-1) + c_2a_(n-2) + … + c_ka_(n-k)

30. Find a_2 and a_3 for the recurrence relation a_n = a_(n-1) - a_(n-2), n ≥ 2, where a_0
= 3 and a_1 = 5.

a_2 = a_1 - a_0 = 5 - 3 = 2

a_3 = a_2 - a_1 = 2 - 5 = -3

31. If the roots of the characteristic equation for a linear homogeneous recurrence
relation are 2, 5, 6, 5, 7, 7, 11, write the general solution.

General solution: a_n = c_1(2)^n + c_2(5)^n + c_3n(5)^n + c_4(6)^n + c_5(7)^n + c_6n(7)^n +

c_7(11)^n

32. Write the generating function for the sequence (1,1,1,1,1,…).

Generating function: 1/(1-x)

33. Write the numeric function for the sequence (0,3,6,9,12,31,63,…).

Not a standard sequence.

34. Write the generating function for the sequence (2,4,8,16,32,…).

Generating function: 2/(1-2x)

35. Write the generating function of numeric function a_n = 2^n + 3^n.
Generating function: 1/(1-2x) + 1/(1-3x)

36. Write the general solution of the homogeneous recurrence relation having
characteristic roots 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6.

General solution: a_n = c_1(2)^n + c_2n(2)^n + c_3(3)^n + c_4n(3)^n + c_5n^2(3)^n +

c_6(4)^n + c_7n(4)^n + c_8(5)^n + c_9(6)^n

37. Find the trial solution or particular solution of the recurrence relation a_n = 4a_(n-1)
+ 5^n.

Trial solution: a_n = c(5)^n

38. Find the trial solution or particular solution of the recurrence relation a_n = 5a_(n-1)
- 6a_(n-2) + 5^n.

Trial solution: a_n = c(5)^n

39. Write the recurrence relation with suitable example.

Recurrence relation: a_n = f(a_(n-1), a_(n-2), …, a_(n-k))

Example: Fibonacci sequence a_n = a_(n-1) + a_(n-2)

40. Define group and abelian group. Give a suitable example of a group but not an
abelian group.

Group: A set with a binary operation that satisfies certain properties.

Abelian group: A group where the operation is commutative.

Example of non-abelian group: Matrix multiplication.

41. Which of the followings are not an abelian group. (ℤ, +), (ℤ,×), (ℤ, −), (ℚ, +), (ℝ, +).

(ℤ, ×) and (ℤ, -) are not abelian groups.

42. Show that {1, -1} is a group with respect to multiplication.

{1, -1} satisfies the group properties under multiplication.

43. Define groupoid and semigroup. Give an example of a semigroup but not a groupoid.

Groupoid: A set with a binary operation.

Semigroup: A groupoid with associative operation.

Example: (ℕ, +) is a semigroup.

44. Which of the followings are not monoid? (ℕ, +), (ℤ, ×), (ℤ, −), (ℚ, +), (ℝ, +).

(ℤ, -) and (ℕ, +) without identity are not monoids.

 45. Show that {1, ω, ω^2}, the cube roots of unity is a commutative group with respect
to usual multiplication.

46. {1, ω, ω^2} satisfies the group properties under multiplication and is commutative.
Which of the followings are not a Semi-group.
(ℤ, +), (ℤ,×), (ℤ, −), (ℚ, +), (ℝ, +).

(ℤ, -) is not a semigroup because subtraction is not associative.

47. Define semi-group and monoid. Give an example of a semi-group but not a monoid.

Semigroup: A set with an associative binary operation.

Monoid: A semigroup with an identity element.

Example: (2ℤ, +) is a semigroup but not a monoid.

48. Which of the followings are not groups.

(ℤ, +), (ℤ,×), (ℤ, −), (ℚ, +), (ℝ, +).

(ℤ, ×), (ℤ, -), and (ℚ+, × without 0) are not groups.

49. Define sub-group and group. Give a suitable example of a group but not a sub-group.

Subgroup: A subset of a group that is itself a group.

Group: A set with a binary operation that satisfies certain properties.

Example: (ℝ, +) is a group, but (ℕ, +) is not a subgroup of (ℤ, +) because ℕ is not a subset of
the group operation in the context required for subgroup consideration in this traditional
sense, though it could fit in some contexts.

50. Which of the followings are not a groupoid.

(ℕ,+), (ℤ,÷), (ℕ, −), (ℚ, +), (ℝ, +).

(ℤ, ÷) is not a groupoid because division is not a binary operation on ℤ.

51. Define groupoid and semi-group. Give an example of a semi-group but not a
groupoid.

This question seems to be incorrectly framed as a semigroup is a type of groupoid.

52. Show that {1,𝑖, −𝑖} is not a group with respect to multiplication.

{1, 𝑖, −𝑖} is not closed under multiplication since 𝑖 * 𝑖 = −1, which is not in the set.

53. How many simple graphs are possible with 4 vertices?

2^(4 choose 2) = 2^6 = 64

54. Show that the degree sequence 4,3,3,2,1 is not graphical.

The sum of degrees is odd (13), which is not possible in a graph.

 55. State and prove handshaking theorem.

Handshaking theorem: The sum of degrees of all vertices in a graph is twice the number of
edges.

Proof: Each edge contributes to the degree of two vertices.

56. How many edges are there in a graph with 10 vertices each of degree 6?

Sum of degrees = 10 * 6 = 60
Number of edges = 60 / 2 = 30

57. If a graph has five vertices of degree 4 and four vertices of degree 3, how many edges
does it have?

Sum of degrees = 5 * 4 + 4 * 3 = 20 + 12 = 32
Number of edges = 32 / 2 = 16

58. How many edges are in 𝐾5, 𝐾7 & 𝐾10?

𝐾5: 10 edges, 𝐾7: 21 edges, 𝐾10: 45 edges

59. Define complete graph. Draw complete graph each for the case when number of
vertices is given by, 𝑛 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 4.

Complete graph: A graph where every vertex is connected to every other vertex.

60. How many simple graphs are possible with 4 vertices?

2^(4 choose 2) = 2^6 = 64

61. Show that there does not exist a graph with 5 vertices with degrees 1, 3, 4, 2, 3
respectively.

The sum of degrees is 13 (odd), which is not possible in a graph.

PART – II

Show that; 𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑟)

To prove the equivalence, we can use truth tables or logical laws.

Using logical laws:

𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ ~𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)
≡ (~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (~𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)
≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑟)
This shows that the two statements are logically equivalent.

2. Show that; [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑟)] → (𝑝 → 𝑟) is a tautology

To prove that the statement is a tautology, we can use truth tables or logical laws.

Using logical laws:

[(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑟)] → (𝑝 → 𝑟)
≡ ~(~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ ~(~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ (~𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)
≡ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) ∨ (𝑞 ∧ ~𝑟) ∨ (~𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)
≡ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟) ∧ (~𝑞 ∨ ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)
≡T

This shows that the statement is always true, regardless of the truth values of 𝑝, 𝑞, and 𝑟.

3. Show that; (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (~𝑝) ∧ (~𝑞) is a contradiction

To prove that the statement is a contradiction, we can use truth tables or logical laws.

Using logical laws:

(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (~𝑝) ∧ (~𝑞)
≡ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) ∨ (𝑞 ∧ ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞)
≡F∨F
≡F

This shows that the statement is always false, regardless of the truth values of 𝑝 and 𝑞.

4. A total of 1232 students have taken a course in Spanish, 879 have taken a course in
French, and 114 have taken a course in Russian...

Let S, F, and R denote the sets of students who have taken Spanish, French, and Russian,
respectively.

|S ∪ F ∪ R| = |S| + |F| + |R| - |S ∩ F| - |S ∩ R| - |F ∩ R| + |S ∩ F ∩ R|

2092 = 1232 + 879 + 114 - 103 - 23 - 14 + |S ∩ F ∩ R|
2092 = 2085 + |S ∩ F ∩ R|
|S ∩ F ∩ R| = 7

Therefore, 7 students have taken courses in all three languages.

5. How many positive integers not exceeding 1000 are divisible by 7 or 11?

Number of integers divisible by 7 = ⌊1000/7⌋ = 142

Number of integers divisible by 11 = ⌊1000/11⌋ = 90
Number of integers divisible by 77 = ⌊1000/77⌋ = 12
Number of integers divisible by 7 or 11 = 142 + 90 - 12 = 220

Therefore, there are 220 positive integers not exceeding 1000 that are divisible by 7 or 11.
How many integers are not divisible by 2 or 3 or 5 in a set {1,2,3,4,...,122,123}?

Number of integers divisible by 2 = ⌊123/2⌋ = 61

Number of integers divisible by 3 = ⌊123/3⌋ = 41
Number of integers divisible by 5 = ⌊123/5⌋ = 24
Number of integers divisible by 2 and 3 = ⌊123/6⌋ = 20
Number of integers divisible by 2 and 5 = ⌊123/10⌋ = 12
Number of integers divisible by 3 and 5 = ⌊123/15⌋ = 8
Number of integers divisible by 2, 3, and 5 = ⌊123/30⌋ = 4
Number of integers divisible by 2 or 3 or 5 = 61 + 41 + 24 - 20 - 12 - 8 + 4 = 90
Number of integers not divisible by 2 or 3 or 5 = 123 - 90 = 33

Therefore, there are 33 integers in the set {1,2,3,4,...,122,123} that are not divisible by 2 or 3
or 5.

7. Use mathematical induction to prove that (𝑛^3 − 𝑛) is divisible by 3!, whenever 𝑛 is a

positive integer.

Base case: 𝑛 = 1, (1^3 - 1) = 0, which is divisible by 3! = 6.

Inductive step: Assume (𝑘^3 - 𝑘) is divisible by 6. Show ((𝑘+1)^3 - (𝑘+1)) is divisible by 6.
((𝑘+1)^3 - (𝑘+1)) = 𝑘^3 + 3𝑘^2 + 3𝑘 + 1 - 𝑘 - 1
= 𝑘^3 + 3𝑘^2 + 2𝑘
= (𝑘^3 - 𝑘) + 3𝑘^2 + 3𝑘
= (𝑘^3 - 𝑘) + 3𝑘(𝑘 + 1)

Since (𝑘^3 - 𝑘) is divisible by 6 and 3𝑘(𝑘 + 1) is divisible by 6 (since one of 𝑘 and 𝑘+1 is even),
((𝑘+1)^3 - (𝑘+1)) is divisible by 6.

8. Use mathematical induction to prove the inequality 2𝑛 + 1 < 2^𝑛, for all positive integers
𝑛 ≥ 3.

Base case: 𝑛 = 3, 2*3 + 1 = 7 < 2^3 = 8.

Inductive step: Assume 2𝑘 + 1 < 2^𝑘. Show 2(𝑘+1) + 1 < 2^(𝑘+1).
2(𝑘+1) + 1 = 2𝑘 + 3
< 2^𝑘 + 2^𝑘 (since 2𝑘 + 1 < 2^𝑘 and 2 < 2^𝑘 for 𝑘 ≥ 3)
= 2^(𝑘+1)

Therefore, the inequality holds for all positive integers 𝑛 ≥ 3.

9. Define equivalence relation. Give a suitable example of a relation which is symmetric,

transitive, but not reflexive, where 𝐴 = {1,2,3}.

An equivalence relation is a relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

Example: R = {(2,2), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3)} on A = {1,2,3}.

R is symmetric since (2,3) ∈ R implies (3,2) ∈ R, and (2,2) ∈ R implies (2,2) ∈ R, and (3,3) ∈ R
implies (3,3) ∈ R.

R is transitive since (2,3) ∈ R and (3,2) ∈ R imply (2,2) ∈ R, and (3,2) ∈ R and (2,3) ∈ R imply
(3,3) ∈ R.

R is not reflexive since (1,1) ∉ R.

10. Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝑅 = {(1,2), (1,3), (3,1), (2,3)} on 𝐴. Check the given relation is
symmetric or anti-symmetric ?

A relation R on a set A is symmetric if for every (a, b) ∈ R, (b, a) ∈ R.

A relation R on a set A is anti-symmetric if for every (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R, a = b.

Given R = {(1,2), (1,3), (3,1), (2,3)}, we can see that:

(1,2) ∈ R but (2,1) ∉ R, so R is not symmetric.
(1,3) ∈ R and (3,1) ∈ R, but 1 ≠ 3, so R is not anti-symmetric.

Therefore, the relation R is neither symmetric nor anti-symmetric.

11. Write the number of possible reflexive relations, symmetric relations on set 𝐴 =
{1,2,3,...,𝑛}.

Number of reflexive relations = 2^(n^2 - n)

Number of symmetric relations = 2^(n(n+1)/2)

12. Write the number of anti-symmetric relations on set 𝐴 containing five elements.

Number of anti-symmetric relations = 2^n * 3^(n(n-1)/2)

= 2^5 * 3^(5(5-1)/2)
= 2^5 * 3^10

13. Give an example of a relation which is reflexive, symmetric, but not transitive.

Example: R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,2), (2,1)} on A = {1,2,3}.

R is reflexive since (1,1), (2,2), and (3,3) ∈ R.

R is symmetric since (1,2) ∈ R implies (2,1) ∈ R.
R is not transitive since (1,2) ∈ R and (2,1) ∈ R, but (1,1) ∈ R does not imply (1,1) ∉ R,
actually it does, however (1,2) and (2,1) are in R and (1,1) is also in R. A better example
would be R = {(1,1), (2,2), (1,2), (2,1)} on A = {1,2,3}.

14. Let 𝑅 = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (1,1)} be a relation defined on the set 𝐴 = {1,2,3}. Write
reflexive closure, symmetric closure of the relation 𝑅.

Reflexive closure: R ∪ {(2,2), (3,3)} = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (1,1), (2,2), (3,3)}
Symmetric closure: R ∪ {(2,1), (3,2), (1,3)} = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (1,1), (2,1), (3,2), (1,3)}
15. Let 𝑅 = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2), (3,1), (3,2)} be a relation defined on the set 𝐴 = {1,2,3}. Write
transitive closure of the relation 𝑅.

Transitive closure: R ∪ {(1,2), (3,3)} = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2), (3,1), (3,2), (1,2), (3,3)}

16. Let 𝑅 = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2), (3,1), (3,2)} be a relation defined on a set 𝐴 = {1,2,3}. Write
the transitive closure of 𝑅 using Warshall’s algorithm.

Using Warshall's algorithm, we get:

Transitive closure: {(1,1), (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)}

17. Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−1 + 2𝑎𝑛−2, 𝑛 ≥ 2 with initial condition 𝑎0 = 2 and 𝑎1 = 7.

Characteristic equation: 𝑥^2 - 𝑥 - 2 = 0

Roots: 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = -1
General solution: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐1(2)^𝑛 + 𝑐2(-1)^𝑛
Using initial conditions, we get:
𝑎0 = 2 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2
𝑎1 = 7 = 2𝑐1 - 𝑐2
Solving, we get 𝑐1 = 3 and 𝑐2 = -1.
𝑎𝑛 = 3(2)^𝑛 - (-1)^𝑛

18. Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 6𝑎𝑛−1 − 9𝑎𝑛−2, with initial condition 𝑎0 = 1 and 𝑎1 = 6.

Characteristic equation: 𝑥^2 - 6𝑥 + 9 = 0

Roots: 𝑥 = 3, 𝑥 = 3
General solution: 𝑎𝑛 = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2𝑛)(3)^𝑛
Using initial conditions, we get:
𝑎0 = 1 = 𝑐1
𝑎1 = 6 = 3(𝑐1 + 𝑐2)
Solving, we get 𝑐1 = 1 and 𝑐2 = 1.
𝑎𝑛 = (1 + 𝑛)(3)^𝑛

19. Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 6𝑎𝑛−1 − 11𝑎𝑛−2 + 6𝑎𝑛−3, with initial condition 𝑎0 = 2, 𝑎1 = 5 and 𝑎2 = 15.

Characteristic equation: 𝑥^3 - 6𝑥^2 + 11𝑥 - 6 = 0

Roots: 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 3
General solution: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐1(1)^𝑛 + 𝑐2(2)^𝑛 + 𝑐3(3)^𝑛
Using initial conditions, we get:
𝑎0 = 2 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3
𝑎1 = 5 = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 3𝑐3
𝑎2 = 15 = 𝑐1 + 4𝑐2 + 9𝑐3
Solving, we get 𝑐1 = 1, 𝑐2 = -1, and 𝑐3 = 2.
𝑎𝑛 = 1 - (2)^𝑛 + 2(3)^𝑛

20. Solve 𝑎𝑛 = −3𝑎𝑛−1 − 3𝑎𝑛−2 − 𝑎𝑛−3, with initial condition 𝑎0 = 1, 𝑎1 = −2 and 𝑎2 = −1.
Characteristic equation: 𝑥^3 + 3𝑥^2 + 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
Roots: 𝑥 = -1, 𝑥 = -1, 𝑥 = -1
General solution: 𝑎𝑛 = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2𝑛 + 𝑐3𝑛^2)(-1)^𝑛
Using initial conditions, we get:
𝑎0 = 1 = 𝑐1
𝑎1 = -2 = -(𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3)
𝑎2 = -1 = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 4𝑐3
Solving, we get 𝑐1 = 1, 𝑐2 = 2, and 𝑐3 = -1.
𝑎𝑛 = (1 + 2𝑛 - 𝑛^2)(-1)^𝑛

21. Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑎𝑛−1, 𝑛 ≥ 1,with initial condition 𝑎0 = 2, by using generating function.

Let G(x) be the generating function for the sequence {𝑎𝑛}.

G(x) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑥^𝑛
= 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑥^𝑛 (𝑛 ≥ 1)
= 2 + ∑ 3𝑎𝑛−1𝑥^𝑛 (𝑛 ≥ 1)
= 2 + 3𝑥 ∑ 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥^(𝑛-1) (𝑛 ≥ 1)
= 2 + 3𝑥G(x)

Solving for G(x), we get:

G(x) = 2 / (1 - 3x)
= 2 ∑ (3x)^n (𝑛 ≥ 0)
= ∑ 2(3)^n x^n (𝑛 ≥ 0)

Comparing coefficients, we get:

𝑎𝑛 = 2(3)^n

22. Solve 𝑎𝑛 − 5𝑎𝑛−1 + 6𝑎𝑛−2 − 2 = 0, with initial condition 𝑎0 = 1 and 𝑎1 = −1.

Let 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 - 1, then 𝑏𝑛 = 5𝑏𝑛−1 - 6𝑏𝑛−2.

Characteristic equation: 𝑥^2 - 5𝑥 + 6 = 0
Roots: 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 3
General solution: 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑐1(2)^𝑛 + 𝑐2(3)^𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛 + 1 = 𝑐1(2)^𝑛 + 𝑐2(3)^𝑛 + 1

Using initial conditions, we get:

𝑎0 = 1 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 1
𝑎1 = -1 = 2𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 + 1
Solving, we get 𝑐1 = 2 and 𝑐2 = -2.
𝑎𝑛 = 2(2)^𝑛 - 2(3)^𝑛 + 1

23. Find the numeric function for the generating function 𝐺(𝑥) = 1/((1-2𝑥)(1-3𝑥)).

Using partial fractions, we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = 3 / (1 - 3x) - 2 / (1 - 2x)
= 3 ∑ (3x)^n - 2 ∑ (2x)^n
= ∑ (3^(n+1) - 2^(n+1)) x^n

Comparing coefficients, we get:

𝑎𝑛 = 3^(n+1) - 2^(n+1)

24. Find the numeric function to the corresponding generating function 𝐺(𝑥) = 𝑥/(𝑥^2 - 𝑥 -
2).

Using partial fractions, we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = 1/3 (1 / (1 + x) - 1 / (1 - 2x))
= 1/3 (∑ (-x)^n - ∑ (2x)^n)
= 1/3 ∑ ((-1)^n - 2^n) x^n

Comparing coefficients, we get:

𝑎𝑛 = 1/3 ((-1)^n - 2^n)

25. Show that the set of four fourth roots of unity {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} forms an abelian group with
respect to multiplication.

The set {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} satisfies the following properties:

1. Closure: The product of any two elements is in the set.

2. Associativity: Multiplication is associative.

3. Identity: 1 is the identity element.

4. Inverse: Each element has an inverse (1, -1, 𝑖, -𝑖 have inverses 1, -1, -𝑖, 𝑖 respectively).

5. Commutativity: Multiplication is commutative.

Therefore, the set {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} forms an abelian group under multiplication.

26. Show that the set of cube root of unity {1, 𝑤, 𝑤^2} forms an abelian group with respect
to multiplication.

The set {1, 𝑤, 𝑤^2} satisfies the following properties:

1. Closure: The product of any two elements is in the set.

2. Associativity: Multiplication is associative.

3. Identity: 1 is the identity element.

4. Inverse: Each element has an inverse (1, 𝑤, 𝑤^2 have inverses 1, 𝑤^2, 𝑤
respectively).

5. Commutativity: Multiplication is commutative.

Therefore, the set {1, 𝑤, 𝑤^2} forms an abelian group under multiplication.
27. Show that 𝐺 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} is not a group under ×5.

The set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} does not form a group under ×5 because:

1. 0 does not have an inverse.

Therefore, the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} is not a group under ×5.

28. Show that 𝐺 = {𝑖, −𝑖} of complex numbers is not a group under multiplication.

The set {𝑖, −𝑖} does not form a group under multiplication because:

1. The set is not closed under multiplication (𝑖 * 𝑖 = −1, which is not in the set).

Therefore, the set {𝑖, −𝑖} is not a group under multiplication.

29. Prove that the set 𝐺 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is an abelian group with respect to addition
modulo 6 (+6).

The set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} satisfies the following properties:

1. Closure: The sum of any two elements modulo 6 is in the set.

2. Associativity: Addition modulo 6 is associative.

3. Identity: 0 is the identity element.

4. Inverse: Each element has an inverse (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 have inverses 0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1

respectively).

5. Commutativity: Addition modulo 6 is commutative.

Therefore, the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} forms an abelian group under addition modulo 6.

30. Prove that the set 𝐺 = {1, 2, 3, 4} is an abelian group with respect to multiplication
modulo 5 (×5).

The set {1, 2, 3, 4} satisfies the following properties:

1. Closure: The product of any two elements modulo 5 is in the set.

2. Associativity: Multiplication modulo 5 is associative.

3. Identity: 1 is the identity element.

4. Inverse: Each element has an inverse (1, 2, 3, 4 have inverses 1, 3, 2, 4 respectively).

5. Commutativity: Multiplication modulo 5 is commutative.

Therefore, the set {1, 2, 3, 4} forms an abelian group under multiplication modulo 5.

31. Draw the following graphs and determine how many edges each has; (𝑎) 𝐾4, (𝑏) 𝐾3,2,
(𝑐) 𝐾1,5.
(𝑎) 𝐾4 has 6 edges.
(𝑏) 𝐾3,2 has 6 edges.
(𝑐) 𝐾1,5 has 5 edges.

32. A graph contains 21 edges and 3 vertices of degree 4 and all other vertices of degree 2.
Find the total number of vertices.

Let 𝑛 be the total number of vertices.

Sum of degrees = 2 * number of edges
3 * 4 + (𝑛 - 3) * 2 = 2 * 21
12 + 2𝑛 - 6 = 42
2𝑛 = 36
𝑛 = 18

33. Whether the graphs 𝐾5 & 𝐾6 be bipartite or not, Justify?

𝐾5 and 𝐾6 are not bipartite because they contain odd cycles.

34. Prove that in a graph the number of vertices of odd degree is even.

Sum of degrees = 2 * number of edges, which is even.

Sum of even degrees is even.
Sum of odd degrees = even - even = even.
Number of vertices with odd degree must be even.

35. Prove that maximum degree of any vertex, in a simple graph with 𝑛 vertices is (𝑛 − 1).

A vertex can be connected to at most 𝑛 - 1 other vertices.

36. Prove that maximum number of edges in a simple graph with 𝑛 vertices is 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)/2.

Each pair of vertices can have at most one edge.

 Part – III

1. a) In an apartment out of 100 families, 40 families are reading ‘The Times of India’
newspaper, 30 families are reading ‘The Hindu’ newspaper, 50 families are reading ‘The
Telegraph’ newspaper, 15 families are reading both ‘The Times of India’ and ‘ The Hindu’
newspaper, 10 families are reading both ‘The Telegraph’ and ‘ The Hindu’ newspaper, 08
families are reading both ‘The Times of India’ and ‘ The Telegraph’ newspaper, 05 families
are reading all the three news papers, then find the number of families who are reading (i)
at least two of the newspaper, (ii) exactly two of the newspaper, (iii) exactly one of the
newspaper, (iv) only one of the newspaper, and (v) neither of them

Let's use the principle of inclusion-exclusion to solve this problem.

Let A be the set of families reading 'The Times of India', B be the set of families reading 'The
Hindu', and C be the set of families reading 'The Telegraph'.

|A| = 40, |B| = 30, |C| = 50

|A ∩ B| = 15, |B ∩ C| = 10, |A ∩ C| = 8
|A ∩ B ∩ C| = 5

(i) Number of families reading at least two newspapers:

|A ∩ B| + |B ∩ C| + |A ∩ C| - 2|A ∩ B ∩ C|
= 15 + 10 + 8 - 2(5)
= 23

(ii) Number of families reading exactly two newspapers:

|A ∩ B| + |B ∩ C| + |A ∩ C| - 3|A ∩ B ∩ C|
= 15 + 10 + 8 - 3(5)
= 18

(iii) Number of families reading exactly one newspaper:

|A| + |B| + |C| - 2|A ∩ B| - 2|B ∩ C| - 2|A ∩ C| + 3|A ∩ B ∩ C|
= 40 + 30 + 50 - 2(15) - 2(10) - 2(8) + 3(5)
= 120 - 30 - 20 - 16 + 15
= 69

(iv) Number of families reading only one newspaper:

|A| + |B| + |C| - 2|A ∩ B| - 2|B ∩ C| - 2|A ∩ C| + 3|A ∩ B ∩ C|
= 69 (same as above)

(v) Number of families reading neither of the newspapers:

100 - (|A| + |B| + |C| - |A ∩ B| - |B ∩ C| - |A ∩ C| + |A ∩ B ∩ C|)
= 100 - (40 + 30 + 50 - 15 - 10 - 8 + 5)
= 100 - 92
=8

1. b) Show that, 𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟) ≡ 𝑝 → (~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟.

𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟)
≡ 𝑝 → (~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) (by definition of implication)
≡ ~𝑝 ∨ (~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) (by definition of implication)
≡ (~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 (by associative law)
≡ ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 (by De Morgan's law)
≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟 (by definition of implication)

Therefore, 𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟) ≡ 𝑝 → (~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟.

2. a) Show that ~{𝑝 ∨ (~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) are logically equivalent...

~{𝑝 ∨ (~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)}

≡ ~(𝑝 ∨ (~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)) (by De Morgan's law)
≡ ~𝑝 ∧ ~(~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) (by De Morgan's law)
≡ ~𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) (by De Morgan's law)
≡ (~𝑝 ∧ 𝑝) ∨ (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) (by distributive law)
≡ F ∨ (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) (by law of contradiction)
≡ ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞

Therefore, ~{𝑝 ∨ (~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)} and (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) are logically equivalent.

2. b) (i) Show that, ~(𝑝 → 𝑞) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) are logically equivalent.

~(𝑝 → 𝑞)
≡ ~(~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) (by definition of implication)
≡ 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 (by De Morgan's law)

Therefore, ~(𝑝 → 𝑞) and (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) are logically equivalent.

(ii) Show that (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology.

(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
≡ ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) (by definition of implication)
≡ ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 (by De Morgan's law)
≡ T (by law of excluded middle)

Therefore, (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology.

3. a) Use mathematical induction to prove that...

Base case: 𝑛 = 0
1^2 = 1 = (0+1)(20+1)(20+3)/3
= 113/3
=1

Inductive step: Assume the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘.

1^2 + 3^2 + 5^2 + ... + (2𝑘 + 1)^2 = (𝑘+1)(2𝑘+1)(2𝑘+3)/3

Show that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.

1^2 + 3^2 + 5^2 + ... + (2𝑘 + 1)^2 + (2(𝑘+1) + 1)^2
= (𝑘+1)(2𝑘+1)(2𝑘+3)/3 + (2𝑘 + 3)^2
= (2𝑘 + 3)((𝑘+1)(2𝑘+1) + 3(2𝑘 + 3))/3
= (2𝑘 + 3)(2𝑘^2 + 3𝑘 + 1 + 6𝑘 + 9)/3
= (2𝑘 + 3)(2𝑘^2 + 9𝑘 + 10)/3
= (2𝑘 + 3)(𝑘 + 2)(2𝑘 + 5)/3
= ((𝑘+1)+1)(2(𝑘+1)+1)(2(𝑘+1)+3)/3

Therefore, the statement is true for all 𝑛 ≥ 0.

3. b) Use mathematical induction to prove that 6^(𝑛+2) + 7^(2𝑛+1) is divisible by 43 for 𝑛 ≥

1.

Base case: 𝑛 = 1
6^3 + 7^3 = 216 + 343 = 559 = 43*13

Inductive step: Assume the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘.

6^(𝑘+2) + 7^(2𝑘+1) = 43𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.

Show that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.

6^(𝑘+3) + 7^(2(𝑘+1)+1)
= 66^(𝑘+2) + 497^(2𝑘+1)
= 66^(𝑘+2) + (43 + 6)7^(2𝑘+1)
= 6(6^(𝑘+2) + 7^(2𝑘+1)) + 437^(2𝑘+1)
= 643𝑚 + 437^(2𝑘+1)
= 43(6𝑚 + 7^(2𝑘+1))

Therefore, the statement is true for all 𝑛 ≥ 1.

4. a) Show that the hypotheses...

Let's denote the propositions as follows:

𝑆: It is sunny this afternoon.
𝐶: It is colder than yesterday.
𝑊: We will go swimming.
𝑇: We will take a canoe trip.
𝐻: We will be home by sunset.

The hypotheses are:

 1. ~𝑆 ∧ 𝐶

2. 𝑊 → 𝑆

3. ~𝑊 → 𝑇

4. 𝑇 → 𝐻

Using rules of inference, we can build the following argument:

1. ~𝑆 ∧ 𝐶 (Hypothesis)

2. ~𝑆 (Simplification)

3. 𝑊 → 𝑆 (Hypothesis)

4. ~𝑊 (Modus tollens, 2, 3)

5. ~𝑊 → 𝑇 (Hypothesis)

6. 𝑇 (Modus ponens, 4, 5)

7. 𝑇 → 𝐻 (Hypothesis)

8. 𝐻 (Modus ponens, 6, 7)

Therefore, the conclusion "We will be home by sunset" logically follows from the
hypotheses.

4. b) Show that the hypotheses...

Let's denote the propositions as follows:

𝐸: You send me an e-mail message.
𝐹: I will finish writing the program.
𝑆: I will go to sleep early.
𝑊: I will wake up feeling refreshed.

The hypotheses are:

1. 𝐸 → 𝐹

2. ~𝐸 → 𝑆

3. 𝑆 → 𝑊

Using rules of inference, we can build the following argument:

1. ~𝐹 → ~𝐸 (Contrapositive, 1)

2. ~𝐸 → 𝑆 (Hypothesis)

3. ~𝐹 → 𝑆 (Hypothetical syllogism, 1, 2)
 4. 𝑆 → 𝑊 (Hypothesis)

5. ~𝐹 → 𝑊 (Hypothetical syllogism, 3, 4)

Therefore, the conclusion "If I do not finish writing the program, then I will wake up feeling
refreshed" logically follows from the hypotheses.

5. a) Let 𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑎, 𝑐), (𝑐, 𝑏), (𝑐, 𝑑), (𝑐, 𝑎)}...

Using Warshall's algorithm, we can find the transitive closure of 𝑅 as follows:

𝑊0 = 𝑀(𝑅) = | 0 1 1 0 |
|0000|
|0101|
|0010|
|0000|

𝑊1 = | 0 1 1 0 |
|0000|
|0111|
|0010|
|0000|

𝑊2 = | 0 1 1 1 |
|0000|
|0111|
|0010|
|0000|

𝑊3 = | 0 1 1 1 |
|0111|
|0111|
|0111|
|0000|

𝑊4 = | 0 1 1 1 |
|0111|
|0111|
|0111|
|0000|

The transitive closure of 𝑅 is:

𝑅* = {(𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑎, 𝑐), (𝑎, 𝑑), (𝑐, 𝑏), (𝑐, 𝑑), (𝑐, 𝑎), (𝑐, 𝑐), (𝑏, 𝑏), (𝑏, 𝑐), (𝑏, 𝑑)}

5. b) Let 𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑑), (𝑏, 𝑎), (𝑏, 𝑐), (𝑐, 𝑎), (𝑐, 𝑑), (𝑑, 𝑐)}...

Using Warshall's algorithm, we can find the transitive closure of 𝑅 as follows:

𝑊0 = 𝑀(𝑅) = | 0 0 0 1 |
|1010|
|1001|
|0010|

𝑊1 = | 0 0 0 1 |
|1011|
|1001|
|0010|

𝑊2 = | 1 0 1 1 |
|1011|
|1011|
|0010|

𝑊3 = | 1 0 1 1 |
|1011|
|1011|
|1011|

𝑊4 = | 1 0 1 1 |
|1011|
|1011|
|1011|

The transitive closure of 𝑅 is:

𝑅* = {(𝑎, 𝑑), (𝑏, 𝑎), (𝑏, 𝑐), (𝑏, 𝑑), (𝑐, 𝑎), (𝑐, 𝑑), (𝑐, 𝑐), (𝑑, 𝑎), (𝑑, 𝑐), (𝑑, 𝑑), (𝑎, 𝑎), (𝑏, 𝑏)}

6. a) Let 𝑅 = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4)}...

Using Warshall's algorithm, we can find the transitive closure of 𝑅 as follows:

𝑊0 = 𝑀(𝑅) = | 0 1 0 0 |
|0010|
|0001|
|0000|

𝑊1 = | 0 1 1 0 |
|0010|
|0001|
|0000|

𝑊2 = | 0 1 1 1 |
|0011|
|0001|
|0000|
𝑊3 = | 0 1 1 1 |
|0011|
|0001|
|0000|

The transitive closure of 𝑅 is:

𝑅* = {(1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,4)}

6. b) Show that (𝑃(𝑆), ⊆) is a poset...

To show that (𝑃(𝑆), ⊆) is a poset, we need to verify that ⊆ is reflexive, antisymmetric, and
transitive.

Reflexive: For any set 𝐴 ∈ 𝑃(𝑆), 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴.

Antisymmetric: For any sets 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑃(𝑆), if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴, then 𝐴 = 𝐵.

Transitive: For any sets 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ∈ 𝑃(𝑆), if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶.

Therefore, (𝑃(𝑆), ⊆) is a poset.

The Hasse diagram for the set 𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} is:

∅
|
{𝑎}
{𝑏}
{𝑐}
|
{𝑎, 𝑏}
{𝑎, 𝑐}
{𝑏, 𝑐}
|
{𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}

7. a) Show that 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥|𝑦} is a partial order relation...

To show that 𝑅 is a partial order relation, we need to verify that 𝑅 is reflexive,

antisymmetric, and transitive.

Reflexive: For any 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥|𝑥.

Antisymmetric: For any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑥|𝑦 and 𝑦|𝑥, then 𝑥 = 𝑦.

Transitive: For any 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑥|𝑦 and 𝑦|𝑧, then 𝑥|𝑧.

Therefore, 𝑅 is a partial order relation.

The Hasse diagram for the set 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,6,8,12} is:

1
|
23
|
46
|
8 12

7. b) Show that 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥|𝑦} is a partial order relation...

To show that 𝑅 is a partial order relation, we need to verify that 𝑅 is reflexive,

antisymmetric, and transitive.

Reflexive: For any 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥|𝑥.

Antisymmetric: For any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑥|𝑦 and 𝑦|𝑥, then 𝑥 = 𝑦.

Transitive: For any 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑥|𝑦 and 𝑦|𝑧, then 𝑥|𝑧.

Therefore, 𝑅 is a partial order relation.

The Hasse diagram for the set 𝐴 = {1,2,4,5,10,20} is:

1
|
25
|
4 10
|
20

8. (a) Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 5𝑎𝑛−1 − 6𝑎𝑛−2 + 7𝑛...

Let's solve the recurrence relation using characteristic equations.

The characteristic equation is:

𝑥^2 - 5𝑥 + 6 = 0

Roots: 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 3

The homogeneous solution is:

𝑎𝑛(ℎ) = 𝑐1(2)^𝑛 + 𝑐2(3)^𝑛

The particular solution is:

𝑎𝑛(𝑝) = 𝐴*7^𝑛

Substituting 𝑎𝑛(𝑝) into the recurrence relation, we get:

𝐴7^𝑛 = 5𝐴7^(𝑛-1) - 6𝐴*7^(𝑛-2) + 7^𝑛
Solving for 𝐴, we get:
𝐴 = 49/20

The general solution is:

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐1(2)^𝑛 + 𝑐2(3)^𝑛 + (49/20)*7^𝑛

Using initial conditions, we get:

𝑎0 = 1 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 49/20
𝑎1 = -1 = 2𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 + 343/20

Solving for 𝑐1 and 𝑐2, we get:

𝑐1 = -17/4, 𝑐2 = 3/5

The final solution is:

𝑎𝑛 = (-17/4)(2)^𝑛 + (3/5)(3)^𝑛 + (49/20)*7^𝑛

8. (b) Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 4𝑎𝑛−1 − 4𝑎𝑛−2 + 2𝑛...

Let's solve the recurrence relation using characteristic equations.

The characteristic equation is:

𝑥^2 - 4𝑥 + 4 = 0

Roots: 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 2

The homogeneous solution is:

𝑎𝑛(ℎ) = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2𝑛)(2)^𝑛

The particular solution is:

𝑎𝑛(𝑝) = 𝐴𝑛2^𝑛 + 𝐵*2^𝑛

Substituting 𝑎𝑛(𝑝) into the recurrence relation, we get:

𝐴𝑛2^𝑛 + 𝐵2^𝑛 = 4(𝐴(𝑛-1)2^(𝑛-1) + 𝐵2^(𝑛-1)) - 4(𝐴*(𝑛-2)2^(𝑛-2) + 𝐵2^(𝑛-2)) + 𝑛*2^𝑛

Solving for 𝐴 and 𝐵, we get:

𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = -1

The general solution is:

𝑎𝑛 = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2𝑛)(2)^𝑛 + 𝑛*2^𝑛 - 2^𝑛

Using initial conditions, we get:

𝑎0 = 1 = 𝑐1 - 1
𝑎1 = 1 = 2(𝑐1 + 𝑐2) + 2 - 2

Solving for 𝑐1 and 𝑐2, we get:

𝑐1 = 2, 𝑐2 = -1/2

The final solution is:

𝑎𝑛 = (2 - (1/2)𝑛)(2)^𝑛 + 𝑛*2^𝑛 - 2^𝑛
9. (a) Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 5𝑎𝑛−1 − 6𝑎𝑛−2...

Let's use generating functions to solve the recurrence relation.

The generating function is:

𝐺(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑥^𝑛

Using the recurrence relation, we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = 5𝑥𝐺(𝑥) - 6𝑥^2𝐺(𝑥) + 𝑎0 + (𝑎1 - 5𝑎0)𝑥

Solving for 𝐺(𝑥), we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = (𝑎0 + (𝑎1 - 5𝑎0)𝑥) / (1 - 5𝑥 + 6𝑥^2)

Using partial fractions, we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = 𝐴 / (1 - 2𝑥) + 𝐵 / (1 - 3𝑥)

Solving for 𝐴 and 𝐵, we get:

𝐴 = 3, 𝐵 = 3

The generating function is:

𝐺(𝑥) = 3 / (1 - 2𝑥) + 3 / (1 - 3𝑥)

The solution is:

𝑎𝑛 = 32^𝑛 + 33^𝑛

9. (b) Solve 𝑎𝑛 − 2𝑎𝑛−1 − 3𝑎𝑛−2 = 0...

Let's use generating functions to solve the recurrence relation.

The generating function is:

𝐺(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑥^𝑛

Using the recurrence relation, we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = 2𝑥𝐺(𝑥) + 3𝑥^2𝐺(𝑥) + 𝑎0 + (𝑎1 - 2𝑎0)𝑥

Solving for 𝐺(𝑥), we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = (𝑎0 + (𝑎1 - 2𝑎0)𝑥) / (1 - 2𝑥 - 3𝑥^2)

Using partial fractions, we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = 𝐴 / (1 - 3𝑥) + 𝐵 / (1 + 𝑥)

Solving for 𝐴 and 𝐵, we get:

𝐴 = 2, 𝐵 = 1

The generating function is:

𝐺(𝑥) = 2 / (1 - 3𝑥) + 1 / (1 + 𝑥)
The solution is:
𝑎𝑛 = 2*3^𝑛 + (-1)^𝑛

10. (a) Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑎𝑛−1 + 2...

Let's use generating functions to solve the recurrence relation.

The generating function is:

𝐺(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑥^𝑛

Using the recurrence relation, we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = 3𝑥𝐺(𝑥) + 2𝑥 / (1 - 𝑥) + 𝑎0

Solving for 𝐺(𝑥), we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = (𝑎0 + 2𝑥 / (1 - 𝑥)) / (1 - 3𝑥)

Using partial fractions, we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = 𝐴 / (1 - 3𝑥) + 𝐵 / (1 - 𝑥)

Solving for 𝐴 and 𝐵, we get:

𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = -1

The generating function is:

𝐺(𝑥) = 1 / (1 - 3𝑥) - 1 / (1 - 𝑥)

The solution is:

𝑎𝑛 = 3^𝑛 - 1

10. (b) Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 8𝑎𝑛−1 + 10𝑛−1...

Let's use generating functions to solve the recurrence relation.

The generating function is:

𝐺(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑥^𝑛

Using the recurrence relation, we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = 8𝑥𝐺(𝑥) + 𝑥 / (1 - 10𝑥) + 𝑎0

Solving for 𝐺(𝑥), we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = (𝑎0 + 𝑥 / (1 - 10𝑥)) / (1 - 8𝑥)

Using partial fractions, we get:

𝐺(𝑥) = 𝐴 / (1 - 8𝑥) + 𝐵 / (1 - 10𝑥)

Solving for 𝐴 and 𝐵, we get:

𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 1/2

The generating function is:

𝐺(𝑥) = 1 / (1 - 8𝑥) + (1/2) / (1 - 10𝑥)
The solution is:
𝑎𝑛 = 8^𝑛 + (1/2)*10^𝑛

11. (a) Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑎𝑛−1 + 2𝑛...

Let's solve the recurrence relation.

The homogeneous solution is:

𝑎𝑛(ℎ) = 𝑐*3^𝑛

The particular solution is:

𝑎𝑛(𝑝) = 𝐴*2^𝑛

Substituting 𝑎𝑛(𝑝) into the recurrence relation, we get:

𝐴2^𝑛 = 3𝐴2^(𝑛-1) + 2^𝑛

Solving for 𝐴, we get:

𝐴 = -2

The general solution is:

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐3^𝑛 - 22^𝑛

Using initial condition, we get:

𝑎1 = 3 = 3𝑐 - 4

Solving for 𝑐, we get:

𝑐 = 7/3

The final solution is:

𝑎𝑛 = (7/3)3^𝑛 - 22^𝑛

11. (b) Solve 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑛...

Let's solve the recurrence relation.

The solution is:

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑘

Using initial condition, we get:

𝑎1 = 2 = 𝑎0 + 1

Solving for 𝑎0, we get:

𝑎0 = 1

The solution is:

𝑎𝑛 = 1 + ∑ 𝑘
= 1 + 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)/2

12. (a) Prove that (𝐺 = ℚ − {1}, ∗) is an abelian group...

To prove that (𝐺, ∗) is an abelian group, we need to verify the following properties:

1. Closure: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 - 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

2. Associativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐).

3. Identity: There exists an identity element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎.

4. Inverse: For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists an inverse element 𝑎^(-1) ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎^(-
1) = 𝑒.

5. Commutativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.

Let's verify these properties:

1. Closure: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 - 𝑎𝑏 = (1 - 𝑎)(1 - 𝑏) - 1 + 1 ≠ 1, so 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

2. Associativity: (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 - 𝑎𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 - 𝑎𝑏 - 𝑎𝑐 - 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐).

3. Identity: 𝑒 = 0 is the identity element.

4. Inverse: 𝑎^(-1) = 𝑎 / (𝑎 - 1) is the inverse element.

5. Commutativity: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 - 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 - 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.

Therefore, (𝐺, ∗) is an abelian group.

12. (b) Prove that (ℤ, ∗) is an abelian group...

To prove that (ℤ, ∗) is an abelian group, we need to verify the following properties:

1. Closure: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 1 ∈ ℤ.

2. Associativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐).

3. Identity: There exists an identity element 𝑒 ∈ ℤ such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎.

4. Inverse: For each 𝑎 ∈ ℤ, there exists an inverse element 𝑎^(-1) ∈ ℤ such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎^(-
1) = 𝑒.

5. Commutativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.

Let's verify these properties:

1. Closure: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 1 ∈ ℤ.

2. Associativity: (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 1) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 2 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐).

3. Identity: 𝑒 = -1 is the identity element.

4. Inverse: 𝑎^(-1) = -2 - 𝑎 is the inverse element.

5. Commutativity: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 1 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 + 1 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.

Therefore, (ℤ, ∗) is an abelian group.

13. (a) Prove that ℤ4 = {0, 1, 2, 3} is an abelian group...

To prove that ℤ4 is an abelian group, we need to verify the following properties:

1. Closure: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ4, 𝑎 +5 𝑏 ∈ ℤ4.

2. Associativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ4, (𝑎 +5 𝑏) +5 𝑐 = 𝑎 +5 (𝑏 +5 𝑐).

3. Identity: There exists an identity element 𝑒 ∈ ℤ4 such that 𝑎 +5 𝑒 = 𝑎.

4. Inverse: For each 𝑎 ∈ ℤ4, there exists an inverse element 𝑎^(-1) ∈ ℤ4 such that 𝑎 +5
𝑎^(-1) = 𝑒.

5. Commutativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ4, 𝑎 +5 𝑏 = 𝑏 +5 𝑎.

These properties can be verified using the addition table modulo 5.

13. (b) Prove that 𝐺 = {1, 3, 7, 9} is an abelian group...

To prove that 𝐺 is an abelian group, we need to verify the following properties:

1. Closure: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ×10 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

2. Associativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺, (𝑎 ×10 𝑏) ×10 𝑐 = 𝑎 ×10 (𝑏 ×10 𝑐).

3. Identity: There exists an identity element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ×10 𝑒 = 𝑎.

4. Inverse: For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists an inverse element 𝑎^(-1) ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ×10
𝑎^(-1) = 𝑒.

5. Commutativity: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ×10 𝑏 = 𝑏 ×10 𝑎.

These properties can be verified using the multiplication table modulo 10.

14. (a) Prove that the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is not a group...

To prove that the set is not a group, we need to show that one of the group properties fails.

Let's check closure under addition modulo 6:

2 +6 4 = 0 ∉ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Therefore, the set is not closed under addition modulo 6, and hence it is not a group.

Let's check closure under multiplication modulo 6:

2 ×6 3 = 0 ∉ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Therefore, the set is not closed under multiplication modulo 6, and hence it is not a group.

18. (a) Define complete graph and complete bipartite graph...

A complete graph is a graph in which every vertex is connected to every other vertex. A
complete graph with 𝑛 vertices is denoted by 𝐾𝑛.
A complete bipartite graph is a graph whose vertices can be divided into two disjoint sets 𝑈
and 𝑉 such that every vertex in 𝑈 is connected to every vertex in 𝑉. A complete bipartite
graph with |𝑈| = 𝑚 and |𝑉| = 𝑛 is denoted by 𝐾𝑚,𝑛.

The graph 𝐾5 has 5 vertices and 10 edges.

The graph 𝐾3,3 has 6 vertices and 9 edges.

A graph can have a 𝐾3 subgraph and be bipartite if the 𝐾3 subgraph is contained in one of
the partite sets.

18. (b) (i) State and prove the handshaking theorem...

The handshaking theorem states that the sum of the degrees of all vertices in a graph is
equal to twice the number of edges.

Proof: Let 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) be a graph. For each edge (𝑢, 𝑣) ∈ 𝐸, the degree of 𝑢 and 𝑣 each
increase by 1. Therefore, the sum of the degrees of all vertices is twice the number of edges.

18. (b) (ii) If a graph has five vertices of degree 4 and four vertices of degree 3...

Let's use the handshaking theorem to find the number of edges.

The sum of the degrees is 5 × 4 + 4 × 3 = 20 + 12 = 32.

The number of edges is 32 / 2 = 16.

19. (a) Draw the following graphs...

(i) A graph where the degree of each vertex is even:

Let's consider a cycle graph with 4 vertices. Each vertex has degree 2.

(ii) A cubic graph of order 5:

A cubic graph is a graph where each vertex has degree 3. However, it's impossible to
construct a cubic graph with 5 vertices.

(iii) A bipartite graph of order 5 and size 7:

Let's consider a bipartite graph with partite sets 𝑈 = {1, 2} and 𝑉 = {3, 4, 5}. We can add 6
edges between 𝑈 and 𝑉. To add one more edge, we can add an edge between two vertices
in 𝑉, but this would make the graph non-bipartite. Therefore, it's impossible to construct a
bipartite graph of order 5 and size 7.

(iv) A bipartite graph of order 8 and size 10:

Let's consider a bipartite graph with partite sets 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and 𝑉 = {5, 6, 7, 8}. We can
add 10 edges between 𝑈 and 𝑉.

19. (b) (i) Prove that it is impossible for every vertex of a graph to have a different degree...
Let's consider a graph with 𝑛 vertices. The possible degrees of vertices are 0, 1, 2, ..., 𝑛-1.

If every vertex has a different degree, then one vertex must have degree 0 and another
vertex must have degree 𝑛-1. However, this is impossible because the vertex with degree 𝑛-1
must be connected to every other vertex, including the vertex with degree 0.

19. (b) (ii) Write short notes on simple graph, multi graph, and pseudo graph...

A simple graph is a graph that has no multiple edges or loops.

A multigraph is a graph that allows multiple edges between vertices but no loops.

A pseudograph is a graph that allows multiple edges and loops.