Course - 03 : Discrete Mathematical Structures

Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Science, Department of Mathematics Let ( , , min, max) be the lattice of real numbers with the usual
order and where min and max denote the minimum and maximum
I st Year M.Sc (Mathematics) 2022-23
operations respectively. Let f :    be the function defined by f(x)
Course - 03 : Discrete Mathematical Structures = |x|. This is a lattice homomorphism because it preserves the lattice
Max. Marks : 15 Min. Marks : 6 structure of  . Specifically, for any two real numbers x and y we
have:
ASSIGNMENT - I
f(x  y) = f(max{x, y}) = |max{x, y}| = max{|x|,|y|} = f(x)  f(y)
SECTION - A
f(x  y) = f(min{x, y}) = |min{x, y}| = min{|x|,|y|} = f(x)  f(y)
I. Answer any one of the following: (10 Marks)
Also, f(x)  f(y) for x  y..
1. (a) Define the motion of a lattice homomorphism and give
two examples. (b) Let L and M be lattices and f : L  M a bijection. Prove
Ans: A lattice homomorphism is a function between two lattices that f is a lattice isomorphism if and only if both f and f 1
that preserves the lattice structure. In other words, it is a function that are isotones.
preserves the partial order and the lattice operations.
Ans: First, we will prove that if f is a lattice isomorphism, then
Formally, let (L,  ,  , ) and ( M , , be two lattices. A both f and f-1 are isotones.
П,ᄃ
)

function f : L  M is a lattice homomorphism if for all x, y  L . Suppose f is a lattice isomorphism. Then for any elements x,y in L:

1. f ( x  y )  f ( x )Πf ( y ) 1. x  y in L implies f(x)  f(y) in M (by the definition of a lattice

isomorphism).
2. f ( x  y )  f ( x ) f ( y )
ᄃ

2. f-1 is the inverse function of f, which means that for any elements
3. x  y implies f ( x ) f ( y ) u, v in M : a.u  v in M implies f  1( u )  f  1( v ) in L (by the definition
of a function inverse). b. f-1 is a bijection, which means that for any
Here are two examples of lattice homeomorphisms:- Let elements x, y in L: i. f-1(f(x)) = x ii. f-1(f(y)) = y c. Combining the
( P( S ), , , ) be the power set lattice of a set S where  denotes above results, we get that if f  1( u )  f  1( v ) in L, then u  v in M.
the subset relation,  denotes set intersection and  denotes set union.
Let f : P( S )  { 0 ,1 } be the function that maps every subset to 1 if it Therefore, both f and f-1 are isotones.
contains an element in a fixed subset A of S, and 0 otherwise. This is a Next, we will prove that if both f and f-1 are isotones, then f is a
lattice homomorphism because it preserves the lattice structure of P(S) lattice isomorphism.
and the lattice structure of {0, 1}.

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 Course - 03 : Discrete Mathematical Structures Course - 03 : Discrete Mathematical Structures

Suppose both f and f-1 are isotones. We need to prove that f There is no third option, and this is always true regardless of the truth
preserves the lattice structure of L and M. That is, for any elements x, y value of P.
in L:
(ii)  ( P  Q )  ((  P )  Q )  P :- This formula is also a
f(x  y) = f(x)  f(y) a. We know that x  y is the greatest lower
tautology. We can use a truth table to show this:
bound of x and y in L. b. Since f is an isotope, f(x  y) is the greatest
lower bound of f(x) and f(y) in M. c. Therefore, f(x  y) = f(x)  f(y).
P Q P⋁ Q ¬(P ⋁ Q) (¬P) ⋀ Q ((¬P) ⋀ Q) ⋁ P ¬(P ⋁ Q) ⋁ ((¬P) ⋀ Q) ⋁ P
f(x  y) = f(x)  f(y) a. We know that x  y is the least upper T T T F F T T
T F T F F T T
bound of x and y in L. b. Since f is an isotope, f(x  y) is the least upper F T T F T F F
bound of f(x) and f(y) in M. c. Therefore, f(x  y) = f(x)  f(y). F F F T F F T

Thus, f preserves the lattice structure of L and M, which means

The last column is always true, regardless of the truth values of P
that it is a lattice isomorphism.
and Q. Therefore, this formula is a tautology.
Therefore, we have shown that f is a lattice isomorphism if and
only if both f and f-1 are isotones. SECTION - B

2. (a) Construct the truth table for the following statement II. Answer any one of the following: (5 Marks)
formulae: 3. Define an atom. Prove that a non zero element p in a Boolean
(i) ( P  Q )  ((  P )  R )) algebra B is an atom if and only if, for any a  B either p  a  0
or p  a .
Ans: Refer Unit - VI, Question No. 17.
Ans: Atom :- Refer Unit - IV, Question No. 15.
(ii)  ( P  ( Q  R )  ( P  Q )  ( P  R )
To prove that a non-zero element p in a Boolean algebra B is an
Ans: Refer Unit - VI, Question No. 18. atom if and only if for any a in B either p  a  0 or p  a , we need to
(b) Define the tautology. Determine whether the following show two things:
statements formulae are tautologies or contradictions. 1. If p is an atom, then for any a in B, either p  a  0 or p  a .
(i) P  (  P ) (ii)  ( P  Q )  ((  P )  Q )  P 2. If for any a in B, either p  a  0 or p  a , then p is an atom.
Ans : Tautology : Refer Unit-VII, Question No. 22. Proof of (1) :- Assume that p is an atom in B. Let a be an arbitrary
element of B. We need to show that either p  a  0 or p  a .
(i) P  (  P ) :- This formula is a tautology, also known as the law
of excluded middle. It states that either P is true or  P is true. Case 1: p  a  0 . Since p is an atom, p  a  p . Therefore, p  a .

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 Course - 03 : Discrete Mathematical Structures Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR
Course OPEN UNIVERSITY
- 03 : Discrete Mathematical Structures

Case 2: p  a  0 . In this case, p  ( p  a )  p , since p  a  0 . Faculty of Science, Department of Mathematics

Since p is an atom, this implies that p  p  a . Therefore, a  p . But p I st Year M.Sc (Mathematics) 2022-23
is non-zero, so p  a . Therefore, either p  a  0 or p  a .
Course - 03 : Discrete Mathematical Structures
Proof of (2):- Assume that for any a in B, either p  a  0 or Max. Marks : 15 Min. Marks : 6
p  a . We need to show that p is an atom in B.
ASSIGNMENT - II
Suppose that p is not an atom. Then there exists a non-zero element
SECTION - A
a in B such that p<a. Since B is a Boolean algebra, there exists a
complement of a denoted by a'. Therefore, a  a'  0 and a  a'  1 . I. Answer any one of the following: (10 Marks)
1. (a) State and prove Euler's theorem on degrees of vertices in
Since p  a. p  a'  0 . Therefore, p  ( a  a')  p  1  p .
a graph.
But a a  ( a  a')  a , so p  a . Ans: Refer Unit - X, Question No. 14.
This contradicts our assumption that p < a. Therefore, p must be (b) State and prove a necessary and sufficient condition for a
an atom in B. graph to be a connected graph.
Therefore, we have shown that a non-zero element p in a Boolean Ans: First, we will prove that if there exists a path between any
algebra B is an atom if and only if for any a in B, either p  a  0 or two vertices in G, then G is a connected graph. Suppose that there are
two vertices u and v in G such that there is no path between them.
p  a.
Then, u and v are in different connected components of G. Let C be the
4. Find the disjunctive normal form of the formula P  ( P  Q ) connected component containing u. Then, there is no vertex in C that is
adjacent to v, since otherwise there would be a path from u to v through
Ans: Refer Unit - VII, Question No. 30. that vertex. This means that v cannot be in any connected component
that is adjacent to C, since otherwise there would be a path from u to v
through a vertex in that component. Therefore, v is not in G, which
contradicts our assumption that there is a path between any two vertices
in G. Therefore, G must be a connected graph.
Next, we will prove that if G is a connected graph, then there
exists a path between any two vertices in G. Let u and v be two arbitrary
vertices in G. Since G is connected, there is a path from u to v in G. Let
P = (u, v1, v2, ..., vk, v) be this path, where v1, v2, ..., vk are intermediate
vertices. Then, P is a path from u to v. Therefore, if G is a connected
graph, then there exists a path between any two vertices in G.

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 Course - 03 : Discrete Mathematical Structures Course - 03 : Discrete Mathematical Structures

Since we have proved both directions of the statement, we have a2 = a1–2 = –2

shown that a necessary and sufficient condition for a graph G to be a
a3 = a2–2 = –4
connected graph is that there exists a path between any two vertices in
G. a4 = a3–2 = –6

2. (a) Design a TM which accepts all strings of the form a nb n a5 = a4–2 = –8 ...
for n  1 . We can observe that the sequence {an} is decreasing by 2 at each
step, and that an = –2(n–1).
Ans: Refer Unit - XV, Question No. 14.
Therefore, the solution to the recurrence relation is: an = –2(n–1)
(b) State and prove pumping lemma for regular languages.
To verify this solution, we can substitute it into the recurrence relation:
Ans: Refer Unit - XVI, Question No. 10.
SECTION - B an = an-2 –2
II. Answer any one of the following: (5 Marks) –2(n–1) = –2(n–2)–2
3. (a) Show that every connected graph has a spanning tree.
–2n + 2 = –2n + 4
Ans: Refer Unit - XI, Question No. 31.
2=2
(b) Discuss Konigsberg Bridge problem.
Ans: Refer Unit - XII, Question No. 8. The equation is satisfied, so the solution is correct. Therefore,
the sequence {an} is given by an= –2(n–1).
4. (a) Define a string and the length of a string with the usual
notation. Let u and v be any two strings of * . Then
show that uv  u  v .

Ans: Refer Unit - XIV, Question No's. 2,3,7.

(b) Solve the recurrence relation an  an 1  2 ;a1  0 by

iterative method.
Ans: To solve the recurrence relation by iterative method, we
start with the initial condition a1 = 0 and use the recurrence relation to
find the next term a2, then use a2 to find a3, and so on until we find an.
Using the recurrence relation an = a(n-1)–2, we have:

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