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CONTENTS vii
CHAPTER 7
Optimization 198
7.1 Introduction and Background 199
7.2 One-Dimensional Optimization 202
7.3 Multidimensional Optimization 211
7.4 Case Study: Equilibrium and Minimum Potential Energy 213
Problems 215
Part Three Linear Systems 223
3.1 Overview 223
3.2 Part Organization 225
CHAPTER 8
Linear Algebraic Equations and Matrices 227
8.1 Matrix Algebra Overview 229
8.2 Solving Linear Algebraic Equations with MATLAB 238
8.3 Case Study: Currents and Voltages in Circuits 240
Problems 244
CHAPTER 9
Gauss Elimination 248
9.1 Solving Small Numbers of Equations 249
9.2 Naive Gauss Elimination 254
9.3 Pivoting 261
9.4 Tridiagonal Systems 264
9.5 Case Study: Model of a Heated Rod 266
Problems 270
CHAPTER 10
LU Factorization 274
10.1 Overview of LU Factorization 275
10.2 Gauss Elimination as LU Factorization 276
10.3 Cholesky Factorization 283
10.4 MATLAB Left Division 286
Problems 287
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER 11
Matrix Inverse and Condition 288
11.1 The Matrix Inverse 288
11.2 Error Analysis and System Condition 292
11.3 Case Study: Indoor Air Pollution 297
Problems 300
CHAPTER 12
Iterative Methods 305
12.1 Linear Systems: Gauss-Seidel 305
12.2 Nonlinear Systems 312
12.3 Case Study: Chemical Reactions 320
Problems 323
CHAPTER 13
Eigenvalues 326
13.1 Mathematical Background 328
13.2 Physical Background 331
13.3 The Power Method 333
13.4 MATLAB Function: eig 336
13.5 Case Study: Eigenvalues and Earthquakes 337
Problems 340
Part Four Curve Fitting 343
4.1 Overview 343
4.2 Part Organization 345
CHAPTER 14
Linear Regression 346
14.1 Statistics Review 348
14.2 Random Numbers and Simulation 353
14.3 Linear Least-Squares Regression 358
14.4 Linearization of Nonlinear Relationships 366
14.5 Computer Applications 370
14.6 Case Study: Enzyme Kinetics 373
Problems 378
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER 15
General Linear Least-Squares and Nonlinear Regression 385
15.1 Polynomial Regression 385
15.2 Multiple Linear Regression 389
15.3 General Linear Least Squares 391
15.4 QR Factorization and the Backslash Operator 394
15.5 Nonlinear Regression 395
15.6 Case Study: Fitting Experimental Data 397
Problems 399
CHAPTER 16
Fourier Analysis 404
16.1 Curve Fitting with Sinusoidal Functions 405
16.2 Continuous Fourier Series 411
16.3 Frequency and Time Domains 414
16.4 Fourier Integral and Transform 415
16.5 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 418
16.6 The Power Spectrum 423
16.7 Case Study: Sunspots 425
Problems 426
CHAPTER 17
Polynomial Interpolation 429
17.1 Introduction to Interpolation 430
17.2 Newton Interpolating Polynomial 433
17.3 Lagrange Interpolating Polynomial 441
17.4 Inverse Interpolation 444
17.5 Extrapolation and Oscillations 445
Problems 449
CHAPTER 18
Splines and Piecewise Interpolation 453
18.1 Introduction to Splines 453
18.2 Linear Splines 455
18.3 Quadratic Splines 459
18.4 Cubic Splines 462
18.5 Piecewise Interpolation in MATLAB 468
18.6 Multidimensional Interpolation 473
18.7 Case Study: Heat Transfer 476
Problems 480
x CONTENTS
Part Five Integration and Differentiation 485
5.1 Overview 485
5.2 Part Organization 486
CHAPTER 19
Numerical Integration Formulas 488
19.1 Introduction and Background 489
19.2 Newton-Cotes Formulas 492
19.3 The Trapezoidal Rule 494
19.4 Simpson’s Rules 501
19.5 Higher-Order Newton-Cotes Formulas 507
19.6 Integration with Unequal Segments 508
19.7 Open Methods 512
19.8 Multiple Integrals 512
19.9 Case Study: Computing Work with Numerical Integration 515
Problems 518
CHAPTER 20
Numerical Integration of Functions 524
20.1 Introduction 524
20.2 Romberg Integration 525
20.3 Gauss Quadrature 530
20.4 Adaptive Quadrature 537
20.5 Case Study: Root-Mean-Square Current 540
Problems 544
CHAPTER 21
Numerical Differentiation 548
21.1 Introduction and Background 549
21.2 High-Accuracy Differentiation Formulas 552
21.3 Richardson Extrapolation 555
21.4 Derivatives of Unequally Spaced Data 557
21.5 Derivatives and Integrals for Data with Errors 558
21.6 Partial Derivatives 559
21.7 Numerical Differentiation with MATLAB 560
21.8 Case Study: Visualizing Fields 565
Problems 567
CONTENTS xi
Part six Ordinary Differential Equations 573
6.1 Overview 573
6.2 Part Organization 577
CHAPTER 22
Initial-Value Problems 579
22.1 Overview 581
22.2 Euler’s Method 581
22.3 Improvements of Euler’s Method 587
22.4 Runge-Kutta Methods 593
22.5 Systems of Equations 598
22.6 Case Study: Predator-Prey Models and Chaos 604
Problems 609
CHAPTER 23
Adaptive Methods and Stiff Systems 615
23.1 Adaptive Runge-Kutta Methods 615
23.2 Multistep Methods 624
23.3 Stiffness 628
23.4 MATLAB Application: Bungee Jumper with Cord 634
23.5 Case Study: Pliny’s Intermittent Fountain 635
Problems 640
CHAPTER 24
Boundary-Value Problems 646
24.1 Introduction and Background 647
24.2 The Shooting Method 651
24.3 Finite-Difference Methods 658
24.4 MATLAB Function: bvp4c 665
Problems 668
APPENDIX A: MATLAB BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS 674
APPENDIX B: MATLAB M-FILE FUNCTIONS 676
APPENDIX C: INTRODUCTION TO SIMULINK 677
BIBLIOGRAPHY 685
INDEX 687
Required=Results
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PREFACE
This book is designed to support a one-semester course in numerical methods. It has been
written for students who want to learn and apply numerical methods in order to solve prob-
lems in engineering and science. As such, the methods are motivated by problems rather
than by mathematics. That said, sufficient theory is provided so that students come away
with insight into the techniques and their shortcomings.
MATLAB® provides a great environment for such a course. Although other en-
vironments (e.g., Excel/VBA, Mathcad) or languages (e.g., Fortran 90, C++) could
have been chosen, MATLAB presently offers a nice combination of handy program-
ming features with powerful built-in numerical capabilities. On the one hand, its
M-file programming environment allows students to implement moderately compli-
cated algorithms in a structured and coherent fashion. On the other hand, its built-in,
numerical capabilities empower students to solve more difficult problems without try-
ing to “reinvent the wheel.”
The basic content, organization, and pedagogy of the third edition are essentially pre-
served in the fourth edition. In particular, the conversational writing style is intentionally
maintained in order to make the book easier to read. This book tries to speak directly to the
reader and is designed in part to be a tool for self-teaching.
That said, this edition differs from the past edition in three major ways: (1) new
material, (2) new and revised homework problems, and (3) an appendix introducing
Simulink.
1. New Content. I have included new and enhanced sections on a number of topics. The
primary additions include material on some MATLAB functions not included in previ-
ous editions (e.g., fsolve, integrate, bvp4c), some new applications of Monte Carlo
for problems such as integration and optimization, and MATLAB’s new way to pass
parameters to function functions.
2. New Homework Problems. Most of the end-of-chapter problems have been modified,
and a variety of new problems have been added. In particular, an effort has been made
to include several new problems for each chapter that are more challenging and dif-
ficult than the problems in the previous edition.
3. I have developed a short primer on Simulink which I have my students read prior to
covering that topic. Although I recognize that some professors may not choose to
cover Simulink, I included it as a teaching aid for those that do.
xiv
PREFACE xv
Aside from the new material and problems, the fourth edition is very similar to the
third. In particular, I have endeavored to maintain most of the features contributing to its
pedagogical effectiveness including extensive use of worked examples and engineering and
scientific applications. As with the previous edition, I have made a concerted effort to make
this book as “student-friendly” as possible. Thus, I’ve tried to keep my explanations straight-
forward and practical.
Although my primary intent is to empower students by providing them with a sound
introduction to numerical problem solving, I have the ancillary objective of making this
introduction exciting and pleasurable. I believe that motivated students who enjoy engi-
neering and science, problem solving, mathematics—and yes—programming, will ulti-
mately make better professionals. If my book fosters enthusiasm and appreciation for these
subjects, I will consider the effort a success.
Acknowledgments. Several members of the McGraw-Hill team have contributed to
this project. Special thanks are due to Jolynn Kilburg, Thomas Scaife, Ph.D., Chelsea
Haupt, Ph.D., and Jeni McAtee for their encouragement, support, and direction.
During the course of this project, the folks at The MathWorks, Inc., have truly dem-
onstrated their overall excellence as well as their strong commitment to engineering and
science education. In particular, Naomi Fernandes of The MathWorks, Inc., Book Program
has been especially helpful and Jared Wasserman of the MathWorks Technical Support
Department was of great help with technical questions.
The generosity of the Berger family has provided me with the opportunity to work on
creative projects such as this book dealing with computing and engineering. In addition,
my colleagues in the School of Engineering at Tufts, notably Masoud Sanayei, Babak
Moaveni, Luis Dorfmann, Rob White, Linda Abriola, and Laurie Baise, have been very
supportive and helpful.
Significant suggestions were also given by a number of colleagues. In particular, Dave
Clough (University of Colorado–Boulder), and Mike Gustafson (Duke University) pro-
vided valuable ideas and suggestions. In addition, a number of reviewers provided use-
ful feedback and advice including Karen Dow Ambtman (University of Alberta), Jalal
Behzadi (Shahid Chamran University), Eric Cochran (Iowa State University), Frederic
Gibou (University of California at Santa Barbara), Jane Grande-Allen (Rice University),
Raphael Haftka (University of Florida), Scott Hendricks (Virginia Tech University), Ming
Huang (University of San Diego), Oleg Igoshin (Rice University), David Jack (Baylor Uni-
versity), Se Won Lee (Sungkyunkwan University), Clare McCabe (Vanderbilt University),
Eckart Meiburg (University of California at Santa Barbara), Luis Ricardez (University of
Waterloo), James Rottman (University of California, San Diego), Bingjing Su (University
of Cincinnati), Chin-An Tan (Wayne State University), Joseph Tipton (The University
of Evansville), Marion W. Vance (Arizona State University), Jonathan Vande Geest
(University of Arizona), Leah J. Walker (Arkansas State University), Qiang Hu (University
of Alabama, Huntsville), Yukinobu Tanimoto (Tufts University), Henning T. Søgaard
(Aarhus University), and Jimmy Feng (University of British Columbia).
It should be stressed that although I received useful advice from the aforementioned
individuals, I am responsible for any inaccuracies or mistakes you may find in this book.
Please contact me via e-mail if you should detect any errors.
xvi PREFACE
Finally, I want to thank my family, and in particular my wife, Cynthia, for the love,
patience, and support they have provided through the time I’ve spent on this project.
Steven C. Chapra
Tufts University
Medford, Massachusetts
[email protected]
PEDAGOGICAL TOOLS
Theory Presented as It Informs Key Concepts. The text is intended for Numerical
Methods users, not developers. Therefore, theory is not included for “theory’s sake,” for ex-
ample no proofs. Theory is included as it informs key concepts such as the Taylor series, con-
vergence, condition, etc. Hence, the student is shown how the theory connects with practical
issues in problem solving.
Introductory MATLAB Material. The text includes two introductory chapters on how to
use MATLAB. Chapter 2 shows students how to perform computations and create graphs
in MATLAB’s standard command mode. Chapter 3 provides a primer on developing
numerical programs via M ATLAB M-file functions. Thus, the text provides students with
the means to develop their own numerical algorithms as well as to tap into MATLAB’s
powerful built-in routines.
Algorithms Presented Using MATLAB M-files. Instead of using pseudocode, this book
presents algorithms as well-structured MATLAB M-files. Aside from being useful com-
puter programs, these provide students with models for their own M-files that they will
develop as homework exercises.
Worked Examples and Case Studies. Extensive worked examples are laid out in detail
so that students can clearly follow the steps in each numerical computation. The case stud-
ies consist of engineering and science applications which are more complex and richer than
the worked examples. They are placed at the ends of selected chapters with the intention
of (1) illustrating the nuances of the methods and (2) showing more realistically how the
methods along with MATLAB are applied for problem solving.
Problem Sets. The text includes a wide variety of problems. Many are drawn from en-
gineering and scientific disciplines. Others are used to illustrate numerical techniques and
theoretical concepts. Problems include those that can be solved with a pocket calculator as
well as others that require computer solution with MATLAB.
Useful Appendices and Indexes. Appendix A contains MATLAB commands, Appendix
B contains M-file functions, and new Appendix C contains a brief Simulink primer.
Instructor Resources. Solutions Manual, Lecture PowerPoints, Text images in Power-
Point, M-files and additional MATLAB resources are available through Connect®.
Part One
Modeling, Computers,
and Error Analysis
1.1 MOTIVATION
What are numerical methods and why should you study them?
Numerical methods are techniques by which mathematical problems are formulated
so that they can be solved with arithmetic and logical operations. Because digital comput-
ers excel at performing such operations, numerical methods are sometimes referred to as
computer mathematics.
In the pre–computer era, the time and drudgery of implementing such calculations
seriously limited their practical use. However, with the advent of fast, inexpensive digital
computers, the role of numerical methods in engineering and scientific problem solving
has exploded. Because they figure so prominently in much of our work, I believe that
numerical methods should be a part of every engineer’s and scientist’s basic education.
Just as we all must have solid foundations in the other areas of mathematics and science,
we should also have a fundamental understanding of numerical methods. In particular, we
should have a solid appreciation of both
their capabilities and their limitations.
Beyond contributing to your overall
education, there are several additional
reasons why you should study numerical
methods:
1. N umerical methods greatly expand the
types of problems you can address.
They are capable of handling large sys-
tems of equations, nonlinearities, and
complicated geometries that are not
uncommon in engineering and science
and that are often impossible to solve
analytically with standard calculus. As
such, they greatly enhance your prob-
lem-solving skills.
2. Numerical methods allow you to use
“canned” software with insight. During
1
2 PART 1 Modeling, Computers, and Error Analysis
your career, you will invariably have occasion to use commercially available prepack-
aged computer programs that involve numerical methods. The intelligent use of these
programs is greatly enhanced by an understanding of the basic theory underlying the
methods. In the absence of such understanding, you will be left to treat such packages
as “black boxes” with little critical insight into their inner workings or the validity of
the results they produce.
3. Many problems cannot be approached using canned programs. If you are conversant
with numerical methods, and are adept at computer programming, you can design
your own programs to solve problems without having to buy or commission expensive
software.
4. Numerical methods are an efficient vehicle for learning to use computers. Because nu-
merical methods are expressly designed for computer implementation, they are ideal for
illustrating the computer’s powers and limitations. When you successfully implement
numerical methods on a computer, and then apply them to solve otherwise intractable
problems, you will be provided with a dramatic demonstration of how computers can
serve your professional development. At the same time, you will also learn to acknowl-
edge and control the errors of approximation that are part and parcel of large-scale
numerical calculations.
5. Numerical methods provide a vehicle for you to reinforce your understanding of math-
ematics. Because one function of numerical methods is to reduce higher mathematics
to basic arithmetic operations, they get at the “nuts and bolts” of some otherwise
obscure topics. Enhanced understanding and insight can result from this alternative
perspective.
With these reasons as motivation, we can now set out to understand how numerical
methods and digital computers work in tandem to generate reliable solutions to mathemati-
cal problems. The remainder of this book is devoted to this task.
1.2 PART ORGANIZATION
This book is divided into six parts. The latter five parts focus on the major areas of nu-
merical methods. Although it might be tempting to jump right into this material, Part One
consists of four chapters dealing with essential background material.
Chapter 1 provides a concrete example of how a numerical method can be employed
to solve a real problem. To do this, we develop a mathematical model of a free-falling
bungee jumper. The model, which is based on Newton’s second law, results in an ordinary
differential equation. After first using calculus to develop a closed-form solution, we then
show how a comparable solution can be generated with a simple numerical method. We
end the chapter with an overview of the major areas of numerical methods that we cover in
Parts Two through Six.
Chapters 2 and 3 provide an introduction to the MATLAB® software environment.
Chapter 2 deals with the standard way of operating MATLAB by entering commands one
at a time in the so-called calculator, or command, mode. This interactive mode provides
a straightforward means to orient you to the environment and illustrates how it is used for
common operations such as performing calculations and creating plots.
1.2 PART ORGANIZATION 3
Chapter 3 shows how MATLAB’s programming mode provides a vehicle for assem-
bling individual commands into algorithms. Thus, our intent is to illustrate how MATLAB
serves as a convenient programming environment to develop your own software.
Chapter 4 deals with the important topic of error analysis, which must be understood
for the effective use of numerical methods. The first part of the chapter focuses on the
roundoff errors that result because digital computers cannot represent some quantities
exactly. The latter part addresses truncation errors that arise from using an approximation
in place of an exact mathematical procedure.
1
Mathematical Modeling,
Numerical Methods,
and Problem Solving
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of this chapter is to provide you with a concrete idea of what
numerical methods are and how they relate to engineering and scientific problem
solving. Specific objectives and topics covered are
• Learning how mathematical models can be formulated on the basis of scientific
principles to simulate the behavior of a simple physical system.
• Understanding how numerical methods afford a means to generate solutions in a
manner that can be implemented on a digital computer.
• Understanding the different types of conservation laws that lie beneath the models
used in the various engineering disciplines and appreciating the difference
between steady-state and dynamic solutions of these models.
• Learning about the different types of numerical methods we will cover in this
book.
YOU’VE GOT A PROBLEM
S
uppose that a bungee-jumping company hires you. You’re given the task of
predicting the velocity of a jumper (Fig. 1.1) as a function of time during the
free-fall part of the jump. This information will be used as part of a larger
analysis to determine the length and required strength of the bungee cord for jumpers
of different mass.
You know from your studies of physics that the acceleration should be equal to the ratio
of the force to the mass (Newton’s second law). Based on this insight and your knowledge
4
1.1 A Simple Mathematical Model 5
Upward force of physics and fluid mechanics, you develop the following mathematical model for the rate
due to air of change of velocity with respect to time,
resistance
c
dυ = g − ___
___ md υ2
dt
where υ = downward vertical velocity (m/s), t = time (s), g = the acceleration due to
gravity (≅ 9.81 m/s2), cd = a lumped drag coefficient (kg/m), and m = the jumper’s
mass (kg). The drag coefficient is called “lumped” because its magnitude depends on fac-
tors such as the jumper’s area and the fluid density (see Sec. 1.4).
Because this is a differential equation, you know that calculus might be used to obtain
an analytical or exact solution for υ as a function of t. However, in the following pages, we
will illustrate an alternative solution approach. This will involve developing a computer-
oriented numerical or approximate solution.
Aside from showing you how the computer can be used to solve this particular prob-
Downward lem, our more general objective will be to illustrate (a) what numerical methods are and
force due (b) how they figure in engineering and scientific problem solving. In so doing, we will also
to gravity show how mathematical models figure prominently in the way engineers and scientists use
numerical methods in their work.
FIGURE 1.1
Forces acting
on a free-falling
bungee jumper.
1.1 A SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL MODEL
A mathematical model can be broadly defined as a formulation or equation that expresses
the essential features of a physical system or process in mathematical terms. In a very gen-
eral sense, it can be represented as a functional relationship of the form
Dependent
variable
= f (
independent
variables
, parameters,
forcing
functions )
(1.1)
where the dependent variable is a characteristic that typically reflects the behavior or state
of the system; the independent variables are usually dimensions, such as time and space,
along which the system’s behavior is being determined; the parameters are reflective of
the system’s properties or composition; and the forcing functions are external influences
acting upon it.
The actual mathematical expression of Eq. (1.1) can range from a simple algebraic
relationship to large complicated sets of differential equations. For example, on the basis
of his observations, Newton formulated his second law of motion, which states that the
time rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on it. The
mathematical expression, or model, of the second law is the well-known equation
F = ma (1.2)
where F is the net force acting on the body (N, or kg m/s2), m is the mass of the object (kg),
and a is its acceleration (m/s2).
6 Mathematical Modeling, Numerical Methods, and Problem Solving
The second law can be recast in the format of Eq. (1.1) by merely dividing both sides
by m to give
a = __ F
m (1.3)
where a is the dependent variable reflecting the system’s behavior, F is the forcing func-
tion, and m is a parameter. Note that for this simple case there is no independent variable
because we are not yet predicting how acceleration varies in time or space.
Equation (1.3) has a number of characteristics that are typical of mathematical models
of the physical world.
• It describes a natural process or system in mathematical terms.
• It represents an idealization and simplification of reality. That is, the model ignores
negligible details of the natural process and focuses on its essential manifestations.
Thus, the second law does not include the effects of relativity that are of minimal
importance when applied to objects and forces that interact on or about the earth’s
surface at velocities and on scales visible to humans.
• Finally, it yields reproducible results and, consequently, can be used for predictive
purposes. For example, if the force on an object and its mass are known, Eq. (1.3) can
be used to compute acceleration.
Because of its simple algebraic form, the solution of Eq. (1.2) was obtained easily.
However, other mathematical models of physical phenomena may be much more complex,
and either cannot be solved exactly or require more sophisticated mathematical techniques
than simple algebra for their solution. To illustrate a more complex model of this kind,
Newton’s second law can be used to determine the terminal velocity of a free-falling body
near the earth’s surface. Our falling body will be a bungee jumper (Fig. 1.1). For this case,
a model can be derived by expressing the acceleration as the time rate of change of the
velocity (dυ/dt) and substituting it into Eq. (1.3) to yield
dυ = __
___ F (1.4)
dt m
where υ is velocity (in meters per second). Thus, the rate of change of the velocity is equal
to the net force acting on the body normalized to its mass. If the net force is positive, the
object will accelerate. If it is negative, the object will decelerate. If the net force is zero, the
object’s velocity will remain at a constant level.
Next, we will express the net force in terms of measurable variables and parameters.
For a body falling within the vicinity of the earth, the net force is composed of two
opposing forces: the downward pull of gravity FD and the upward force of air resistance FU
(Fig. 1.1):
F = FD + FU (1.5)
If force in the downward direction is assigned a positive sign, the second law can be
used to formulate the force due to gravity as
FD = mg (1.6)
2
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s ).
1.1 A Simple Mathematical Model 7
Air resistance can be formulated in a variety of ways. Knowledge from the science
of fluid mechanics suggests that a good first approximation would be to assume that it is
proportional to the square of the velocity,
FU = −cd υ2 (1.7)
where cd is a proportionality constant called the lumped drag coefficient (kg/m). Thus, the
greater the fall velocity, the greater the upward force due to air resistance. The parameter
cd accounts for properties of the falling object, such as shape or surface roughness, that af-
fect air resistance. For the present case, cd might be a function of the type of clothing or the
orientation used by the jumper during free fall.
The net force is the difference between the downward and upward force. Therefore,
Eqs. (1.4) through (1.7) can be combined to yield
c
dυ = g − ___
___ md υ2 (1.8)
dt
Equation (1.8) is a model that relates the acceleration of a falling object to the forces
acting on it. It is a differential equation because it is written in terms of the differential rate
of change (dυ/dt) of the variable that we are interested in predicting. However, in contrast
to the solution of Newton’s second law in Eq. (1.3), the exact solution of Eq. (1.8) for the
velocity of the jumper cannot be obtained using simple algebraic manipulation. Rather,
more advanced techniques such as those of calculus must be applied to obtain an exact or
analytical solution. For example, if the jumper is initially at rest (υ = 0 at t = 0), calculus
can be used to solve Eq. (1.8) for
( )
___ ___
gm gc
υ(t) = ___
c tanh √___
√ md t (1.9)
d
where tanh is the hyperbolic tangent that can be either computed directly1 or via the more
elementary exponential function as in
x −x
ex − e−x
tanh x = _______ (1.10)
e +e
Note that Eq. (1.9) is cast in the general form of Eq. (1.1) where υ(t) is the dependent
variable, t is the independent variable, cd and m are parameters, and g is the forcing function.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Analytical Solution to the Bungee Jumper Problem
Problem Statement. A bungee jumper with a mass of 68.1 kg leaps from a stationary
hot air balloon. Use Eq. (1.9) to compute velocity for the first 12 s of free fall. Also deter-
mine the terminal velocity that will be attained for an infinitely long cord (or alternatively,
the jumpmaster is having a particularly bad day!). Use a drag coefficient of 0.25 kg/m.
1
MATLAB allows direct calculation of the hyperbolic tangent via the built-in function tanh(x).
8 Mathematical Modeling, Numerical Methods, and Problem Solving
Solution. Inserting the parameters into Eq. (1.9) yields
_________
(√ )
_________
9.81(68.1) 9.81(0.25)
√
υ(t) = _________
0.25
tanh _________
68.1
t = 51.6938 tanh(0.18977t)
which can be used to compute
t, s υ, m/s
0 0
2 18.7292
4 33.1118
6 42.0762
8 46.9575
10 49.4214
12 50.6175
∞ 51.6938
According to the model, the jumper accelerates rapidly (Fig. 1.2). A velocity of
49.4214 m/s (about 110 mi/hr) is attained after 10 s. Note also that after a sufficiently
FIGURE 1.2
The analytical solution for the bungee jumper problem as computed in Example 1.1. Velocity
increases with time and asymptotically approaches a terminal velocity.
60
Terminal velocity
40
υ, m/s
20
0
0 4 8 12
t, s
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THE FINESSE OBLIGATORY
This is an arbitrary finesse, which is often forced upon you,
when, unless the cards of a suit are in a certain position, there is no
possibility of winning. Perhaps the best way of defining the finesse
obligatory is to give an example showing the position as it most
frequently occurs:
“Z” is the dealer, and leads a low card to the king in dummy,
which wins the first trick. The suit is returned, the ace being marked
with “A.” If “A” holds both ace and knave, no matter how the dealer
plays, “A” must win two tricks. Unless the knave is in “B’s” hand, and
“A” holds the singleton ace, the adversary must win two tricks. The
dealer should, therefore, play his lowest card, not the queen.
WATCHING THE DISCARDS IN ORDER TO
LOCATE FINESSES
The amount of information to be gained from the adversary’s
discards is apt to be underestimated. Careful notice of the discards,
particularly in a “no-trump” hand, will often help you to locate
honours and to determine where a finesse should be taken;
moreover, it will simplify the end play, show you chances to throw
the lead, and give you opportunities to force the opponents to lead
up to your hand.
If the king of your long suit is against you and on the wrong side,
it will probably make, but this is not true of the queen. If you hold in
the two hands ace king, jack or ace king jack, ten of a suit, unless
you can place the queen, you are compelled to guess where to take
the finesse. If, however, you can advantageously lead another suit
try to force the adversaries to discard, one will undoubtedly protect
the queen of your suit, and the other, not knowing perhaps that you
are trying to gain information, will probably discard from his weak
suit; the discard thus enabling you to finesse successfully.
This information can often be similarly obtained in a trump hand
by leading an extra round of trumps. If, however, you are forced to
lead the suit without any knowledge of the situation, lead a card
which will tempt your adversary to cover; for instance, holding ace x
x in dummy with king jack ten in your own hand, lead the jack. If
the jack is not covered, it is often good play to take the first trick
with the ace, and, on returning the lead, to play the ten. As the jack
was not covered you infer that the queen is held by the other
adversary.
If you have no finesse in your suit, it often pays to give the
adversaries a chance to make a finesse possible for you. For
instance, with A x x in dummy and K 10 9 in your own hand, unless
both queen and jack are unguarded, or unless you can tempt them
to play badly, the adversaries must make one trick in the suit. The
play is to lead the ten, for if it is covered, either with jack or queen,
you have the advantage of a finesse on your return of the suit.
SECOND HAND PLAYS
Showing the play of the different combinations between dealer
and dummy. In each case a small card is led and the second hand is
the hand that is led through:
2d Hand. 4th Hand. Play.
AKx Jxx K, or Low
AKx 10 x x K (T) Low (NT)
AQx Jxx Low
AQx 10 x x Low
AQx xxx Queen (T) Low (NT)
AJx Qxx Low
A 10 x Jxx Low
Axx Qxx Low
KQx xxx Queen
KJx xxx Low
KJ xxx Jack (T) King (NT)
KJ Axx Jack
KJx 10 x x Low
K 10 x Jxx Low
Kxx Qx Low
Kx xx Low (T) King (NT)
Kx Jxx Low
Kx Qxx Low (T) King (NT)
Kx Q 10 x Low
Kx A 10 x Low
Kx AJx Low
QJx xxx Jack
QJx Axx Jack
Q 10 x Axx Low
Qxx Kxx Low
Qxx xxx Low
Qx Axx Queen
Qx A 10 x Low
Qx AJx Low
Qx Kxx Low (T) Queen (NT)
(T) with a declared trump.
(NT) at no trump.
AKx Jxx K, or Low
Qx Jxx Low
Qx xxx Queen
J 10 x AKx Ten
J 10 x Axx Ten
Jx AKx Jack
Jx AQx Low
10 x AKx Ten
10 x AQx Ten
10 x AJx Low
(T) with a declared trump.
(NT) at no trump.
MANAGEMENT OF TRUMPS BY THE
DEALER
The surest test of a player’s skill is the ability he displays in
handling trumps. Habits that are wrong in theory are frequently
formed, and errors in judgment are common in the trump
management. The difficulties are as numerous as the combinations
are varied. Only general rules can be given, and the constantly
changing situations must be met by the skill and originality of the
player.
WHEN TO LEAD TRUMPS
One of the first points for the dealer’s consideration is the
advisability of the trump lead. As he usually holds the balance of
trump strength in the combined hands, generally speaking the
dealer should lead trumps.
A common excuse for avoiding the trump lead is that the hands
contain no long suit; if this is true, why not try to establish your
trump suit? If you hold five trumps in one hand, the chances are
that three rounds will leave you with two long trumps and the
adversaries powerless to “ruff” any high card you may hold; by
refusing to lead trumps you may enable the opponents to “overruff”
your strong hand and make their trumps separately. It may be to
your advantage to have the other suits led by the adversaries and
your trump lead will often force them to do this.
At times you will have the choice of two ways of playing the
hand. One, to trump losing cards in your weak hand; the other to
exhaust trumps and discard your losing cards on the commanding
cards of a long suit. If your trumps are strong and your long suit
established, the trump lead is preferable. With an established suit
and high trumps against you, postpone the trump lead until you
have allowed your weak hand to “ruff” the losing cards.
However, with five trumps in the strong and four in the weak
hand, as you will probably exhaust trumps in two rounds, it is safer
to lead the trumps first. You can then “ruff” in your weak hand
without danger of being “overruffed.”
If you hold seven or more trumps in the combined hands, do not
make the fact that your strong hand has been forced an excuse for
not leading trumps. If you are protected in the adversaries’ suit and
can lead the trumps advantageously from the weak to the strong
hand, always lead them.
To lead trumps with this number is the rule, not the exception,
but occasionally when they cannot be led from the weak hand it is
better to make as many trumps as possible by “ruffing.”
WHEN NOT TO LEAD TRUMPS
Perhaps the simplest rule that can be given is, do not lead
trumps when there is a short side suit in the weak trump hand. You
will obviously gain by trumping losing cards in the weak hand.
As it often requires two rounds to exhaust the short suit in the
weak hand, try not to show your intention too clearly, or the
adversaries will circumvent your scheme of “ruffing” by a trump
lead. Remember, also, that you cannot obtain the “ruff” unless you
hold, or can make, an entry card in your strong hand.
When your combined hands contain fewer than seven trumps,
the balance of strength is with the adversaries, and, in this case,
unless your trumps or side suits are exceptionally strong, avoid the
trump lead.
With but six trumps and an established suit against you, it would
be dangerous to lead trumps. One adversary must hold at least four
trumps, and it may be that all the remaining trumps are in one hand.
The trump lead would only help the adversaries to make their suit.
When the commanding trump is against you, endeavour to
discard your losing suit cards from one hand on winning ones in the
other before you give up the lead.
UNBLOCKING THE TRUMP SUIT
As dealer, be careful to lead your trumps in such a manner that
you will not find it impossible to continue the lead. The simplest
method of unblocking the trump suit is to lead or play the high
trumps from the shorter hand.
Occasionally to avoid blocking the suit, it will be necessary to
“ruff” with a high instead of a lower trump. For instance, with ace
and ten of trumps in dummy and king, queen, jack, nine and eight in
your own hand, if you “ruff” with dummy’s ten, you will block the
trump suit; even a temporary discontinuance of the trump lead may
result in loss.
When you lead the queen toward the ace, holding the ace, jack,
ten, nine, seven in one hand and queen, eight, four in the other, you
must provide for the possible necessity for leading three times
through the king by playing the nine of trumps on the queen lead. A
careless play of the seven may make it impossible to capture the
adversary’s king.
NOT FORCING YOUR STRONG TRUMP HAND
The greatest weakness and the most expensive fault in the
beginner’s game is his predilection for trumping in the strong trump
hand. When trumps are hopelessly against you, it may be necessary
to make what you can by ruffing, but with the advantage of the
make, you are seldom compelled to play a defensive game. When
you needlessly force your strong hand to trump, you reduce your
power to exhaust the adversaries’ trumps, to establish your suit, and
to be left with the last trump—which is, par excellence, the dealer’s
game.
To trump in the weak hand is always advisable, nor can any
objection be raised to a “cross-ruff,” but force your strong hand only
as a last resource.
If you hold the losing one of two remaining trumps, try to force
the winning trump from the adversary’s hand; to force your own
hand instead will materially prejudice your chance of making a suit.
LEADING TRUMPS TO PREVENT A RUFF
When it is apparent that one adversary can “ruff” a suit, or when
a “cross-ruff” is imminent, it is important that you guard against
such a contingency by at least two rounds of trumps. Of course, if
you hold the commanding trump, this presents no difficulties; but,
when the winning trump is with the adversary, you should try to
tempt him to hold it up second in hand by refraining from a high
card lead. For instance, with queen and seven of trumps in one hand
and king jack ten nine eight in the other, lead the seven instead of
the queen.
If your trumps are in sequence you can often obtain two rounds
by leading the lowest of your sequence rather than the highest card.
WHEN TO DRAW THE REMAINING TRUMPS
When you are left with but one remaining trump, and that the
commanding one, usually lead it to draw the losing trumps.
When there are but two other remaining trumps, trust that your
trump lead will find them divided. If you have reason to know that
both are in one hand, one must of course make; but lead the
commanding trump, so that but one can make.
With the best trump in your hand and one against you, it is only
in critical situations that you should refrain from drawing the losing
trump. For instance, when the adversaries hold an established suit
and the commanding card of your suit, it is a better play to clear
your suit and then refuse a force until the adversary who holds the
remaining trump cannot lead his partner’s suit. Take care, however,
to accept the force at the right time, for a delay in trumping may
allow the adversary to discard a losing card of your suit.
DISCONTINUING THE LEAD OF TRUMPS
There are many positions difficult to define when it is advisable
to discontinue the trump lead. An obvious case is when the
commanding trump is against you and the lead would entail your
loss of two trumps for one card, which the adversary must make in
any case. The best play is to force the adversary to “ruff” with the
high trump, for then your trumps may make separately.
When you hold but two trumps with two against you, be careful
about taking the third round of trumps when your adversaries hold
an established suit; if the trumps are divided no doubt the lead will
save a trick; but you risk finding both trumps in one hand, in which
case the adversary will draw or force your remaining trump and
make his suit. The trump lead cannot win more than one trick and it
may lose several.
With three remaining trumps, if your suit is established, the third
round should always be taken. Should you find after one or two
rounds that the trumps are banked in one hand against you, it is, as
a rule, better to force the opponent’s hand than to continue the
trump lead. This gives you the long trump, which is no
inconsiderable advantage.
The adversaries’ high trumps are sometimes placed after one
round, so that it may be advisable to discontinue the trump lead
temporarily until you can lead to better advantage from the weaker
hand.
When you hold the commanding card of each side suit and do
not wish the lead of your long suit to be interrupted, it is good play
to lead the losing trump. If, however, you are not in a position to win
any card the adversary may lead, it is better play to force the
commanding trump.
WHEN TO TRUMP
If the adversary attempts to force your strong hand, it is usually
advisable to accept the force. Only in rare cases does it pay to allow
the opponent to continue the lead of his established suit.
At times you can afford to give the adversary one trick, knowing
that, on the next lead, your weak hand can take the “ruff.”
With two trumps against you it is often good play to discard
rather than to “ruff” with the commanding trump. But to gain by
your play, you should hold a certain entry card in the suit that the
adversary must lead.
With one trump against you, do not use your one remaining
trump until the leader’s partner is exhausted in the leader’s suit.
If the adversary leads a suit which you can trump in either hand,
the “ruff” should invariably be taken in the weak hand, and a discard
made in the strong one.
You are sometimes in a position to know that if you trump, your
adversary will overtrump. When the best card is led, it is usually
good play to trump immediately and if possible with a card which
will not unguard an honour in your own hand, but will force a high
card from the opponent. If a suit is led, of which you hold the
commanding card in the opposite hand, your best defence is to take
a discard, which will prevent the adversary from making a high card
later in the hand. If you can make no advantageous discard, your
best play is to trump, especially if the trumps in your combined
hands are in sequence, for, if the adversary wins the trick, his high
trump will probably make in any case.
OVERTRUMPING
It is only the experienced player who can resist the temptation to
overtrump. The beginner jumps at every trick without realising that
he can often gain by waiting. Overtrump when your hand is weak
and your trumps low; but, if overtrumping takes out your only high
card in the trump suit, especially if it is the commanding trump, it is
nearly always better to discard. Your winning trump is bound to
make, and it is better play to throw away a suit that you can ruff
later with one of your small trumps.
Frequently by overtrumping you make it easy for the adversary
to draw your remaining trumps, which, had you not weakened your
hand, he would be powerless to do. For instance, where you hold
the best and the fourth best trump, with the second and third best in
your adversary’s hand, should you overtrump, your adversary will, of
course, be in a position to catch your smaller trump, while by
refusing the trick you retain the extra trump and are enabled to
draw the adversary’s last trump.
RE-ENTRY CARDS
It is of little use to establish a suit unless it is possible to get the
lead in the hand that contains it; therefore, the reservation of a re-
entry card in the hand that has the long suit is of great importance.
A preferable re-entry is, of course, the last trump or trumps.
Arranging the trump lead so that the last round will be taken in
the desired hand is often a necessary precaution.
After the adversaries’ trumps are exhausted, you may be
compelled to place the lead in the opposite hand by an extra round
of trumps, and often it is necessary to trump with a high card,
saving the low trump to lead to the opposite hand.
It not infrequently happens that in order to get the lead in the
opposite hand, you are forced to trump your own commanding card.
FORCING DISCARDS
Should you find as dealer that you have a losing card and a
number of winning trumps, always lead the trumps to give the
adversaries a chance to make an error in discarding.
If the adversary holds the ace, dummy the king, and you a
singleton of a suit, your hand otherwise consisting of long trumps
and established cards, by first leading the singleton you may tempt
the second hand adversary to hold up the ace; while if you lead the
established cards, the adversaries can count your hand and will
make no such mistake.
Whenever you hold but six or seven cards of a suit in the
combined hands, endeavour to make your adversaries discard before
you indicate any strength. You will find that many times the discards
will necessarily benefit your hand.
With two or three remaining trumps in your hand, you should
lead at least two rounds of trumps before opening the suit of which
you have but six cards. An example of the situation is given below:
In this case hearts are trumps. The dealer is left with the two
remaining trumps, and holds in his combined hands but six clubs.
Should the clubs be led before the trump suit, the adversaries would
be left with the commanding club. The dealer should play his two
trumps to force discards from his opponents’ hands before he opens
the club suit.
With four or five long trumps, when but one other suit has been
opened, you will almost invariably gain tricks by forcing the
adversaries to discard. Any error they may make in selecting the suit
to protect may enable you to take tricks with cards that would
otherwise be valueless.
THROWING THE LEAD
The disadvantage of the lead is at times most apparent, and you
can often gain by forcing your adversary to lead a suit which you
cannot well afford to open.
When there are tricks that the adversaries must win, try to make
this necessity a benefit to your hand.
Occasions for throwing the lead arise most frequently in the end
play; there are the nice situations where you gain the advantage of
position by leading a losing trump or suit card.
However, situations where it is advisable to throw the lead are so
frequent and varied in occurrence throughout the entire play that
the subject can only be treated in a general way. Perhaps covered by
one suggestion; when you cannot lead a suit advantageously, try to
force the adversary to lead it to you.
THE DEALER’S PLAY OF A “NO-
TRUMP” DECLARATION
As soon as the hand has been opened, make a comprehensive
examination to determine the possibilities of your combined hands.
Are you strong enough to win the game? Can you win the odd trick?
Shall you be able to save the game?
With no other possibility in the hand, make a determined effort
to save the game. If you are weak in one suit and hold the
command of the suit that is opened, your danger may lie in allowing
the adversaries to retain the lead.
When you hold an established suit, you cannot but gain by
forcing the opponents to discard; they may unguard honours in their
weaker suits or give you information that will locate high cards.
Do not forget that your strength is in your long suit, and that you
are often dependent on your other high cards to establish this suit.
To the mind of the novice, the loss of the lead is a calamity, and he
will often lead all his high cards, leaving the command of his own
suit, as well as of the others, with the adversaries.
Remember that it requires no skill to make aces and kings, and
that your goal in a “no-trump” hand must be the establishment of
the small cards of your long suit.
With fair possibilities in the hand, ascertain before you play a
card from dummy, first: which is your longest suit; second, how can
it be most advantageously led; and, third, in which hand there is the
greater need of an entry card.
CHOICE OF SUITS
There is no rule so necessary to good play as that of retaining
the control of the shorter suits and playing to establish the longest
suit in the combined hands. Do not let the fact that your long suit
contains but a few high cards discourage you—the lead can entail
but small loss as the commanding cards would probably make in any
case.
When, as frequently happens, your combined hands contain two
suits of equal length, make a careful selection of the suit to be
played for.
When the ace of one suit and the king or the queen of the other
are against you, play for the suit of which the adversary holds the
ace. The ace must win, while the fuller information that comes later
in the hand may enable you to catch the king or queen by a finesse.
Then you can better afford to discard from a suit headed by the ace
than from a suit in which an honour must be protected. Moreover,
you deprive the adversary of a sure re-entry card.
With two suits of equal length, be careful not to play for one in a
hand that contains no re-entry card.
When you hold two suits of equal length, it is usually wise to play
for the suit that is exposed on the table and conceal the strength in
your own hand. In other words, don’t give the adversaries
unnecessary information.
In choosing between two suits select the one that will gain you
the greater number of tricks. For instance, when you hold two eight-
card suits, one divided five and three and the other four and four,
there are clearly more tricks to be made in the former.
Be cautious about playing for a suit of no more than seven cards,
for you will often find the remaining cards most unequally divided.
When you hold but six cards in the combined hands the balance of
strength is with the adversaries, one of whom must hold at least
four cards. Try to force your opponents to discard before you
indicate strength in six- or seven-card suits.
With two entire suits against you, you cannot afford to lose the
lead. Make what tricks you need to save the game and pin your
hope on successful finesses.
With but one suit against you, do not fear to establish your long
suit. It is not so dangerous to give up the lead when you hold a
protection in the suit led originally. The adversary, not knowing your
weakness, will probably return the original lead.
KEEPING THE COMMANDING CARD
OF THE ADVERSARIES’ SUIT
As a general rule, do not part with the command of the
adversaries’ suit until one adversary is exhausted in the suit, and
therefore unable to return his partner’s lead; unless the original
leader has a sure card of entry you may be able to prevent this
player from getting into the lead. Usually do not refuse to take a
trick with a king or queen when the higher card or cards have not
been played. The adversaries may lead through and capture a single
guarded honour.
If you find that there is another entire suit against you, it pays to
take the first lead and make what tricks you can in the two
remaining suits. Even in some rare cases, the play of a well-guarded
king in dummy is the one chance to make or save the game.
Sometimes the cards of your long suit will be so unfortunately
placed that the continued lead would establish it for the adversaries.
In this situation, keep the command of that suit, and make a bid for
better luck in establishing another.
Unless there is no possibility of losing the game, do not hesitate
to take the first lead whenever you are assured of a sufficient
number of tricks to win the game.
Often by taking the first trick you promote the value of another
card in your own hand or in dummy. In other words, you temporarily
give up the control, with the knowledge that you will eventually hold
the master card of the opponents’ suit.
In these cases, by taking an honour led or played, the dealer can
eventually stop the adversaries’ suit.
At times, if you take the first trick, the suit will be protected,
provided it is not led by your right-hand adversary.
In these two cases, if an honour is led, the first trick should be
passed. If a low card is led and an honour played, the first trick
should be taken. Otherwise the opponent may immediately lead
through your hand.
Holding the king, queen, and a small card of the adversaries’ suit,
you are assured of at least one trick, with the possibility of two, but
remember, if you take the first trick, your hand may be led through;
it is often safer to win the third round than the first.
Should you win the first trick in any one of these cases,
endeavour to prevent your right-hand adversary from obtaining the
lead.
When the adversaries can take two tricks in your long suit, it is
better to win the first and third than the first and second tricks in
their suit.
In this case a low card is led, and you can win the first trick with
the queen. By doing this you are forced to take the first and second
rounds. If you take the first trick with the ace, your queen will be
sacrificed to the king, but your jack controls the third round.
Unless there is another suit against you, it is safer to win the
second and third tricks of the adversaries’ suit than the first and
third.
Should you wait to win the second trick with the ace, there is a
chance that your right-hand adversary will be exhausted in the suit,
and unless the original leader has two cards of re-entry his suit
cannot be made.
RE-ENTRY CARDS
Clear your long suit before you take out your card of re-entry is a
simple rule that is often violated. When you have made the “no-
trump” declaration, any possible re-entry in the dummy hand should
be used to bring in a suit or to lead a suit advantageously from the
weak hand. In fact, much of the success of a “no-trump” hand
depends on the dealers’ skill in saving and making re-entries in the
weaker hand.
A re-entry may be an ace or a three. It may be the master card
of your long suit or a guarded honour in the adversaries’ suit.
When you can win the original lead in either hand, consider well
the question of re-entries before you touch one of dummy’s cards.
Save all possible re-entry cards, remembering that often in order
to gain any material advantage from a finesse you must be in a
position to lead twice from the weak hand.
For instance, holding any one of the following combinations:
In order to make an entry card in the suit led originally, it may
occasionally be necessary to overtake a card played by the dummy.
When your long suit is blocked, try to establish an entry card
before you make the situation clear to the opponents. Otherwise
they will not allow you to enter and make your suit.
If you hold four cards of a suit in each hand, it may be possible
to obtain the lead twice in one hand. For instance, holding
If you lead the deuce and play the king, you have deprived
dummy of the only entry card in the suit. If, however, you lead the
eight, dummy’s seven will probably be the master card on the fourth
round. Such a re-entry is often of great assistance in opening the
next suit.
When you hold a nine-card suit divided five and four, it may be
necessary to use both the third and fourth rounds of the suits as re-
entries to lead another suit advantageously. This is a chance for
good play that is often overlooked in the pleasure of making a long
suit.
When dummy’s re-entry is a guarded king or queen, and you
have no means of knowing the position of the ace, try to establish
this re-entry by sacrificing a high card from your own hand.
In both of the examples given above, the dealer to make a re-
entry card for the dummy should sacrifice a high card from his hand.
UNBLOCKING
There is frequent necessity in the dealer’s play for ridding one
hand of high cards in order not to interrupt the lead of smaller cards
from the other hand. It is well to look ahead and prepare for this
contingency, for often in the middle of a hand you will quite
unexpectedly find that unblocking will enable you to make small
cards that the adversaries have made good by reckless discarding.
When you hold more cards of a suit in one hand than in the
other, you can invariably prevent blocking, if you lead or play the
high cards from the shorter hand. At times a suit may be unblocked
by discarding the winning card or cards from one hand, but the first
rule covers the majority of cases where there is necessity for
unblocking.
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