Injibara University

College of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department of Software engineering
Course title:- History of Ethiopia and the Horn

Name ID
1, Melkamu Enyew ……………………………………….0630/14
2,Tadesse Birara …………………………………………..0802/14
3,Wagaye Billgn ……………………………………………
 1. Mention modernization attempts during Emperor Tewodros II, the Dual
Rule and Emperor Hailesilassie I.

Ethiopia underwent several modernization attempts under the reigns

of Emperor Tewodros II (1855–1868), the Era of Dual Rule (1916–
1930), and Emperor Haile Selassie I (1930–1974). Each period had
distinct approaches to reform, influenced by internal and external pressures.

1. Emperor Tewodros II (1855–1868)

Tewodros II was one of Ethiopia’s first modernizing emperors, aiming to

centralize power and strengthen the state against external threats. His
reforms included:

 Military Modernization: He sought to replace feudal armies with a

professional standing army equipped with modern firearms, importing
European weapons and artillery.
 Administrative Centralization: He tried to weaken regional nobility (Ras)
by demanding loyalty to the crown and reducing their autonomy.
 Infrastructure & Industry: He attempted to establish local arms
manufacturing, including cannon foundries, with the help of European
artisans (e.g., the British missionary Samuel Blanc).
 Diplomatic Outreach: He wrote to Queen Victoria requesting skilled
workers and military support, but Britain ignored his requests, leading to the
1868 British Expedition and his downfall.

Despite his vision, Tewodros faced resistance from regional nobles, church
leaders, and logistical challenges, leading to the failure of many reforms.

2. The Era of Dual Rule (1916–1930)

 After Emperor Iyasu V was deposed in 1916, Empress Zewditu ruled
nominally, while Ras Tafari Makonnen (later Haile Selassie) acted as
regent and heir. This period saw cautious modernization:

 Diplomatic Engagement: Ras Tafari secured Ethiopia’s entry into

the League of Nations (1923), gaining international recognition.
 Educational Reforms: Modern schools were introduced, and Ethiopian
students were sent abroad (e.g., Tafari Makonnen School, established in
1925).
 Infrastructure & Governance: Limited road construction and
administrative reforms were initiated to strengthen the central government.
 Abolition of Slavery: Ethiopia officially banned slavery in 1923 to improve
its international image.

However, conservative factions resisted rapid changes, and modernization

remained gradual until Ras Tafari became Emperor Haile Selassie I in
1930.

3. Emperor Haile Selassie I (1930–1974)

Haile Selassie pursued extensive modernization, though his rule became

increasingly authoritarian. Key reforms included:

Pre-Italian Occupation (1930–1936)

 1931 Constitution: Ethiopia’s first written constitution, establishing a

centralized monarchy with a bicameral parliament (though power remained
with the Emperor).
 Modern Bureaucracy: Reformed taxation, legal codes, and provincial
administration to reduce feudal power.
 Military Upgrades: Established the Imperial Bodyguard and sought
foreign training (e.g., Belgian advisors).
 Education Expansion: Founded Haile Selassie I University (1950),
expanded primary and secondary schools, and sent students abroad.

Post-Liberation (1941–1974)

After defeating Italian occupation (1936–1941), Haile Selassie accelerated

reforms:

 Industrialization: Factories for textiles, cement, and food processing were

established.
 Infrastructure Development: Roads, airports (e.g., Addis Ababa Bole
Airport), and the Ethio-Djibouti Railway were expanded.
 Land Reform Attempts: The 1955 Revised Constitution promised
modernization but preserved aristocratic landownership, leading to peasant
discontent.
 Pan-African Leadership: Ethiopia hosted the OAU (1963), positioning
itself as a leader in African decolonization.

However, by the 1970s, economic inequality, corruption, and slow political

reforms led to the 1974 Revolution, ending his reign.

Conclusion

 Tewodros II laid early foundations but failed due to resistance and lack of
resources.
 Dual Rule saw cautious modernization under Ras Tafari, setting the stage
for Haile Selassie’s reforms.
 Haile Selassie achieved significant modernization but faced criticism for
autocratic rule and inequality, leading to his overthrow.

Each ruler contributed to Ethiopia’s transformation, though with varying

degrees of success and public support.
 2. Discuss the major battles fought against external aggressors focusing on the
battles of Makdala, Dogali, Mettema and Adwa.

Ethiopia has a long history of resisting external aggression, with several key
battles demonstrating its military strength and sovereignty. The Battles of
Makdala (1868), Dogali (1887), Mettema (1889), and Adwa
(1896) were pivotal conflicts against foreign invaders, primarily
against Britain, Italy, and Sudan (Mahdist forces). Each battle had
significant political and historical consequences for Ethiopia.

1. Battle of Makdala (Magdala) (1868) – British Expedition

against Tewodros II

 Background: Emperor Tewodros II, frustrated by Britain’s refusal to

support his modernization efforts, imprisoned several British officials,
including a consul. In response, Britain launched a punitive
expedition under General Robert Napier.

 The Battle:
o The British-Indian force (13,000 soldiers) landed at Zula (Eritrea) and
marched inland, using advanced weaponry and logistical support.

o Tewodros’s forces, though determined, were outgunned and

outmaneuvered.

o After a brief siege at Makdala (Amba Geshen), Tewodros refused

surrender and committed suicide (April 13, 1868) rather than be captured.
 Aftermath:
o The British looted thousands of Ethiopian manuscripts, religious
artifacts, and the royal crown, many of which remain in British museums
today.

o Ethiopia’s sovereignty was weakened temporarily, but the battle also

demonstrated Ethiopian resistance against colonial powers.

2. Battle of Dogali (1887) – Ethiopian Victory over Italy

 Background: Italy, seeking colonial expansion, occupied Massawa

(1885) and pushed inland, establishing forts. Ras Alula Engida, governor
of Tigray, saw this as a threat.

 The Battle:
o In January 1887, an Italian force of 500 soldiers (led by Colonel Tommaso
De Cristoforis) was ambushed by Ras Alula’s troops at Dogali.

o The Ethiopians used superior numbers and terrain knowledge, annihilating

the Italian detachment.

 Aftermath:
o A major humiliation for Italy, forcing them to reconsider direct confrontation.

o Strengthened Ethiopia’s reputation as a formidable opponent.

o Italy later signed the Treaty of Wuchale (1889), but its deceptive wording
led to further conflict.
 3. Battle of Mettema (Gallabat) (1889) – Ethiopian
Resistance against the Mahdists

 Background: The Mahdist Sudan (a radical Islamic state) repeatedly

raided Ethiopia. Emperor Yohannes IV sought to crush them.

 The Battle:
o In March 1889, Yohannes led a large army against the Mahdists at Mettema
(Gallabat).

o The Ethiopians initially succeeded, but Yohannes was fatally wounded by

a sniper.

o His death caused confusion, and the Ethiopian army withdrew.

 Aftermath:
o Yohannes’s death led to a power struggle, allowing Menelik II to rise.

o The Mahdist threat persisted but declined after British-Egyptian forces

defeated them in Sudan (1898).

4. Battle of Adwa (1896) – Ethiopia’s Greatest Victory over

Italy

 Background: Italy, interpreting the Treaty of Wuchale (1889) as making

Ethiopia a protectorate, invaded. Menelik II mobilized a massive army.

 The Battle:
o On March 1, 1896, 120,000 Ethiopian troops faced 17,700 Italians (led
by General Baratieri).
o Ethiopian forces, using superior tactics and terrain, crushed the Italians,
killing 6,000 and capturing 3,000.

 Aftermath:
o The Treaty of Addis Ababa (1896) forced Italy to recognize Ethiopia’s full
independence, making it the only African nation to resist colonization.

o Adwa became a symbol of African resistance against colonialism.

o Italy later sought revenge, leading to the Second Italo-Ethiopian War

(1935–1936).

Conclusion

These battles highlight Ethiopia’s military resilience and diplomatic

strategy against colonial powers:

 Makdala (1868): Showed resistance but ended in tragedy for Tewodros II.

 Dogali (1887): Proved Ethiopia could defeat European forces.

 Mettema (1889): Demonstrated the cost of defending against jihadist

invasions.

 Adwa (1896): Cemented Ethiopia’s sovereignty and inspired global anti-

colonial movements.

Ethiopia’s victories, especially Adwa, remain central to its national identity

and pride.
 3. Discuss the relation between Britain and Ethiopia in the Post-1941 Imperial
Period.

Britain and Ethiopia in the Post-1941 Imperial Period (1941–

1974)

Following Ethiopia’s liberation from Italian occupation (1936–1941) with

British assistance, the relationship between Britain and Ethiopia was
shaped by wartime cooperation, Cold War politics, and post-colonial
tensions. While Britain initially sought to exert influence over Ethiopia,
Emperor Haile Selassie I skillfully navigated international diplomacy to
maintain Ethiopian sovereignty.

1. British Military Occupation & the 1942 & 1944 Agreements

After the East African Campaign (1941), British forces (including

Ethiopian patriot fighters) expelled the Italians and restored Haile Selassie to
power. However, Britain did not immediately withdraw, leading to friction:

 1942 Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement:

o Britain recognized Ethiopian sovereignty but maintained military and
economic influence.

o British advisors controlled key sectors (police, finance, infrastructure).

o Ogaden and Haud regions (Somali-inhabited) remained under British

Military Administration (BMA), angering Ethiopia.

 1944 Revised Agreement:

o Ethiopia regained more autonomy, reducing British control.
o Britain retained military transit rights but withdrew most advisors.

o The Ogaden issue remained unresolved, leading to future conflicts.

Tensions Over Eritrea & Somaliland

 Britain administered Eritrea (1941–1952) and favored partitioning it

between Ethiopia and Sudan.

 Ethiopia wanted full annexation, which it achieved in 1952 (UN

Federation) and 1962 (full integration).

 Britain also controlled British Somaliland and supported Somali

irredentism, complicating Ethiopia’s claims over the Ogaden.

2. Cold War Dynamics & Shifting Alliances

By the late 1940s, Britain’s global influence declined, and Ethiopia turned to
the US for support.

 1950s–1960s:
o Britain focused on decolonization (e.g., Sudan, Kenya, Somalia) and
reduced its role in Ethiopia.

o The US replaced Britain as Ethiopia’s main ally, providing military and

economic aid.

o Britain supported Somali independence (1960), worsening Ethiopia-

Somalia tensions over the Ogaden.

 1964 Ethiopian-Somali Border War:

o Britain (alongside the US) backed Ethiopia against Somalia, fearing Soviet
influence in the region.

3. Economic & Diplomatic Relations

 Trade & Investment:

o British firms remained active in banking, agriculture, and infrastructure.

o The Ethio-Djibouti Railway (originally French-built) saw British

involvement in upgrades.

 Education & Culture:

o British-style schools (e.g., Sandford School in Addis Ababa) influenced
Ethiopian elites.

o Many Ethiopian students studied in the UK, strengthening cultural ties.

4. Decline of British Influence & Haile Selassie’s Fall (1974)

 By the 1970s, Britain’s role in Ethiopia diminished further due to:

o Decolonization (Britain withdrew from East Africa).

o US and Soviet dominance in Cold War-era Ethiopia.

o Ethiopian Revolution (1974): The Derg regime (Marxist) severed Western

ties, ending British influence.
 Conclusion

 1941–1944: Britain acted as a de facto occupier, limiting Ethiopian

sovereignty.

 Post-1944: Ethiopia gradually reduced British control, aligning more with

the US.

 Cold War Era: Britain played a secondary role but supported Ethiopia
against Soviet-backed Somalia.

 Legacy: Despite early tensions, British-Ethiopian relations left a mark

on education, infrastructure, and military development, though
Ethiopia successfully preserved its independence.

The relationship was a mix of cooperation and contention, with Ethiopia

skillfully balancing foreign powers to maintain its sovereignty.

4.Discuss political movements and oppositions against the Derg’s military

regime.

Political Movements and Opposition Against the Derg’s

Military Regime (1974–1991)

The Derg, a Marxist-Leninist military junta that ruled Ethiopia from 1974 to
1991, faced fierce opposition from various political movements, armed
groups, and civilian uprisings. The regime’s authoritarian rule, mass
executions, forced collectivization, and brutal counterinsurgency
campaigns fueled widespread resistance. Below are the major opposition
movements that challenged the Derg:
 1. Leftist & Marxist-Leninist Opposition (1974–1978)

Initially, opposition came from rival Marxist factions that disagreed with
the Derg’s policies or leadership.

A. Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party (EPRP) – "White

Terror"

 Ideology: Marxist-Leninist, anti-Derg but opposed its authoritarianism.

 Actions:
o Launched urban guerrilla warfare (assassinations, bombings).

o Engaged in a violent struggle against the Derg and MEISON (a rival socialist
group).

 Derg’s Response:
o "Red Terror" (1977–1978): Mass executions, torture, and disappearances
of EPRP members and suspected sympathizers.

o By 1978, the EPRP was crushed, with its remnants fleeing to rural areas or
abroad.

B. All-Ethiopia Socialist Movement (MEISON) – "Derg’s Ally

then Victim"

 Initially supported the Derg but later split over ideological differences.

 Fate: Many MEISON leaders were purged by Mengistu by the late 1970s.
 2. Ethnic & Nationalist Armed Movements

The Derg’s suppression of ethnic federalism and forced assimilation policies

fueled ethnic-based armed resistance.

A. Eritrean Liberation Movements (ELF & EPLF)

 Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF): Fought for independence since the

1960s.

 Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF):

o More disciplined Marxist-Leninist faction (led by Isaias Afwerki).

o Gained dominance by the 1980s, defeating the ELF.

o Major Battles:
 Battle of Afabet (1988): Crushed Derg forces, turning the tide of the war.

 Fall of Massawa (1990): Cut off Derg’s supply route.

o Outcome: Eritrea achieved de facto independence by 1991.

B. Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF)

 Founded: 1975, Marxist-Leninist but later shifted to ethnic federalism.

 Alliance: Joined with the Eritrean EPLF against the Derg.

 Major Campaigns:
o Operation Tewodros (1989): Captured key towns in Tigray.

o March to Addis Ababa (1991): Advanced alongside the EPRDF (a

coalition led by TPLF).

 Outcome: Became the core of Ethiopia’s post-1991 ruling coalition

(EPRDF).
 C. Oromo Liberation Front (OLF)

 Founded: 1973, sought self-determination for Oromos.

 Struggle: Fought Derg forces in southern and western Ethiopia.

 Post-Derg Role: Joined the Transitional Government (1991) but later

clashed with the TPLF-dominated EPRDF.

D. Other Regional Movements

 Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF): Fought for Ogaden’s

annexation to Somalia (supported by Siad Barre).

 Afar Liberation Front: Resisted Derg’s rule in eastern Ethiopia.

3. Monarchist & Anti-Communist Resistance

A. Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU)

 Composition: Former nobles, conservatives, and anti-Derg military officers.

 Base: Operated from Sudan and Eritrea.

 Fate: Weakened by infighting and overshadowed by leftist groups.

B. Royalist Guerrillas (Small-Scale Uprisings)

 Some loyalists of Haile Selassie launched sporadic rebellions but lacked

coordination.
 4. Student & Civilian Opposition

 Labor Unions & Student Protests:

o Initially supported the Derg but later opposed its repression.

o Many student activists joined the EPRP or TPLF.

 Famine & Discontent (1983–1985):

o The Derg’s disastrous agricultural policies and denial of famine fueled anger.

o Band Aid/Live Aid (1984–1985): International attention exposed the

regime’s failures.

5. Fall of the Derg (1990–1991)

 Economic Collapse: War expenses and Soviet withdrawal (post-1989)

crippled the regime.

 Military Defeats:
o TPLF/EPRDF advanced from Tigray.

o EPLF secured Eritrea.

 Mengistu’s Flight (May 1991): Fled to Zimbabwe as rebels entered Addis

Ababa.

 Transitional Government (July 1991): Led by the EPRDF (TPLF-

dominated coalition).
 Conclusion

The Derg’s brutality, economic mismanagement, and wars created a

multi-front resistance:

1. Marxist factions (EPRP, MEISON) – Crushed in the Red Terror.

2. Ethnic-nationalist movements (TPLF, EPLF, OLF) – Most successful,

leading to the Derg’s fall.

3. Monarchists & conservatives (EDU) – Marginalized by stronger leftist

groups.

4. Civilian opposition – Fueled by famine and repression.

The TPLF-led EPRDF’s victory in 1991 reshaped Ethiopia,

introducing ethnic federalism and leading to Eritrea’s independence
in 1993. However, the post-Derg era saw new conflicts, including the 1998–
2000 Eritrean-Ethiopian War and later tensions between the TPLF and
other groups.

5. Briefly discuss oppositions against the imperial regime focusing on the

Woyane, the Gojjam and the Bale peasant rebellions.

Opposition Against the Imperial Regime: The Woyane,

Gojjam, and Bale Rebellions

During Emperor Haile Selassie’s rule (1930–1974), several rebellions

emerged, reflecting regional discontent over taxation, land tenure,
centralization, and ethnic marginalization. Three major uprisings were:

1. Woyane Rebellion (1943) – Tigray

 Causes: Resentment against heavy taxation, corruption by imperial
appointees, and neglect of Tigray.

 Leaders: Local nobles, peasants, and Ras Haile Selassie Gugsa (a

disaffected prince).

 Events:
o Rebels seized Mekelle and challenged imperial authority.

o The regime responded with British air support, bombing rebel positions.

 Outcome: Crushed by the central government, but it inspired later

resistance (e.g., TPLF in the 1970s).

2. Gojjam Rebellion (1968) – Amhara Region

 Causes: Anger over land reform attempts, forced modernization, and tax
collection.

 Leaders: Peasants and local elites resisting central government

interference.

 Events:
o Farmers and clergy revolted against land measurement (seen as a prelude
to taxation).

o The rebellion was relatively peaceful but widespread.

 Outcome: Haile Selassie backed down, suspending land reforms in Gojjam.

3. Bale Peasant Rebellion (1963–1970) – Oromo/Somali Region

 Causes: Oppression by Amhara landlords, heavy taxation, and ethnic

discrimination.
 Leaders: Waqo Gutu (Oromo rebel leader) with Somali support.

 Events:
o Guerrilla warfare against imperial forces, using forest hideouts.

o Inspired by Somali irredentism (dream of Greater Somalia).

 Outcome:
o The rebellion weakened after negotiations but continued sporadically.

o Later merged into the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) post-1974.

Legacy

These rebellions exposed growing discontent under Haile Selassie’s rule,

highlighting:

 Resistance to centralization (Woyane, Gojjam).

 Ethnic and land-based grievances (Bale).

 Seeds of future revolutions (TPLF, OLF, and the 1974 overthrow of the
monarchy).

These movements laid the groundwork for the larger uprisings that
eventually toppled the imperial regime.