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H WithApplications to
~hyaib,
@ Chsmtstry,
 NONLINEAR
DYNAMICS AND
CHAOS
With Applications to
Physics, Biology, Chemistry,
and Engineering

STEVEN H. STROGATZ

PERSEUS B O O K S
I Reading, Massachusetts
Many of the designations used by nlanufacturers and sellers to distin-
guish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designa-
tions appear in this book and Perseus Books was aware of a trademark
claim, the designations have been printed in initial capital letters.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Strogatz, Steven H. (Steven Henry)
Nonlmear dynamics and chaos: with applications to physics,
biology, chemistry, and engineering / Steven H. Strogatz.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-201 -54344-3
1. Chaotic behavior in systems. 2. Dynamics. 3. Nonlinear
theories. I. Title.
Q172.5.C45S767 1994
501'.1'85-dc20 93-6166
CIP

Copyright O 1994 by Perseus Books Publishing, L.L.C.

Perseus Books is a member of the Perseus Books Group

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States
of America. Published simultaneously in Canada.

Cover design by Lynne Reed

Text design by Joyce C. Weston
Set in 10-point Times by Compset, Inc.
Cover art is a computer-generated picture of a scroll ring, from
Strogatz (1985) with permission. Scroll rings are self-sustaining
sources of waves in diverse excitable media, including heart muscle,
neural tissue, and excitable chemical reactions (Winfree and Strogatz
1984, Winfrce 1987b).

Perseus Books are available for special discounts for hulk purchases in the
U.S. by corporations, institutions, and other organizations. For more in-
formation, please contact the Special Markets Department at Harper-
Collins Publishers, 10 East 53rd Street, New York, NY 10022, or call 1-
2 12-207-7528.
 CONTENTS

Preface ix

1. Overview 1
1.0 Chaos, Fractals, and Dynamics 1
1.1 Capsule History of Dynamics 2
1.2 The Importance of Being Nonlinear 4
1.3 A Dynamical View of the World 9

Part I. One-Dimensional Flows

Flows on the Line 15
2.0 Introduction 15
2.1 A Geometric Way of Thinking 16
2.2 Fixed Points and Stability 18
2.3 PopulationGrowth 21
2.4 Linear Stability Analysis 24
2.5 Existence and Uniqueness 26
2.6 Impossibility of Oscillations 28
2.7 Potentials 30
2.8 Solving Equations on the Computer 32
Exercises 36
3. Bifurcations 44
3.0 Introduction 44
3.1 Saddle-Node Bifurcation 45
3.2 Transcritical Bifurcation 50
3.3 Laser Threshold 53
3.4 Pitchfork Bifurcation 55
3.5 Overdamped Bead on a Rotating Hoop 61

CONTENTS v
 3.6 Imperfect Bifurcations and Catastrophes 69
3.7 Insect Outbreak 73
Exercises 79
4. Flows on the Circle 93
4.0 Introduction 93
4.1 Examples and Definitions 93
4.2 Uniform Oscillator 95
4.3 Nonuniform Oscillator 96
4.4 Overdamped Pendulum 101
4.5 Fireflies 103
4.6 Superconducting Josephson Junctions 106
Exercises 1 13

Part II. Two-Dimensional Flows

5. Linear Systems 123
5.0 Introduction 123
5.1 Definitions and Examples 123
5.2 Classification of Linear Systems 129
5.3 Love Affairs 138
Exercises 140
6. Phase Plane 145
6.0 Introduction 145
6.1 Phase Portraits 145
6.2 Existence, Uniqueness, and Topological Consequences 148
6.3 Fixed Points and Linearization 150
6.4 Rabbits versus Sheep 155
6.5 Conservative Systems 159
6.6 Reversible Systems 163
6.7 Pendulum 168
6.8 Index Theory 174
Exercises 18 1
7. Limit Cycles 196
7.0 Introduction 196
7.1 Examples 197
7.2 Ruling Out Closed Orbits 199
7.3 Poincark-Bendixson Theorem 203
7.4 Liknard Systems 2 10
7.5 Relaxation Oscillators 2 1 1
7.6 Weakly Nonlinear Oscillato~~s2 15
Exercises 227

vi CONTENTS
8. Bifurcations Revisited 241
8.0 Introduction 24 1
8.1 Saddle-Node, Transcritical,
and Pitchfork Bifurcations 24 1
8.2 Hopf Bifurcations 248
8.3 Oscillating Chemical Reactions 254
8.4 GIobal Bifurcations of Cycles 260
8.5 Hysteresis in the Driven Pendulum and Josephson Junction 265
8.6 Coupled Oscillators and Quasiperiodicity 273
8.7 Poincare Maps 278
Exercises 284

Part Ill. Chaos

9. Lorenz Equations 301
9.0 Introduction 301
9.1 A Chaotic Waterwheel 302
9.2 Simple Properties of the Lorenz Equations 3 1 1
9.3 Chaos on a Strange Attractor 3 17
9.4 Lorenz Map 326
9.5 Exploring Parameter Space 330
9.6 Using Chaos to Send Secret Messages 335
Exercises 34 1
10. One-Dimensional Maps 348
10.0 Introduction 348
10.1 Fixed Points and Cobwebs 349
10.2 Logistic Map: Numerics 353
10.3 Logistic Map: Analysis 357
10.4 Periodic Windows 36 1
10.5 Liapunov Exponent 366
10.6 Universality and Experiments 369
10.7 Renormalization 379
Exercises 388
11. Fractals 398
1 1.0 Introduction 398
1 1.1 Countable and Uncountable Sets 399
11.2 Cantor Set 401
1 1.3 Dimension of Self-similar Fractals 404
1 1.4 Box Dimension 409
1 1.5 Pointwise and Correlation Dimensions 4 1 1
Exercises 4 16

CONTENTS vii
12. Strange Attractors 423
12.0 Introduction 423
12.1 The Simplest Examples 423
12.2 Henon Map 429
12.3 Rossler System 434
12.4 Chemical Chaos and Attractor Reconstruction 437
12.5 Forced Double-Well Oscillator 441
Exercises 448

Answers to Selected Exercises 455

References 465
Author Index 475
Subject Index 478

viii CONTENTS
 PREFACE

This textbook is aimed at newcomers to nonlinear dynamics and chaos, especially

students taking a first course in the subject. It is based on a one-semester course
I've taught for the past several years at MIT and Cornell. My goal is to explain the
mathematics as clearly as possible, and to show how it can be used to understand
some of the wonders of the nonlinear world.
The mathematical treatment is friendly and informal, but still careful. Analyti-
cal methods, concrete examples, and geometric intuition are stressed. The theory is
developed systematically, starting with first-order differential equations and their
bifurcations, followed by phase plane analysis, limit cycles and their bifurcations,
and culminating with the Lorenz equations, chaos, iterated maps, period doubling,
renormalization, fractals, and strange attractors.
A unique feature of the book is its emphasis on applications. These include me-
chanical vibrations, lasers, biological rhythms, superconducting circuits, insect
outbreaks, chemical oscillators, genetic control systems, chaotic waterwheels, and
even a technique for using chaos to send secret messages. In each case, the sci-
entific background is explained at an elementary level and closely integrated with
the mathematical theory.

Prerequisites

The essential prerequisite is single-variable calculus, including curve-sketch-

ing, Taylor series, and separable differential equations. In a few places, multivari-
able calculus (partial derivatives, Jacobian matrix, divergence theorem) and linear
algebra (eigenvalues and eigenvectors) are used. Fourier analysis is not assumed,
and is developed where needed. Introductory physics is used throughout. Other
scientific prerequisites would depend on the applications considered, but in all
cases, a first course should be adequate preparation.

I
PREFACE ix
 Possible Courses

The book could be used for several types of courses:

A broad introduction to nonlinear dynamics, for students with no prior expo-
sure to the subject. (This is the kind of course I have taught.) Here one goes
straight through the whole book, covering the core material at the beginning
of each chapter, selecting a few applications to discuss in depth and giving
light treatment to the more advanced theoretical topics or skipping them alto-
gether. A reasonable schedule is seven weeks on Chapters 1-8, and five or six
weeks on Chapters 9-12. Make sure there's enough time left in the semester
to get to chaos, maps, and fractals.
A traditional course on nonlinear ordinary differential equations, but with
more emphasis on applications and less on perturbation theory than usual.
Such a course would focus on Chapters 1-8.
A modern course on bifurcations, chaos, fractals, and their applications, for
students who have already been exposed to phase plane analysis. Topics
would be selected mainly from Chapters 3 , 4 , and 8-12.

For any of these courses, the students should be assigned homework from the
exercises at the end of each chapter. They could also do computer projects; build
chaotic circuits and mechanical systems; or look up some of the references to get a
taste of current research. This can be an exciting course to teach, as well as to take.
I hope you enjoy it.

Conventions

Equations are numbered consecutively within each section. For instance, when
we're working in Section 5.4, the third equation is called (3) or Equation (3), but
elsewhere it is called (5.4.3) or Equation (5.4.3). Figures, examples, and exercises
are always called by their full names, e.g., Exercise 1.2.3. Examples and proofs
end with a loud thump, denoted by the symbol m.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to the National Science Foundation for financial support. For help with
the book, thanks to Diana Dabby, Partha Saha, and Shinya Watanabe (students);
Jihad Touma and Rodney Worthing (teaching assistants); Andy Christian, Jim
Crutchfield, Kevin Cuomo, Frank DeSimone, Roger Eckhardt, Dana Hobson, and
Thanos Siapas (for providing figures); Bob Devaney, Irv Epstein, Danny Kaplan,
Willem Malkus, Charlie Marcus, Paul Matthews, Arthur Mattuck, Rennie Mirollo,
Peter Renz, Dan Rockmore, Gil Strang, Howard Stone, John Tyson, Kurt Wiesen-

x PREFACE
feld, Art Winfree, and Mary Lou Zeeman (friends and colleagues who gave advice);
and to my editor Jack Repcheck, Lynne Reed, Production Supervisor, and all the
other helpful people at Perseus Books. Finally, thanks to my family and Elisabeth
for their love and encouragement.
Steven H. Strogatz
Cambridge, Massachusetts

PREFACE xi
 OVERVIEW

1.0 Chaos, Fractals, and Dynamics

There is a tremendous fascination today with chaos and fractals. James Gleick's
book Chaos (Gleick 1987) was a bestseller for months-an amazing accomplish-
ment for a book about mathematics and science. Picture books like The Beauty of
Fractals by Peitgen and Richter (1986) can be found on coffee tables in living
rooms everywhere. It seems that even nonmathematical people are captivated by
the infinite patterns found in fractals (Figure 1.0.1). Perhaps most important of all,
chaos and fractals represent hands-on mathematics that is alive and changing. You
can turn on a home computer and create stunning mathematical images that no one
has ever seen before.
The aesthetic appeal of chaos
and fractals may explain why so
many people have become in-
trigued by these ideas. But maybe
you feel the urge to go deeper-to
learn the mathematics behind the
pictures, and to see how the ideas
can be applied to problems in sci-
ence and engineering. If so, this is
a textbook for you.
The style of the book is infor-
mal (as you can see), with an em-
phasis on concrete examples and
geometric thinking, rather than
proofs and abstract arguments. It is
Figure 1.0.1 also an extremely "applied"

1.0 CHAOS, FRACTALS, A N D D Y N A M I C S 1

book-virtually every idea is illustrated by some application to science or engi-
neering. In many cases, the applications are drawn from thc rcccnt research litera-
ture. Of course, one problem with such an applied approach is that not everyone is
an cxpert in physics trtld biology and fluid mechanics . . . so the science as well as
the mathematics will need to be explained from scratch. But that should be fun,
and it can be instructive to see the connections among different fields.
Before we start, we should agree about something: chaos and fractals are part of
an even grander subject known as dynamics. This is the subject that deals with
change, with systems that evolve in time. Whether the system in question settles
down to equilibrium, keeps repeating in cycles, or does something more compli-
cated, it is dynamics that we use to analyze the behavior. You have probably been
exposed to dynamical ideas in various places-in courses in differential equations,
classical mechanics, chemical kinetics, population biology, and so on. Viewed
from the perspective of dynamics, all of these subjects can be placed in a common
framework, as we discuss at the end of this chapter.
Our study of dynamics bcgins in earnest in Chapter 2. But before digging in, we
present two overviews of the subject, one historical and one logical. Our treatment
is intuitive; careful definitions will come later. This chapter concludes with a "dy-
namical view of the world," a framework that will guide our studies for the rest of
the book.

1.1 Capsule History of Dynamics

Although dynamics is an interdisciplinary subject today, it was originally a branch
of physics. The subject began in the mid-1600s, when Newton invented differen-
tial equations, discovered his laws of motion and universal gravitation, and com-
bined them to explain Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Specifically, Newton
solved the two-body problem-the problem of calculating the motion of the earth
around the sun, given the inverse-square law of gravitational attraction between
them. Subsequent generations of mathematicians and physicists tried to extend
Newton's analytical methods to the three-body problem (e.g., sun, earth, and
moon) but curiously this problem turned out to be much more difficult to solve.
After decades of effort, it was eventually realized that the three-body problem was
essentially impossible to solve, in the sense of obtaining explicit formulas for the
motions of the three bodies. At this point the situation seemed hopeless.
The breakthrough came with the work of PoincarC in the late 1800s. He intro-
duced a new point of view that emphasized qualitative rather than quantitative
questions. For example, instead of asking for the exact positions of the planets at
all times, he asked "Is the solar system stable forever, or will some planets eventu-
ally fly off to infinity?" PoincarC developed a powerful geo??tetric approach to an-
alyzing such questions. That approach has flowered into the modern subject of
dynamics, with applications reaching far beyond celestial mechanics. PoincarC

2 OVERVIEW
was also the first person to glimpse the possibility of chaos, in which a determinis-
tic system exhibits aperiodic behavior that depends sensitively on the initial condi-
tions, thereby rendering long-term prediction impossible.
But chaos remained in the background in the first half of this century; instead
dynamics was largely concerned with nonlinear oscillators and their applications
in physics and engineering. Nonlinear oscillators played a vital role in the develop-
ment of such technologies as radio, radar, phase-locked loops, and lasers. On the
theoretical side, nonlinear oscillators also stimulated the invention of new mathe-
matical techniques-pioneers in this area include van der Pol, Andronov, Little-
wood, Cartwright, Levinson, and Smale. Meanwhile, in a separate development,
PoincarC's geometric methods were being extended to yield a much deeper under-
standing of classical mechanics, thanks to the work of Birkhoff and later Kol-
mogorov, Arnol'd, and Moser.
The invention of the high-speed computer in the 1950s was a watershed in
the history of dynamics. The computer allowed one to experiment with equa-
tions in a way that was impossible before, and thereby to develop some intuition
about nonlinear systems. Such experiments led to Lorenz's discovery in 1963 of
chaotic motion on a strange attractor. He studied a simplified model of convec-
tion rolls in the atmosphere to gain insight into the notorious unpredictability of
the weather. Lorenz found that the solutions to his equations never settled down
to equilibrium or to a periodic state-instead they continued to oscillate in an ir-
regular, aperiodic fashion. Moreover, if he started his simulations from two
slightly different initial conditions, the resulting behaviors would soon become
totally different. The implication was that the system was inherently unpre-
dictable-tiny errors in measuring the current state of the atmosphere (or any
other chaotic system) would be amplified rapidly, eventually leading to embar-
rassing forecasts. But Lorenz also showed that there was structure in the
chaos-when plotted in three dimensions, the solutions to his equations fell
onto a butterfly-shaped set of points (Figure 1.1.1). He argued that this set had
to be "an infinite complex of surfacesu-today we would regard it as an exam-
ple of a fractal.
Lorenz's work had little impact until the 1970s, the boom years for chaos. Here
are some of the main developments of that glorious decade. In 1971 Ruelle and Tak-
ens proposed a new theory for the onset of turbulence in fluids, based on abstract
considerations about strange attractors. A few years later, May found examples of
chaos in iterated mappings arising in population biology, and wrote an influential re-
view article that stressed the pedagogical importance of studying simple nonlinear
systems, to counterbalance the often misleading linear intuition fostered by tradi-
tional education. Next came the most surprising discovery of all, due to the physicist
Feigenbaum. He discovered that there are certain universal laws governing the tran-
sition from regular to chaotic behavior; roughly speaking, completely different sys-
tems can go chaotic in the same way. His work established a link between chaos and

1.1 CAPSULE HISTORY OF DYNAMICS 3

 Figure 1.1.1

phase transitions, and enticed a generation of physicists to the study of dynamics. Fi-
nally, experimentalists such as Gollub, Libchaber, Swinney, Linsay, Moon, and
Westervelt tested the new ideas about chaos in experiments on fluids, chemical reac-
tions, electronic circuits, mechanical oscillators, and semiconductors.
Although chaos stole the spotlight, there were two other major developments in
dynamics in the 1970s. Mandelbrot codified and popularized fractals, produced
magnificent computer graphics of them, and showed how they could be applied in
a variety of subjects. And in the emerging area of mathematical biology, Winfree
applied the geometric methods of dynamics to biological oscillations, especially
circadian (roughly 24-hour) rhythms and heart rhythms.
By the 1980s many people were working on dynamics, with contributions too
numerous to list. Table 1.1.1 summarizes this history.

1.2 The Importance of Being Nonlinear

Now we turn from history to the logical structure of dynamics. First we need to in-
troduce some terminology and make some distinctions.

4 OVERVIEW
 Dynamics - A Capsule History

Newton Invention of calculus, explanation of planetary motion

Flowering of calculus and classical mechanics

Analytical studies of planetary motion

Geometric approach, nightmares of chaos
Nonlinear oscillators in physics and engineering,
invention of radio, radar, laser
Birkhoff Complex behavior in Hamiltonian mechanics
Kolmogorov
Arnol'd
Moser

Lorenz Strange attractor in simple model of convection

Ruelle &Talcens Turbulence and chaos

May Chaos in logistic map
Feigenbaum Universality and renormalization, connection between
chaos and phase transitions

Experimental studies of chaos

Winfree Nonlinear oscillators in biology
Mandelbrot Fractals

Widespread interest in chaos, fractals, oscillators,

and their applications

Table 1.1.1

There are two main types of dynamical systems: differential equations and it-
erated maps (also known as difference equations). Differential equations describe
the evolution of systems in continuous time, whereas iterated maps arise in prob-
lems where time is discrete. Differential equations are used much more widely in
science and engineering, and we shall therefore concentrate on them. Later in the
book we will see that iterated maps can also be very useful, both for providing sim-
ple examples of chaos, and also as tools for analyzing periodic or chaotic solutions
of differential equations.
Now confining our attention to differential equations, the main distinction is be-
tween ordinary and partial differential equations. For instance, the equation for a
damped harmonic oscillator

1.2 T H E I M P O R T A N C E O F B E I N G N O N L I N E A R 5
is an ordinary differential equation, because it involves only ordinary derivatives
dxldt and d2x/dt' . That is, there is only one independent variable, the time t . In
contrast, the heat equation

is a partial differential equation-it has both time t and space x as independent

variables. Our concern in this book is with purely temporal behavior, and so we
deal with ordinary differential equations almost exclusively.
A very general framework for ordinary differential equations is provided by the
system

-
Here the overdots denote differentiation with respect to t . Thus x, d x , / d t . The
variables x, , . . . ,x,, might represent concentrations of chemicals in a reactor, popula-
tions of different species in an ecosystem, or the positions and velocities of the planets
in the solar system. The functions A , ..., i,are determined by the problem at hand.
For example, the damped oscillator (1) can be rewritten in the form of (2),
thanks to the following trick: we introduce new variables x, = x and xl = x . Then
x,= X , , from the definitions, and

from the definitions and the governing equation (1). Hence the equivalent system
(2) is

This system is said to be linear, because all the x, on the right-hand side appear
to the first power only. Otherwise the system would be nonlinear. Typical nonlin-
ear terms are products, powers, and functions of the x , , such as x,x2 , (x,)', or
cos X 2 .
For example, the swinging of a pendulum is governed by the equation

where x is the angle of the pendulum from vertical, g is the acceleration due to
gravity, and L is the length of the pendulum. The equivalent system is nonlinear:

6 OVERVIEW
 Nonlinearity makes the pendulum equation very difficult to solve analytically.
The usual way around this is to fudge, by invoking the small angle approximation
sin x = x for x << 1 . This converts the problem to a linear one, which can then be
solved easily. But by restricting to small x , we're throwing out some of the
physics, like motions where the pendulum whirls over the top. Is it really necessary
to make such drastic approximations?
It turns out that the pendulum equation can be solved analytically, in terms of
elliptic functions. But there ought to be an easier way. After all, the motion of the
pendulum is simple: at low energy, it swings back and forth, and at high energy it
whirls over the top. There should be some way of extracting this information from
the system directly. This is the sort of problem we'll learn how to solve, using geo-
metric methods.
Here's the rough idea. Suppose we happen to know a solution to the pendu-
lum system, for a particular initial condition. This solution would be a pair of
functions x,(t) and x,(t), representing the position and velocity of the pendu-
lum. If we construct an abstract space with coordinates ( x , , ~ , ) then
, the solu-
tion (x,(t), x2(t)) corresponds to a point moving along a curve in this space
(Figure 1.2.1).

Figure 1.2.1

This curve is called a trajectory, and the space is called the phase space for the
system. The phase space is completely filled with trajectories, since each point can
serve as an initial condition.
Our goal is to run this construction in reverse: given the system, we want to

1.2 THE I M P O R T A N C E O F B E I N G N O N L I N E A R 7
draw the trajectories, and thereby extract information about the solutions. In many
cases, geometric reasoning will allow us to draw the trajectories without actually
solving the system!
Some terminology: the phase space for the general system (2) is the space with
coordinates x , , ..., x,, . Because this space is n-dimensional, we will refer to (2) as
an n-dimensional system or an nth-order system. Thus n represents the dimen-
sion of the phase space.

Nonautonomous Systems
You might w o r ~ ythat (2) is not general enough because it doesn't include any ex-
plicit time dependence. How do we deal with time-dependent or nonautonomous
equations like the forced harmonic oscillator mx + bx + hx = F cos t ? In this case too
there's an easy trick that allows us to rewrite the system in the form (2). We let x , = x
and x, = i as before but now we introduce x, = t . Then x, = 1 and so the equivalent
system is

which is an example of a three-dimensional system. Similarly, an nth-order time-

dependent equation is a special case of an ( n + l )-dimensional system. By this
trick, we can always remove any time dependence by adding an extra dimension to
the system.
The virtue of this change of variables is that it allows us to visualize a phase
space with trajectories frozen in it. Otherwise, if we allowed explicit time depen-
dence, the vectors and the trajectories would always be wiggling-this would ruin
the geometric picture we're trying to build. A more physical motivation is that the
state of the forced harmonic oscillator is truly three-dimensional: we need to know
three numbers, x , i , and t , to predict the future, given the present. So a three-
dimensional phase space is natural.
The cost, however, is that some of our terminology is nontraditional. For exam-
ple, the forced harmonic oscillator would traditionally be regarded as a second-
order linear equation, whereas we will regard it as a third-order nonlinear system,
since (3) is nonlinear, thanks to the cosine term. As we'll see later in the book,
forced oscillators have many of the properties associated with nonlinear systems,
and so there are genuine conceptual advantages to our choice of language.

Why Are Nonlinear Problems So Hard?

As we've mentioned earlier, most nonlinear systems are impossible to solve ana-
lytically. Why are nonlinear systems so much harder to analyze than linear ones?
The essential difference is that linear systems can be broken down into parts. Then

8 OVERVIEW
each part can be solved separately and finally recombined to get the answer. This
idea allows a fantastic simplification of complex problems, and underlies such meth-
ods as normal modes, Laplace transforms, superposition arguments, and Fourier
analysis. In this sense, a linear system is precisely equal to the sum of its parts.
But many things in nature don't act this way. Whenever parts of a system inter-
fere, or cooperate, or compete, there are nonlinear interactions going on. Most of
everyday life is nonlinear, and the principle of superposition fails spectacularly. If
you listen to your two favorite songs at the same time, you won't get double the plea-
sure! Within the realm of physics, nonlinearity is vital to the operation of a laser, the
formation of turbulence in a fluid, and the superconductivity of Josephson junctions.

1.3 A Dynamical View of the World

Now that we have established the ideas of nonlinearity and phase space, we can
present a framework for dynamics and its applications. Our goal is to show the log-
ical structure of the entire subject. The framework presented in Figure 1.3.1 will
guide our studies thoughout this book.
The framework has two axes. One axis tells us the number of variables needed
-
to characterize the state of the system. Equivalently, this number is the dimension
of the phase space. The other axis tells us whether the system is linear or nonliri-
ear.
For example, consider the exponential growth of a population of organisms.
This system is described by the first-order differential equation

where x is the population at time t and r is the growth rate. We place this system
in the column labeled " n = 1 " because one piece of information-the current value
of the population x-is sufficient to predict the population at any later time. The
system is also classified as linear because the differential equation x = rx is linear
in x.
As a second example, consider the swinging of a pendulum, governed by

In contrast to the previous example, the state of this system is given by two vari-
ables: its current angle x and angular velocity x . (Think of it this way: we need
the initial values of both x and x to determine the solution uniquely. For example,
if we knew only x , we wouldn't know which way the pendulum was swinging.)
Because two variables are needed to specify the state, the pendulum belongs in the
n = 2 column of Figure 1.3.1. Moreover, the system is nonlinear, as discussed in
the previous section. Hence the pendulum is in the lower, nonlinear half of the
n = 2 column.

1.3 A DYNAMICAL VIEW OF THE WORLD 9

 n=2
Number of variables
n23
- n >> 1 Continuum
Growth, decay, or Oscillan'ons Collective phenomena Waves and patterns
equilibrium
Linear oscillator Civil engineering, Coupled harmonic oscillators Elasticity
Exponential growth st~uctures Solid-state physics
Mass and spring Wave equations
Linear RC circuit
RLC circuit Electrical engineering Molecular dynamics Electromagnetism (Maxwell)
Radioactive decay
2-body problem Equilibrium statistical Quantum mechanics
(Kepler, Newton) mechanics (Schrodinger, Heisenberg, Dirac)

Heat and diffusion

Acoustics
Viscous fluids
The frontier
I - _ - - _ - - - - - - - - _ - - - -
Chaos Spatio-temporal complexity
I
Fixed points Pendulum Strange attractors I Coupled nonlinear oscillators Nonlinear waves (shock;, solitons)
(Lorenz) Plasmas
t Bifurcations Anharmonic oscillators I Lasers, nonlinear optics
Overdamped systems, Limit cycles 3-body problem ( P o i n c d ) I Nonequilibrium statistical Earthquakes
relaxational dynamics mechanics
Biological oscillators Chemical kinetics I General relativity (Einstein)
Nonlinear (neurons, heart cells)
Iterated maps (Feigenbaum) 1 Nonlinear solid-state physics Quantum field theory
Logistic equation
for single species (semiconductors)
Predator-prey cycles Fractals I Reaction-diffusion,
(Mandelbrot) biological and chemical waves
Nonlinear electronics I Josephson arrays
(van der Pol, Josephson)
Forced nonlinear oscillators I Heart cell synchronization Fibrillation
(Levinson, Smale) Epilepsy
Neural networks
I
Immune system Turbulent fluids (Navier-Stokes)
I
, Practical uses of chaos
Quantum chaos ?
Ecosystems
Economics
Life
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
this as a preparation against the day when my secret should be
disclosed.
 CHAPTER LXXX.
The Secret Leaks Out.
Why did I write the appeal? you may ask. At that time I could not
tell how the matter would turn out, and unless some measures were
taken beforehand, incurable evil might be the outcome. So I must at
any rate make it clear to all that I had come to this country for the
study and cultivation of Buḍḍhism and with no other intentions. For
that purpose I thought it well to write the letter, which I have still by
me. I flatter myself that it was written very nicely. I have written
many compositions, both prose and poetry, in the Tibetan language,
but I never wrote one that pleased me better. It took me three
nights to complete it. I may summarise its contents as follows. As is
considered proper in Tibetan the letter begins with respectful words
to the master of the beautiful country which is purified with white
snow. Then I say: “My original intention in coming to this country
was to glorify Buḍḍhism and thus to find the way of saving the
people of the world from spiritual pain. Among the several countries
where Buḍḍhism prevails, the only places where the true features of
the Great Vehicle are preserved as the essence of Buḍḍhism are
Japan and Tibet. The time has already come when the seed of pure
Buḍḍhism must be sown in every country of the world, for the
people of the world are tired of bodily pleasures which can never
satisfy, and are earnestly seeking for spiritual satisfaction. This
demand can only be supplied from the fountain of genuine
Buḍḍhism. It is our duty as well as our honor to do this. Impelled by
this motive, I have come to this country to investigate whether
Tibetan Buḍḍhism agrees with that of Japan. Thanks be to the
Buḍḍha the new Buḍḍhism in Tibet quite agrees with the real
Shingon sect of Japan, both having their founder in the person of
the Boḍhisaṭṭva Nāgārjuna. Therefore these two countries must work
together towards the propagation of the true Buḍḍhism. This was
the cause that has brought me to this country so far away and over
mountains and rivers. My faithful spirit has certainly wrought on the
heart of Buḍḍha, and I was admitted to the country which is closed
from the world, to drink from the fountain of Truth; the Gods must
therefore have accepted my ardent desire. If that be true, why
should your Holiness not protect me who have already been
protected by the Buḍḍha and other Gods; and why not co-operate
with me in glorifying the world with the light of true Buḍḍhism?” In
conclusion I added that I had been asked by Dhammapāla of Ceylon
to present the Pope with a relic of Shākya Buḍḍha and a silver
reliquary, and begged his acceptance of the gift. When the letter was
finished I was in so much haste to copy it on good paper that I did
not think anything of the consequence if it were presented—that my
letter would disclose my person and that I should be put to death
accordingly.
On the 20th of May I returned to Lhasa and lodged at the Minister’s.
That day I went with the ex-Treasury Minister to the garden-party
held at the forest of Tsemoe Lingka. This was my last good time in
Tibet. At the party there were many old friends of mine present, and
many country-gentlemen, who were still staying in Lhasa for the
ceremony. I talked freely with them and spent the whole day in the
most pleasant conversation on the subject of the lives of the ancient
saints of Tibet and on various other topics. While I was thus passing
a pleasant day, a very serious thing in regard to my person was
occurring at the other end of the city of Lhasa.
On this same day, the caravan chief called on Yabsi Sarba (the house
of the father of the new Grand Lama). The present Pope had lost
both his parents, and his elder brother was looked upon as his
father-in-law. He was dignified by the Government of China with the
title of Prince, and lived in magnificence in the southern part of
Lhasa. While they were talking together over their glasses of wine,
the caravan chief found what he called a good opportunity to
disclose my person. As I learned it from Tsa Rong-ba, the dialogue
between them ran as follows:
“Has your Highness heard that there is a stranger in this country,
who is neither Chinese nor Mongolian?”
“Tell me what he is,” said the Pope’s brother.
“He is a true Lama from Japan. The Japanese Lama resembles a
Chinese Hoshang, but is far more praiseworthy. He takes only two
meals a day and after midday nothing touches his mouth. He eats
no meat and drinks no wine.”
“Where is he living?” asked the brother of the Pope.
“If I mention his name you must know where he is living. His name
is Serai Amchi; the famous Serai Amchi is a Japanese.”
After a pause for consideration the Pope’s brother replied: “I have
heard of Serai Amchi. He must be an expert physician to be sent for
by the Pope, the nobility and the clergy. One who masters the art of
medicine so thoroughly as to gain such a great reputation in so short
a space of time cannot be a Chinese. I once suspected that he might
be a European. But now that I hear this from you, my doubts about
him have been removed. Yes, the Japanese can do quite as great
things as the Europeans. But” (shaking his head) “this is news that
troubles me not a little.”
“What troubles Your Highness?”
“If I am not wrongly informed, Japan is on very friendly terms with
England. When I consider this I cannot but suspect her. Besides,
Japan is so strong a country that she can bully China. Such a
country is very likely to think it easy to subdue a small country like
our own. Moreover the religion of Japan is the same as that of Tibet;
is that not a fact which might easily awaken the ambition for
subjugation? Therefore I cannot take him for anything but a spy sent
by the Japanese Government to investigate the state of things in
Tibet for a sinister purpose. Will not the nobility who are connected
with Serai Amchi suffer as did those who were connected with Saraṭ
Chanḍra Ḍās when he entered the country? Will not the Sera
monastery be closed again? The matter cannot be overlooked. Some
measures must be taken about it.”
This conclusion was an unexpected one for the caravan chief, for he
had thought the story would please His Highness. His
disappointment was immediately followed by the feeling of fear, and
with an intention to defend me he said:
“He cannot possibly be taken for a spy. He lives in Lhasa, where
meat is considered necessary food, and he often goes to the temple
of Sera where meat and meat gruel are freely given as alms to the
priests, but he never touches them, and feeds only on scorched
barley. Such a man is surely a Lama of Japan.”
This strong argument was at once denied by the Pope’s brother, who
said:
“You consider so, for you are short of wisdom. There are devils that
resemble Buḍḍha in this world; indeed, the greatest devil is the one
that can make himself most resemble a Buḍḍha. For example, take
the case of saint Upagupṭa. He was the fifth saint from Shākya
Buḍḍha. He was born after the death of the Buḍḍha, and thought
how he might see the real Buḍḍha, who is said to have been perfect
in physique and physiognomy. He heard that the devil-king of the
sixth heaven had often seen the Buḍḍha while the latter was passing
through His worldly life. So he thought he would go and ask the
devil-king whether he would, by his miraculous power, give him a
glimpse of the real Buḍḍha. He did so, and his request was granted
at once. The devil-king immediately put on the appearance of
Buḍḍha and sat on the ‘Diamond-Seat.’ He looked so Buḍḍha-like
that the saint could but prostrate himself before the image. In a
similar manner Serai Amchi, who really is a spy, may have taken the
form of a Lama to deceive us. No, he cannot be trusted. The very
fact that he could enter this country, so strictly closed from the rest
of the world, tells that he is by no means an ordinary person. Did he
alight from heaven? He must have had superhuman power to
perform such a miracle. Therefore he must not be treated carelessly.
At any rate this is a difficult problem to solve.” This argument was
strong enough to make Choen Joe sober and pale.
That day (20th of May) towards evening Takbo Tunbai Choen Joe
called on Tsa Rong-ba, as I learnt afterwards, with a rather
melancholy face. He had determined not to say anything about his
conversation with the Pope’s brother. But it was supper-time when
he came in, and the host persuaded him to share with him a few
glasses of drink, as is customary in Tibet. Pretty soon the host
perceived that the caravan chief was drinking with unusual haste
and a sad look. Being intimate friends, Tsa Rong-ba asked the
reason, saying:
“You must be uneasy in your mind to drink in such a way. I wish you
would tell me what is the matter with you.”
The caravan chief said that nothing annoyed him. But in the
meanwhile, the drink had had its effect, and made the man who was
resolved to say nothing speak out the details of the whole thing as
has just been stated. When the story was over it was midnight, and
Choen Joe left the house, leaving the host and hostess in so much
anxiety that they could not sleep at all. The next morning (May 21st)
Tsa Rong-ba sent me a messenger accompanied by a horse to Sera,
to take me back directly to his house. But I was not in the
monastery, and this messenger could not find me at the Treasury
Minister’s either, for on that day I did not go there. The anxiety of
Tsa Rong-ba increased when I was not to be found. The special
reason of his anxiety was this; I possessed a letter from Darjeeling
which had reached me through the hand of Tsa Rong-ba, and if I
were to be captured the letter would be confiscated, and it was
evident that he would also be put in prison. Evil might come to him
as well as to myself. No wonder he hunted for me everywhere, all
over the city of Lhasa. Tired with hunting for me, he had almost
given up his attempt, thinking that I must already have been
captured, when towards evening I called at his door. His surprise
was great, and he came to me almost trembling and with tears too,
and said: “How lucky we are to have you here! Buḍḍha must have
led you.”
CRITICAL MEETING WITH TSA RONG-BA AND HIS WIFE.
I comprehended that something unusual had happened, but telling
them to be quiet, I took my seat, and was ready to listen. Then they
told me the whole story, one supplying what the other omitted.
When they had finished, Tsa Rong-ba asked me:
“What do you intend to do? At any rate, I hope you will burn the
letter I brought from Darjeeling. But, what are you going to do?”
I replied: “For myself, my course is already determined. I have
written an appeal to the Pope. Whatever may befall me I have made
up my mind.”
“Do you know all about it then?” said he with a surprised look.
“Yes, I know,” said I, “I could see such a thing.”
“That is why I looked upon you with respectful awe,” he answered.
“I heard that the Pope’s brother said you have superhuman power,
and I believe his saying is true.”
“No,” I returned “I have no superhuman power. Only I inferred that
such a thing must happen. So I have made what I thought
preparation against it.”
Tsa Rong-ba, who followed a peculiar kind of reasoning, protested:
“No, do not say so; I know you heard the conversation between the
caravan chief and the Pope’s brother by some mysterious means.
Otherwise how would you come down to our house on such an
occasion as this? But then why have you not been kind enough to
call on us a little earlier? We could not sleep at all last night. But are
you really going to present to the Pope the letter you have written to
him? In doing so, you little think of what will become of us. I doubt
not you are a venerable Lama, but the Pope’s brother is by no
means a good-natured man. We cannot tell what he is going to say
to the Pope, and if the Pope listens to him who can tell the result?
But I feel sure we must suffer, don’t you think so?”
“I cannot tell,” said I, “what I shall do until I try samāḍhi (go into
abstract contemplation). For the present I can only tell you that
there are four things to be considered in the ‘silent contemplation’.
They are as follows:
(1) If the presentation of my letter to the Pope does not do any
harm to you, the Minister of the Treasury, and the Sera monastery, I
will present the letter though I should suffer from doing so, for I am
the only Japanese who has visited this country, and I think it would
be very sad to leave this country without telling the people who I
am, and what I have come for.
(2) If the presentation of my letter causes any harm to any of you, I
will not present it, though I myself am free from danger.
(3) If I can go to India without giving notice to the Pope, and it does
not cause any harm to any of my acquaintances, I will go to India
directly.
(4) If the presentation of my letter would cause any harm to them
after my departure, I will stay here and present the letter, because if
it is the cause of evil whether I stay here or not, it is my duty to stay
here and share the evil with my acquaintances to whom I have
caused it. I will never be the only one to escape from danger. If I
come to the conclusion by the contemplation that there will be no
evil caused after my departure, I will leave this country. But as I am
not fully contented with my own decision on my own account, I will
go to my teacher Ganden Ti Rinpoche and consult with him. Of
course I shall not say that I am a Japanese, nor that I am going
back for that reason, but I will say that I must go on a pilgrimage
and ask him his judgment whether my departure is advantageous for
many people who are suffering; and if his judgment agrees with
mine I will adopt it, and if not, I will go and ask the same of the
Lama of Tse-Moeling, and if the latter’s judgment be the same as my
teacher’s I will follow it, but if it agrees with mine, I shall follow
that.”
The husband and wife, who were listening to me attentively,
interrupted me here and told me that I needed not to ask another’s
opinion; my own judgment would be good enough to be acted upon.
“No,” said I, “that will not do. The thing is too serious to be
determined by myself; for it concerns others as well.”
They agreed with me and we parted. That night I was seated all
alone in my room at the Treasury Minister’s and quietly entered into
the silent contemplation and tried to find the best course to be
taken. After some time I reached the ‘world of non-Ego,’ and the
judgment was: “If I stay in this country it will be harmful to the
people, whether I present the appeal or not; and on the other hand
if I leave the country, it is no great loss to these people.” Thus I
came to the conclusion to leave the country, though it was not quite
decided whether or not I should present the letter to the Pope
before leaving.
Early on the next morning (27th of May) I called on Ganden Ti
Rinpoche, and asked him to give me his judgment, simply stating
that I was going on a pilgrimage. The master with a smiling face
judged for me and said: “The sick people who (you say) are
suffering, will get better by your going on a pilgrimage. But by the
sick people you do not mean the bodily patients, do you? It may
mean that if you stay here, other doctors in Lhasa cannot live, and
so you are going to save them by your departure?”
He gave his judgment half in joke, but I thought the teacher was
intelligent enough to perceive that I was leaving the country never
to come back. I heard there were many great Lamas in Tibet, but he
was surely the most respectable priest of all with whom I became
acquainted. This was the last time I saw this venerable teacher.
 CHAPTER LXXXI.
My Benefactor’s Noble Offer.
That day I returned to the Treasury Minister’s with a determination
to tell the secret to him. But it was the 22nd of May and the Pope
was to come back to Lhasa from his country-seat at Norbu Ling. The
ex-Minister had gone out to see the Pope return, and I was also
obliged to go, though I had many things to do for myself. The
procession of the day was magnificent. The four Prime Ministers and
the Ministers of several departments and other dignitaries were
present, all dressed in new suits of clothes. But before the Pope
arrived in Lhasa it had begun to rain heavily. Still no one but the
servants and coachmen were allowed to wear anything to protect
themselves against the rain. It was a pitiful sight to see the
dignitaries dressed in silk on horse-back in the rain, getting wet
through. But when the procession marched along the streets of
Lhasa and the Pope entered his temple, the storm had passed, and
it was fine again. When we got home I asked the ex-Minister and
the nun to stay at home that evening, for I was going to tell them a
secret which must not be spoken in the presence of others. The nun
had treated me with motherly tenderness, and though we had been
friends only for one year, yet our acquaintance seemed age-long,
and I felt I ought to tell my secret to her and the ex-Minister, to
whom I owed so much. It was certain that I must leave Lhasa, but
how could I leave them without telling them all?
When night came, I called on them at the appointed time and told
them that I was not a Chinese but a Japanese. Thinking, however,
that they would not believe me I set before them the passport which
I had taken with me. As the ex-Minister had learned to read Chinese
characters a little, he could read that part of the paper signed
“Department for Foreign Affairs of the Japanese Empire” in Chinese
characters. Assuring himself that I had told the truth, he said:

REVEALING THE SECRET TO THE EX-MINISTER.

“At first I thought you were a Chinese as you said, but later I
became very doubtful, because among the many Chinese I have
met, there is none who equals you in earnestness of devotion to
Buḍḍhism. I have also often thought that most of the Chinese priests
are ignorant of the Buḍḍhist religion, and that even the so-called
learned and famous priests do not amount to much, but that the
district of Foochee, from which you said you came, might be an
exception, and that Buḍḍhism might be studied there with much
zeal. Anyhow I thought it strange, but now my doubts have been
removed.
“But I heard,” he continued after a pause, “that the Japanese are of
the same race as the Europeans. Is it really so?”
I explained that they were entirely different races and that the
Japanese belong to the same stock of races as the Tibetan, which is
called the Mongolian. I also told him that the religion of the two
countries is the same. It seemed he knew such things as these
without waiting my explanation.
After a few such questions and answers he said, “Is that all that you
call your secret? Is there anything else to tell me?”
I answered: “There is another thing. I think I must tell the Papal
Government that I am a Japanese.”
When he heard me say this he frowned a little, and said, “Why must
you talk? Is there any necessity for doing so?”
I replied that there was, and told him how my secret had been
betrayed by Tsa Rong-ba, and how it had been told to the Pope’s
brother, and so forth. But I did not say anything about the silent
contemplation, because if I told it they would possibly have thought
that I was anxious to leave for India without caring for their future,
though my judgment said that my departure would cause no great
harm to them.
He considered in silence for some time after I had finished my story,
and then he said: “What are you going to do next?”
“As I have come to this country,” said I, “after so much trouble, I
wish to inform the Pope that I am a Japanese, and here is the letter
to the Pope written for that purpose.”
I took out the letter from my pocket and handed it to the ex-
Minister, and continued:
“It is no difficult thing to present it to the Pope, but in doing so I
must consider whether you might suffer from it, for you have been
my friends and patrons for a long time. Therefore please bind me
with a rope, take me to the court and tell the officers that you have
found out that I am a foreigner. If you do so, you are surely free
from trouble. As to myself, I will explain to the Government the
causes of my intrusion into this country.”
While I was speaking thus the frowns on his face had increased, and
when I concluded he interrupted:
“That will not do, my Japanese friend. If you take such a measure
you will certainly be taken to prison, where you will die of hunger
and cold, and if you don’t die of such causes you will be killed. Of
course the Government will not sentence a foreigner to death, but
then they can procure the same effect by using poison in secret. You
have no need to hasten your destruction. What is the use of killing
yourself?”
I was somewhat surprised to hear of such awful means to be used in
the Tibetan jail, but I replied:
“It is of no use for me to succeed if my success is gained by the loss
of others; it is far better to die and do others no harm. I shall not fly
from danger and allow my benefactors to suffer, who have shown
me as much kindness as parents show to their children.”
The affectionate old woman, who was listening to me with a
sorrowful face and trembling limbs, could not bear any more, and
threw herself down and wept bitterly.
Then the ex-Minister spoke to me in a determined tone: “It will
never do to allow such a noble mind to die in order that we who are
not far from the grave should survive. Though humble, I believe
truly in the Buḍḍha, and cannot do such an action as to sacrifice a
man to save myself. I know you too well to take you for a spy, or for
a thief of the national religion. I know it from my long intercourse
with you. Even I were to be killed for it, I could not rid myself of
danger by persecuting a man who came here to study Buḍḍhism.
How could I do such a thing? But now, in the present state of things
in Tibet, it is not a good opportunity to disclose your nationality.
Therefore return home for this time, and wait till the time will come.
I am a brother and disciple of Ganden Ti Rinpoche, from whom I
received the lesson of the ‘Great Benevolence.’ I cannot expose you
to death while I myself escape from calamity. If we are to suffer
after your departure, we must take it as due to a cause existing in a
previous life, and resign ourselves.”
Saying this, he turned to the old nun and said:
“Don’t you think so too, my beloved Ningje Ise (mercy and
wisdom)?”
The nun raised her face and said in a pleasant voice: “You have said
the truth. How glad I am to hear it!” Then turning to me she said:
“As you are in danger, leave this country as quickly as you can. We
can find some means of protecting ourselves; therefore it is better
for you to cease thinking of us, and to start directly. Now is the best
time to steal out of the city, for the visit of the second Pope will keep
the city busy for this whole month, and no one will notice your
departure. No better opportunity can be found. If it were on an
ordinary day, you could not run away even though you were free
from suspicion, for Lamenba—the chief physician to the Pope—
wishes to keep you long in this country, and has already spoken to
the Pope about it. Lose no time in preparing for the journey. This is
my sincere advice.”
As she spoke thus I observed tears in her eyes.
 CHAPTER LXXXII.
Preparations for Departure.
When I heard them speak so kindly I was heartily pleased, and so
touched that I could not restrain my tears. Though their advice was
so reasonable and pleasing I was not inclined to take it immediately,
and begged them earnestly to deliver me over to the Government so
that no evil might befall them. They would not listen to me.
At length the nun said: “As it is of no use to argue here, is it not
better to leave the matter to the judgment of Ti Rinpoche? and if
according to his judgment there is no evil to be feared for you and
for us, then you can present the letter as you wish. We are arguing
in vain unless we can foretell the result of the matter.”
I was then obliged to tell them all about the ‘silent contemplation’
and its agreement with the judgment of Ti Rinpoche. When I told
this their faces cleared and the ex-Minister said with a smile:
“If this is the case, our anxiety and argument are useless. The only
course to be taken now is to leave this country immediately. It is of
course of no use to speak of binding you with a rope. You have
spoken such things because you thought of us, but it is all in vain. If
Ti Rinpoche said your departure was better for yourself and
ourselves, it is a sure thing, and if his judgment agrees with yours it
is then the will of the Buḍḍha, the breach of which will cause you
certain evil. Therefore proceed at once. Though we cannot protect
you on your way, if it becomes public and some one pursues you, we
will try to find some means for your escape.”
Their unselfish kindness toward me I shall ever remember. I retired
with tears back to my room, and then I packed all my sacred books
and other writings which I had gathered and took them to the
apothecary’s and said to him:
“I intend to go to Calcutta on a certain mission. I also want to make
some purchases there. If I can obtain sufficient money from home to
buy the books I want, I will soon be back. But if I cannot get the
money at Calcutta I must return home and get it, and will come
back next year or the year after next. I cannot say when I can come
back, but at any rate I must start immediately. But the thing that
troubles me most is the despatch of my baggage. I wish to carry
these books home and show them to my fellow-countrymen. If I
take all of them they must be packed and sent on a horse, or by
some other means. Can you find any good way of doing this for
me?”
Apothecary Li Tsu-shu was a man who believed in me so much that
he would do anything for my sake. If I had not had such a friend,
my case would have been undoubtedly hopeless. He was faithful to
the end; if his confidence in me had not been so strong, he would
not have done anything for me, or he might even have betrayed me
to my undoing. He seemed to know that I was a Japanese, for, once
when he came to my room, he saw some of the Japanese books in
my library, and after that he seemed partly convinced that I was not
a Chinese. It was when people began to talk much about my
nationality that I saw him and told him that I was going home. He
knew it was dangerous to have anything to do with me, but he
willingly agreed to my request, and told me that he knew a Chinese
merchant who was from the same town as himself, and a good
friend of his; that I might go with him, for he was leaving for
Calcutta on business in four days, and that as he had probably a few
horses without freight he could take my things at a smaller charge
than anyone else. The apothecary was also kind enough to promise
me that he would go to see the merchant and talk over the matter.
As we were talking thus, the apothecary saw a man entering his
house. He ran to him and said:
“We have just been talking of you. Lucky to see you here! Could you
not take about two horses’ load to Darjeeling for this gentleman?”
As I saw the man I found that he was an old acquaintance of mine;
I had often bought musk and other things from him and made him
some medicine to sell in his store. He knew well that I was honest in
transactions, and would have acceded to my request with pleasure.
But he said that he could not take charge of my luggage, for he had
no extra horses, but that he knew a man who was going to Calcutta
in four or five days, and who would arrive at the city earlier than
himself, and that as this man was carrying the salary of soldiers to
the Castle of Tomo by the order of the Chinese Amban his horses
were not loaded and might take my baggage, but that probably I
must pay him more money. I said that I would willingly pay extra
money if the baggage would arrive earlier, and asked him to go to
that man to get the business settled. I was very glad to have
everything thus arranged.
It was about the evening when we parted, and I returned to the
monastery at Sera. The next thing to be done was to pack up my
religious books and bring them to Lhasa. That night I was so busy
packing up the books that I had no time for sleep, and the next day
before noon I was able to send away all the packages to the
druggist’s in Lhasa. This twenty-fifth day was fortunately the best for
such a purpose. On any ordinary day there were always six or seven
thousand priests in the temple, and if I were engaged in packing my
things, it would have attracted their attention, and caused many
enquiries. But on that day there were only two or three men in each
boarding-house. Therefore though I was busy all the night in
packing and the next morning in sending the things to Lhasa, it
caused no suspicion. But there was Chamba-ise, a little fellow who
had served me for a long time. I could not leave him without doing
something for him. I used to send him to a tutor for study while I
was absent, and he would come back when I returned and draw
water, make tea and do various other services for me. Now that I
was leaving the Lamasery I could not leave him without notice. In
the first place I must dismiss him, otherwise he would certainly think
it strange to see me taking out my books. So I told this boy and a
few others that I must go on a pilgrimage to Tsa-ri, as a younger
brother of the ex-Minister lived there and had invited me. Tsa-ri is
called the second Sacred Place in Tibet. In Tibet there are the three
Sacred Places; the first is Kang Rinpoche or Mount Kailāsa in the
north-western plain; the second is Tsa-ri, a peak in the Himālayas in
the south-east which forms the frontier of Assam; the third is the
highest mountain in the world, the famous Gaurīshānkara or Chomo
Lhari, often called Mount Everest. As to the boy, I told him that it
would probably take me four months to go there and come back,
and that I would leave him money for four months’ tuition and
board. But I was afraid a little boy like him would use the money all
at once if it were handed him directly. So I took the money and
deposited it with his teacher. To a man who had been my security
since I entered the Sera seminary I sent a suit of priestly garments
and some money; my tutor whose lectures I attended and many
others were all presented with some money or things as souvenirs.
When all these preparations were finished, it was past four o’clock in
the afternoon. Then I went to the Great Hall of Je Tatsang to which I
belonged, lighted butter-lamps, made some offerings, and in front of
the Image of the Shākya Buḍḍha I read my prayer of farewell, which
ran as follows:
“Here in the Great Hall of Je Tatsang of the Sera Temple, Tibet, I,
Ekai Jinkō, prostrate myself before the Buḍḍha our benevolent
Master and pray. It is with great sorrow and regret that I see that
the different deeds of human beings have caused the different
existences of Buḍḍha among the believers: for the way to Buḍḍha is
originally open to all and accessible to everyone. I, Ekai Jinkō, bound
by the chain of deeds done in the previous world, have not been
able to accomplish the union and conformity of the Japanese and
Tibetan Buḍḍhists, and now am obliged to leave the country. May
the good cause of the present day be the beginning of success, and
of the union of the Japanese and the Tibetan Buḍḍhists at some
future time, and also of illuminating the whole world with the light of
Buḍḍhism.” And calling upon the name of Buḍḍha ten times together
with an equal number of salutations I left the temple.
Coming down the steps of the Hall and passing the paved yard to
the left, there is a descent of long and steep stone steps which leads
to the front of the beautiful gate of Choe-ra (a Ḍharma garden)
where the student priests are catechised. The premises of the Choe-
ra, which are enclosed by white low walls, are very spacious. Here
and there elms and willow-trees are planted tastefully, and magnolia
flowers perfume the air in their season. A clear stream, which comes
down from the rocky hill on the other side of the buildings, runs
through the premises, and thus adds much to the beauty of the
place, especially when the setting sun shines upon the stream, as it
was then doing. This was the seat I loved best in Lhasa, and I could
not leave it without paying a visit to this favorite resort of mine.
When I came here it was late in the afternoon, and all was quiet
while I roamed about the place. Here my heart began to hesitate
again. Though I had already bidden farewell to the Buḍḍha, thinking
I should leave this country, yet I confess my determination was not
strong enough.
“Must I now leave,” thought I, “this quiet land of Buḍḍha to which I
have become attached; must I steal out of this beautiful country
without telling who I am, just as a spy would do? Are there no
means to say that I am a Japanese, without causing harm to others?
Death comes to all sooner or later. Why should I not run the risk of
death, presenting the letter to the Pope? When I have made such a
good composition, how sorry I am not to show it to him!”
While I was thus confused in my mind, suddenly a voice ‘Giokpo peb’
(go back quickly) was heard from somewhere about the Choe-ra. I
wondered who spoke those words, and to whom, and looked round,
but nothing could be seen but the green leaves of the trees shining
in the rays of the setting sun. Certainly it could not be a bird’s voice,
and I thought it must be only my fancy. When I went on only two or
three steps, the same “Giokpo peb” but in a louder and clearer tone
reached my ear. Thinking somebody was talking to me, I cried out to
ask who it was, looked about, and went round and behind the Choe-
ra whence I thought the voice came, but no one was to be found.
Struck with a strange feeling I was going in the direction of my
boarding-place when I heard the same strange voice again and
again. This strange voice had much to do with my final
determination to go back quickly; and when I was fully resolved the
voice was heard no more. I hastened to my room and fetched a few
things left there, and went and lodged at the druggist’s in Lhasa.
 A MYSTERIOUS VOICE IN THE GARDEN OF SERA.

The next day was spent in collecting the books which I had asked
many booksellers to secure for me, and for some of which I had paid
in advance. By the evening I had obtained a large number. The
following day (May 26th) was employed in the same business as the
day before. In the afternoon, Li Tsu-shu made some boxes for me to
put my things in. He was also kind enough to get me three sheets of
yak-hide in which to wrap my boxes. In Lhasa many yaks are killed
for food after two o’clock in the afternoon every day. The pelt fresh
from the butchery is much used for packing and shipping goods.
Things are wrapped in it while it is yet soft with the fur inside and
the still bloody and greasy side out, and then stitched. When it gets
dry it is hard and strong, and well serves to protect the contents.
When all was ready it was the 27th of May. As the next day was the
appointed day on which I could hire a horse from the Chinese
merchant and start with him, I went to take my leave of the ex-
Minister. I thanked him for the great favors I had for so long
received from him, and he gave me several hints and suggestions for
my journey. I borrowed a suit of priestly garments from him, for all
my suits were packed up together with other things. He also gave
me a hundred rupees, telling me to accept it as an
acknowledgement of the favors I had done him. Though I thought
the thank-offering ought to have been from my side, I was in much
need of money, and so I accepted his present with many thanks and
returned to the apothecary’s.
As I came back I learned from him that the merchant who was to go
with me on the following day would not accompany me. I must tell
how this unexpected hindrance came about on the eve of my
departure. The Secretary of the Amban, of whom I spoke before,
was a great friend of the merchant whom I expected to accompany.
Now the Secretary, who was already suspecting me, told the
merchant that I was not a Chinese, but must be a Japanese; that
though he could not find the exact reason why I came to Tibet, it
might be possible that I was spying in the service of the British
Government, for now-a-days nobody would be so much devoted to
Buḍḍhism as to come to Tibet as I declared I had done, and that if
his suspicion proved to be true after my departure with the
merchant the latter would have his head out off. The merchant was
surprised at hearing such a story from a man who was regarded as
the most learned and experienced among the Chinese in Tibet, and
of course believed it, so it was not possible in any way whatever to
persuade him to take charge of my baggage.
But after telling this story, Li Tsu-shu told me that he might probably
find some means to send off my baggage if I did not mind more
expense, by making a special application to the servants of the
Chinese Legation and calling the goods his drugs. I asked him to do
so, and as to my own journey, as I needed a coolie to carry my
personal luggage day and night, I asked him to hire one for me. The
druggist went off directly to negotiate with them, but came back
disappointed saying that the men whom he intended to see were not
to be found.
Early the next morning (the 28th) the druggist went out to see his
country-men who were going to the place called Tomo or Chumbi in
Tibetan and Sui-shi in Chinese, and arranged with them to carry my
goods to the place. I paid them the very high fare for the
transportation in advance. He sent my luggage to the Chinese
Legation that night. As for my coolie, Mrs. Li Tsu-shu secured a man
called Tenba after trying her best. So I made all preparations for my
departure for India by their kindness. I could feel certain of starting
from Lhasa on the very next day, the 29th of May (the 20th of April
according to the Tibetan calendar).
 CHAPTER LXXXIII.
A Tearful Departure from Lhasa.
Lhasa was at that time in a state of such intense excitement over
the festivities that the people hardly seemed to know what they
were doing. The police force of the city is not large: it consists of
thirty constables (Kochakpa) and thirty policemen (Ragyabpa), and
the whole energies of the force were devoted to the duty of
guarding the persons of the Grand Lama and his Co-adjutor. Every
official and priest was busily engaged in the duties of his office;
none could spare even a thought for anything outside his immediate
sphere of occupation—in short the time could not possibly have been
more favorable for my plan of escaping from the city. Still it was
necessary to take precautions, for there were many priests from
Sera in the town, and I therefore determined to divert attention by
wearing, instead of travelling clothes, a suit of ordinary ecclesiastical
garments which I had borrowed from the Minister a few days before.
At eleven o’clock, on the day of my departure, my kind, host and
hostess of the Thien-ho-thang prepared for me a farewell dinner of
vegetables only. It was a very sad meal, and the two children, a boy
of five and a girl of eleven years old, were almost inconsolable at the
thought of my departure. Poor things, they did their best to retain
me and I must confess that I never before felt so strongly the force
of childish affection.
Some of the members of the family were very anxious to testify their
respect by accompanying me for a mile or two on my journey, but as
it would have been hard to escape observation had we left the
house in a large party, we agreed to go out one by one, and meet
again in the grove in front of the Rebon Temple outside the capital.
So, with a coolie to carry my baggage, I started off by myself
through the crowded streets, and when right in front of the Great
Temple was accosted by a policeman. I felt sure that something had
been detected, and gave myself up for lost.
He looked me straight in the face, and said “I congratulate you,” and
when he found I did not reply he repeated his congratulations. I did
not know what he was congratulating me about, but at least it did
not look as if he were going to arrest me, and I continued my
silence, but he made three low bows as signs of his congratulations,
and made as though I would pass on. Suddenly it occurred to me
that I was wearing a suit of ecclesiastical garments borrowed from
the Minister, and that doubtless the policeman had jumped to the
conclusion that as I was wearing such dignified robes I had been
appointed physician to His Holiness (as indeed it was rumored), and
that he expected a reward of money for his well-meant felicitations.
So I gave him a ‘single-handed blessing,’ and a tanka of money,
which made him stick out his tongue in gratitude, and so went on
my way. I reckoned it as a thing most auspicious that I should have
met the man in front of the Temple, and thus have commenced my
journey with words of felicitation.
There are some points about the Tibetan police which I must not
omit to mention. They receive no salaries, and live on the alms of
the community, though their methods of solicitation differ materially
from those of ordinary beggars. At stated periods they go, usually in
companies of three, through the streets, and standing at the gates
of private houses cry out as follows:
“We have come to receive alms from the wealthy, and you are so
wealthy that you can easily relieve our distress. We therefore pray
you, the savior of the poor and the friend of the needy, to give thirty
pieces of gold to thirty poor men who with their wives live in
miserable huts, and the gift you give us this day shall be brought
home to our women and make them happy. We shall fill our broken
cups with fragrant liquor and let them lie down this evening in a
state of blissful intoxication. Lha-kyallo.[4]”
They will go on repeating these dirge-like petitions at the gate until
at last some one comes out and gives them a few silver coins and
some parched wheat-flour in a tin pan covered with a small kata.
There is no fixed amount to be given, but if a rich man does not give
them what they think they have a right to expect, they will let him
know what they think. They are not supposed to beg at Temples,
but as a matter of fact every Temple gives them something for the
sake of its own credit, and for peace and quiet.
All the money that is thus collected is handed over to one of the
Kochakpa, who distributes it in regular monthly instalments to the
members of the Force. But the Lhasa police have also further
sources of income. When a wealthy pilgrim from the country arrives
in the city they ask for a donation from him, and if they do not get
at least one tanka they will set the worthless people of the city on to
attack him and not stir a finger for his protection. Every countryman
therefore finds it to his interest to pay this blackmail to the police,
and when I was in Lhasa as a layman I had paid my tanka like the
others. But since I had assumed the priest’s robe they had not been
able to demand anything from me, and therefore I suppose that my
friend thought the opportunity of getting a present in return for his
congratulations was too good to be lost.
If a policeman goes on a journey, say to arrest a thief, he takes
nothing with him for the expenses of his journey. He goes to any
house he chooses and takes what they give him to eat and drink,
and if he is going on to a place where there is no entertainment to
be had he just orders the people of the house to provide him with
whatever he requires. The Kochakpa however are far superior to the
ordinary policemen. They have a regular salary from the
Government, and so do not live on blackmail.
Having got rid of my policeman friend, I turned to the Temple for a
final act of worship, and then passing under the Palace of the Grand
Lama and over the bridge, came out upon the vast plain, where, by
the small grove in front of the Rebon Temple, I found the clerk of
the drug-store and a few friends waiting to take their leave of me. I
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