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DP IB Maths: AI SL Your notes

1.1 Number Toolkit

Contents
1.1.1 Standard Form
1.1.2 Exponents & Logarithms
1.1.3 Approximation & Estimation
1.1.4 GDC: Solving Equations

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1.1.1 Standard Form

Your notes
Standard Form
Standard form (sometimes called scienti c notation or standard index form) gives us a way of writing very
big and very small numbers using powers of 10.
Why use standard form?
Some numbers are too big or too small to write easily or for your calculator to display at all
Imagine the number 5050 , the answer would take 84 digits to write out
Try typing 5050 into your calculator, you will see it displayed in standard form
Writing very big or very small numbers in standard form allows us to:
Write them more neatly
Compare them more easily
Carry out calculations more easily
Exam questions could ask for your answer to be written in standard form

How is standard form written?

In standard form numbers are always written in the form a × 10k where a and k satisfy the following
conditions:
1 ≤ a < 10
So there is one non – zero digit before the decimal point
k ∈ℤ
So k must be an integer
k > 0 for large numbers
How many times a is multiplied by 10
k < 0 for small numbers
How many times a is divided by 10

How are calculations carried out with standard form?

Your GDC will display large and small numbers in standard form when it is in normal mode
Your GDC may display standard form as aEn
For example, 2 . 1 × 10−5 will be displayed as 2 . 1E − 5
If so, be careful to rewrite the answer given in the correct form, you will not get marks for
copying directly from your GDC
Your GDC will be able to carry out calculations in standard form
If you put your GDC into scienti c mode it will automatically convert numbers into standard form
Beware that your GDC may have more than one mode when in scienti c mode

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This relates to the number of signi cant gures the answer will be displayed in
Your GDC may add extra zeros to ll spaces if working with a high number of signi cant gures,
you do not need to write these in your answer Your notes
To add or subtract numbers written in the form a × 10k without your GDC you will need to write them
in full form rst
Alternatively you can use 'matching powers of 10', because if the powers of 10 are the same, then
the 'number parts' at the start can just be added or subtracted normally
For example
(6 . 3 × 1014 ) + (4 . 9 × 1013 ) = (6 . 3 × 1014 ) + (0 . 49 × 1014 ) = 6 . 79 × 1014
Or
(7 . 93 × 10−11 ) − (5 . 2 × 10−12 ) = (7 . 93 × 10−11 ) − (0 . 52 × 10−11 ) = 7 . 41 × 10−11
To multiply or divide numbers written in the form a × 10k without your GDC you can either write them
in full form rst or use the laws of indices

Examiner Tip
Your GDC will give very big or very small answers in standard form and will have a setting which will
allow you to carry out calculations in scienti c notation
Make sure you are familiar with the form that your GDC gives answers in as it may be di erent to
the form you are required to use in the exam

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Worked example
Your notes
Calculate the following, giving your answer in the form a × 10k , where 1 ≤ a < 10 and k ∈ ℤ .

i) 3780 × 200

ii) (7 × 105) − (5 × 104)

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Your notes

iii) (3 . 6 × 10−3) (1 . 1 × 10−5)

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Your notes

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1.1.2 Exponents & Logarithms

Your notes
Laws of Indices
What are the laws of indices?
Laws of indices (or index laws) allow you to simplify and manipulate expressions involving exponents
An exponent is a power that a number (called the base) is raised to
Laws of indices can be used when the numbers are written with the same base
The index laws you need to know are:
(xy ) m = x my m

⎛⎜ x ⎞⎟ m x m
⎟ = m
⎝y
⎜
⎠ y

x m × x n = x m +n

x m ÷ x n = x m −n

(x m ) n = x mn

x1 = x

x0 = 1

1
= x −m
x m
These laws are not in the formula booklet so you must remember them
How are laws of indices used?
You will need to be able to carry out multiple calculations with the laws of indices
Take your time and apply each law individually
Work with numbers rst and then with algebra
Index laws only work with terms that have the same base, make sure you change the base of the term
before using any of the index laws
Changing the base means rewriting the number as an exponent with the base you need
For example, 94 = (32) 4 = 32 × 4 = 38
Using the above can them help with problems like 94 ÷ 37 = 38 ÷ 37 = 31 = 3

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Index laws are rarely a question on their own in the exam but are often needed to help you solve
other problems, especially when working with logarithms or polynomials
Look out for times when the laws of indices can be applied to help you solve a problem
algebraically

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Worked example
Your notes
Simplify the following equations:
i) (3x 2) (2x 3y 2)
.
(6x 2y )

ii) (4x 2y −4) 3 (2x 3y −1) −2 .

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Your notes

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Introduction to Logarithms
What are logarithms? Your notes
A logarithm is the inverse of an exponent
If a x = b then log (b ) = x where a > 0, b > 0, a ≠ 1
a
This is in the formula booklet
The number a is called the base of the logarithm
Your GDC will be able to use this function to solve equations involving exponents
Try to get used to ‘reading’ logarithm statements to yourself
log (b ) = x would be read as “the power that you raise a to, to get b , is x ”
a
So log 125 = 3 would be read as “the power that you raise 5 to, to get 125, is 3”
5
Two important cases are:
ln x = log (x )
e
Where e is the mathematical constant 2.718…
This is called the natural logarithm and will have its own button on your GDC
log x = log (x )10
Logarithms of base 10 are used often and so abbreviated to log x
Why use logarithms?
Logarithms allow us to solve equations where the exponent is the unknown value
We can solve some of these by inspection
For example, for the equation 2x = 8 we know that x must be 3
Logarithms allow use to solve more complicated problems
For example, the equation 2x = 10 does not have a clear answer
Instead, we can use our GDCs to nd the value of log 10
2

Examiner Tip
Before going into the exam, make sure you are completely familiar with your GDC and know how to
use its logarithm functions

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Worked example
Your notes
Solve the following equations:
i) x = log3 27,

ii) 2x = 21. 4 , giving your answer to 3 s.f.

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Your notes

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1.1.3 Approximation & Estimation

Your notes
Upper & Lower Bounds
What are bounds?
Bounds are the smallest (lower bound, LB) and largest (upper bound, UB) numbers that a rounded
number can lie between
It simply means how low or high the number could have been before it was rounded
The bounds for a number, x , can be written as LB ≤ x < UB
Note that the lower bound is included in the range of values x could have taken but the upper
bound is not
How do we nd bounds?
The basic rule is “half up, half down”
To nd the upper bound add on half the degree of accuracy
To nd the lower bound take o half the degree of accuracy
Remember that the upper bound is the cut o point for the greatest value that the number could have
been rounded from but will not actually round to the number itself
How do we calculate using bounds?
Find bounds before carrying out the calculation and then use the rules:
To add UB = UB + UB and LB = LB + LB
To multiply UB = UB × UB and LB = LB × LB
To divide UB = UB / LB and LB = LB / UB
To subtract UB = UB - LB and LB = LB – UB
Use logic to decide which bound to use within the calculation
For example if you are nding the maximum volume of a sphere with the radius given correct to 1
decimal place substitute the upper bound of the radius into your calculation for the volume

Examiner Tip
When in an exam environment it can be easy to make silly errors in questions like this, read the
question carefully to determine which parts bounds need to be found for
This will normally be any part in the question that has been rounded

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Worked example
Your notes
A rectangular eld has length, L , of 14.3 m correct to 1 decimal place and width, W , of 9.61 m correct
to 2 decimal places.
a) Calculate the lower and upper bound for L and W .

b) Calculate the lower and upper bound for the perimeter, P , and area, A , of the eld.

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Your notes

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Approximating Values
How do I know what to round my answer to? Your notes
Unless otherwise told, always round your answers to 3 signi cant gures (3 s.f.)
The rst non-zero digit is the rst signi cant digit
The rst digit after the third signi cant digit determines whether to 'round up' ( ≥ 5) or 'leave it
alone' (<5)
where the ‘it’ we are rounding up or leaving alone is the third signi cant gure
Your nal answer will have three signi cant digits and the rest will be zero
Any zero after the rst signi cant digit is still signi cant
For large numbers be careful not to change the place value of the signi cant digits, you will
have to ll in any zeros after the third signi cant gure
If your GDC is in scienti c mode it may display unnecessary zeros after the decimal point, you
do not need to copy these
Look out for any questions that ask you to round your answer in a di erent way
Questions often ask for 2 decimal places (2 d.p.)
Your nal answer will only have 2 digits after the decimal point
For 2 d.p. it is the third digit after the decimal place that determines whether to 'round up' (5) or
'leave it alone' (<5)
If you are working with a currency you must choose the appropriate degree of accuracy
For most this will be a whole number
E.g. yen, yuan, peso
For others this will be to 2 decimal places
E.g. dollars, euro, pounds
It will be clear from the question which currency you are using and how you should round your
answer
The question will state the name of the currency and the symbol you should use as a unit
E.g. YEN, ￥
Are there cases when I always have to round up?
Yes - there are cases when it makes sense to always round up (or down)
These normally involve nding the minimum or maximum number of objects
For example consider the scenario: There are 26 people and 5 people can t in a single vehicle,
how many vehicles are needed?
26
= 5 . 2 and normally we'd round to 5
5
However 5 vehicles wouldn't be enough as there would only be room for 25 people
In this case we would round up to nd the minimum number needed
These kind of problems can be solved by inequalities
For x > k take the smallest value of x at the appropriate degree of accuracy that is greater than k
For example: Using 3sf the smallest solution to x > 2.5731... is x = 2.58
For x < k take the biggest value of x at the appropriate degree of accuracy that is less than k

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For example: The biggest integer solution to x < 10.901... is x = 10

Your notes
Examiner Tip
In the exam you should always give non exact answers correct to 3 signi cant gures unless
otherwise told
This means you must round using a higher degree of accuracy within your working to ensure
that your nal answer is rounded correctly
Where possible always use exact values within your working rather than rounding mid way
through a question

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Worked example
Your notes
b sin(3a )
Let T = , where a = 15° and b = 20.
5
a) Calculate the exact value of T .

b) Give your answer from part a) correct to two decimal places.

c) Give your answer from part a) correct to two signi cant gures.

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Your notes

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Percentage Error
What is percentage error? Your notes
Percentage error is how far away from the actual value an estimated or rounded answer is
Percentage error can be calculated using the formula
 vA − v E 
ε=   × 100%
 vE 
where v is the exact value and v is the approximate value of v
E A
The | | is the absolute value meaning if you get a negative value within these straight brackets,
you should take the positive value
This formula is in the formula booklet so you do not need to remember it
The further away the estimated answer is from the true answer the greater the percentage error
If the exact value is given as a surd or a multiple of π make sure you enter it into the formula exactly as
you see it
Percentage error should always be a positive number

Examiner Tip
In the exam percentage error will usually be a part of a bigger question on another topic, make sure
you know how to nd the formula for it in the formula book so that you are prepared to answer
these questions

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Worked example
Your notes
Let P = x cos(2y ) , where y = 15° and x = 4 .
a) Calculate the exact value of P .

b) Calculate the percentage error if an estimate for P was 3.5.

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Your notes

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Accuracy & Estimation

What are exact values? Your notes
Exact values are forms that represent the full and precise value of a number
For example, π is an exact value and 3.14 is an approximation using 3 signi cant gures
If a number has an in nite number of non-zero digits after the decimal point then you can use three
dots to signal that the decimal representation goes on for example
For example, √2 = 1.414...
Exact values can involve
2
Fractions:
7

Roots: 3,5 7

Logarithms: ln2 , log 5

10

Mathematical constants: π, e

Your GDC might automatically give your answer as an exact answer

If your GDC does not do this then you may need to evaluate parts of the expression separately and use
algebra
For example: If f (x ) = ex (2 + x ) then your GDC will probably not give you the exact value of
f (2)
You would insist evaluate it without a GDC to get the exact value: f (2) = e2 (2 + 2)
Why use estimation?
We estimate to nd approximate answers to di cult sums
Or to check our answers are about the right size (order of magnitude)
For example, if the question is to nd a length the answer cannot be negative
or if we are looking for the mean age of some people an answer of 150 must be incorrect
Estimating an answer before carrying out a calculation will help you know what you are looking for and
determine if your answer is likely to be correct or not
In real life estimation skills are used every day in many activities
How do I choose the correct answer?
Sometimes a mathematical argument will lead to more than one answer
This is common with problems involving quadratics, you will usually have two solutions
If you have more than one solution after you have solved a problem, always check to see if they are
both valid
Most of the time you can simply use logic to choose the correct answer

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If the problem involves length or area and one of the answers is negative, the true solution will be
the positive answer
Occasionally you will need to see if an answer can be valid Your notes
If one of your answers is cos x > 1 for example, x will not give a true solution

Examiner Tip
Be aware that your GDC will not always give you an answer as an exact value, this means that you
will need to nd the exact value by hand

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Worked example
Your notes
A rectangular oor has an area of 40 m2 to the nearest square metre. It is going to be tiled using square
tiles with side length 39.8 cm.
a) Use estimation to nd the number of tiles needed to cover the whole area.

b) Given that there are 15 more tiles places length-wise than width-wise, nd the approximate
length and width of the oor.

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Your notes

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1.1.4 GDC: Solving Equations

Your notes
Systems of Linear Equations
What are systems of linear equations?
A linear equation is an equation of the rst order (degree 1)
It is usually written in the form ax + by + c = 0 where a, b, and c are constants
A system of linear equations is where two or more linear equations work together
Usually there will be two equations with the variables x and y
The variables x and y will satisfy all equations
They are usually known as simultaneous equations
Occasionally there may be three equations with the variables x, y and z
They can be complicated to solve but your GDC has a function allowing you to solve them
The question may say ‘using technology, solve…’
This means you do not need to show a method of solving the system of equations, you can use
your GDC
How do I use my GDC to solve a system of linear equations?
Your GDC will have a function within the algebra menu to solve a system of linear equations
You will need to choose the number of equations
For two equations the variables will be x and y
For three equations the variables will be x, y and z
Enter the equations into your calculator as you see them written
Your GDC will display the values of x and y (or x, y, and z)
How do I set up a system of linear equations?
Not all questions will have the equations written out for you
There will be two bits of information given about two variables
Look out for clues such as ‘assuming a linear relationship’
Choose to assign x to one of the given variables and y to the other
Or you can choose to use more meaningful variables if you prefer
Such as c for cats and d for dogs
Write your system of equations in the form
ax + by = e
cx + dy = f
Use your GDC to solve the system of equations
This function on the GDC can also be used to nd the points of intersection of two straight line graphs
You may wish to use the graphing section on your GDC to see the points of intersection

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Be sure to write down what you are putting into your GDC
If you have had to set up the system of equations as well make sure you write them down
clearly before typing into your GDC

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Worked example
Your notes
A theme park has set ticket prices for adults and children. A group of three adults and nine children
costs $153 and a group of ve adults and eleven children costs $211.
i) Set up a system of linear equations for the cost of adult and child tickets.

ii) Find the price of one adult and one child ticket.

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Polynomial Equations
What is a polynomial equation? Your notes
A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of a nite number of terms, with non-negative
integer indices only
It is in the form ax n + bx n − 1 + cx n − 2 + . . . , n ∈ℕ
A polynomial equation is an equation where a polynomial is equal to zero
The number of solutions (roots or zeros) depend on the order of the polynomial equation
A polynomial equation of order two can have up to two solutions
A polynomial equation of order ve can have up to ve solutions
A polynomial equation of an odd degree will always have at least one solution
A polynomial equation of an even degree could have no solutions
How do I use my GDC to solve polynomial equations?
You should use your GDC’s graphing mode to look at the shape of the polynomial
You will be able to see the number of solutions
This will be the number of times the graph cuts through or touches the x-axis
When entering a function into the graphing section you may need to adjust your zoom settings to
be able to see the full graph on your display
Whilst in this mode you can then choose to analyse the graph
This will give you the option to see the solutions of the polynomial equation
This may be written as the zeros (points where the graph meets the x-axis)
Your GDC will also have a function within the algebra menu to solve polynomial equations
You will need to enter the order (highest degree) of the polynomial
This is the highest power (or exponent) in the equation
Enter the equation into your calculator
Your GDC will display the solutions (roots) of the equation
Be aware that your GDC may either show all solutions or only the rst solution, it is always worth
plotting a graph of the function to check how many solutions there should be

Examiner Tip
Be sure to write down what you are putting into your GDC
If you are using a graphical method it is often a good idea to sketch the graph that your GDC
display shows
Don't spend too much time on this, a very quick sketch is ne

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Worked example
Your notes
For the polynomial equation 2x 3 − 2x 2 − 3x + 4 = 0 :
i) Use your GDC’s graphing function to sketch the graph of y = 2x 3 − 2x 2 − 3x + 4 and
determine the number of solutions to the polynomial equation.

ii) Use your GDC to nd the solution(s) of the polynomial equation.

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Your notes

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