1.

1 Principles of Engineering Graphics and their significance:

On one hand, it is a general principle of engineering drawings that they are projected using
standardized, mathematically certain projection methods and rules. Thus, great effort is put into
having an engineering drawing accurately depict size, shape, form, aspect ratios between features,
and so on.
An engineering drawing, a type of technical drawing, is used to fully and clearly define
requirements for engineered items.
Engineering drawing (the activity) produces engineering drawings (the documents). More than
merely the drawing of pictures, it is also a language—a graphical language that communicates ideas
and information from one mind to another.
Drawing plays vital role in the engineering and construction works. The drawing requires no
language any one can read it. So, drawings of other countries structures can also be studied easily.
The drawing improves the imagination and new inventions can be developed. The estimate for the
project can be done using the details provided in the drawing
The structure can be analyzed completely before construction by using drawing. So, every
engineering construction department especially civil engineering requires drawing to start a project.

1.2 Drawing instruments,

The instruments used in engineering drawing are:
1) Drawing sheet
2) Drawing board
3) Mini drafter
4) Divider
5) Protractor
6) Set squares
7) French curves (5,6)
8) Pencils (2H & 2B)
9) Eraser
10) Drawing clips
11) Drawing paper box
12) Sharpener
13) Protractor(180,360)
14) Large size compass with interchangeable legs
15) Small bow compass
16) Large size Divider
17) Small bow Divider
18) Scale (Plain, Diagonal)

1
 1.2 Different types of lines and their use:

1.4 Lettering:
The writing of alphabets and numerals such as A, B, C, D…………………….Z and 1, 2,
3……………9, 0 respectively is called Lettering.
 Classification Of Lettering
The lettering, in general, is classified in two categories :
1. Gethic Lettering (Lettering having all the alphabets or numerals of uniform thickness is
called Gothic Lettering.)
2. Roman Lettering. (The lettering in which all the letters are formed by thick and thin
elements is called Roman Lettering)NB.There are two another types of lettering i.e.
Mechanical Lettering and Free Hand Lettering.

2
1.5 Drawing standards and codes:

Size of drawing sheet and Layout of Drawing sheet according to the standard:

International Standard Organisation (ISO) AND Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

Lines:
IS:10714-1983 adopted from ISO:128-1982 describes general principles of presentation of
Technical Drawing.
Lettering for Technical Drawing:
IS:9609-1983 adopted from ISO:3098/1-1974 describes various type of lettering.
Methods of dimensioning:
IS:10718-1983 equivalent to ISO:129-1985 illustrates method of dimensioning a drawing.

3
1.6 Dimensioning systems:

Aligned system Unidirectional system

(readable from bottom and right edge of sheet) (visible from bottom edge)

 Arrowheads and dimension line positioning:

1.7 Geometrical construction of polygon (General method):

Scales

4
 Scales
2.1 Scale:
Scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a drawing to the
actual dimensions of the same.

2.2 Representative fraction (R.F.):

2.3 Types of Scale

There are three types of scales depending upon the proportion it indicates as

(i)Reducing scale: When the dimensions on the drawing are smaller than the actual dimensions of
the object. It is represented by the scale and RF as
Scale: - 1cm=100cm or 1:100 and by RF=1/100 (less than one)

(ii) Full scale: Sometimes the actual dimensions of the object will be adopted on the drawing then
in that case it is represented by the scale and RF as
Scale: - 1cm = 1cm or 1:1 and by R.F=1/1 (equal to one).

(iii)Enlarging scale: In some cases when the objects are very small like inside parts of a wrist
watch, the dimensions adopted on the drawing will be bigger than the actual dimensions of the
objects then in that case it is represented by scale and RF as
Scale: - 10cm=1cm or 10:1 and by R.F= 10/1 (greater than one)

There are another four types of scales depending upon the construction:

(i)Plain Scales: Plain scales read or measure upto two units or a unit and its sub-division, for
example centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm). When measurements are required upto first
decimal, for example 2.3 m or 4.6 cm etc.

Problem 1:
To construct a plain scale to show and decimeters when one meter is represented by 2.5 cm
long enough to measure up to 6m.

Solution:
1) Calculation:

𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

a) R.F. = (in same units)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

2.5
= 1×100

5
 1
= 40

b) Length of the scale:

1 cm represents = 40 cm.

15 cm represent = 40 × 15 = 600 cm = 6m.

Length of the scale = 15 cm, which will be divided into 6 equal parts.

2) Construction:

(ii) Diagonal Scales:Diagonal scales are used to read or measure upto three units.
For example: decimetres (dm), centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm) or miles,
This scale is used when very small distances such as 0.1 mm are to be accurately measured or when
measurements are required upto second decimal. For example: 2.35dm or 4.68km etc.

Problem 1:
Construct a diagonal scale of R.F. 1:2 showing division of 0.01 meter and capable of
measuring 3 meters. Mark a distance of 2.57 meter on it.
Solution:

3) Calculation:
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
c) R.F. = (in same units)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

1
= 20

d) Length of the scale:

From R.F. we have,

1 cm represents = 20 cm.

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 15 cm represent = 20 × 15 = 300 cm = 3m.

Length of the scale = 15 cm, which will be divided into 3 equal parts.

4) Construction:

(iii) Vernier scale: A vernier scale is a visual aid that allows the user to measure more precisely
than could be done unaided when reading a uniformly divided straight or circular measurement
scale. It is a subsidiary scale that indicates where the measurement lies in between two of the
graduations on the main scale.
Verniers are common on sextants used in navigation, scientific instruments used to conduct
experiments, machinists' (or jewelers') measuring tools (all sorts, but especially calipers and
micrometers) used to work materials to fine tolerances, on theodolites used in surveying, and in
absolute encoders to measure linear or rotational displacements

Problem 1:
1
construct a venire scale of R.F.= 2500 and long enough to measure 200m to an accuracy of a
meter. Show on it a distance of 158m.

Solution:

5) Calculation:

𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

e) R.F. = (in same units)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

4
= 2500

f) Length of the scale:

1 cm represents = 25000 cm.

15 cm represent = 25000 × 15 = 375m

7
 375 m represented by = 15cm

15×400
400 m represented by = =16 cm.
375

Length of the scale = 16 cm, which will be divided into 4 equal parts.

6) Construction:

(iv) Scale of chords : A chord is a line drawn between two points on the circumference of a circle.
Look at the centre point of this line. For a circle of radius r, each half will be so the chord will be .
The line of chords scale represents each of these values linearly on a scale running from 0 to 60.

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2.4 Problems

1. The distance between B.E College & Howrah Station is 4km. It is represented on map by 8cm. Draw
a suitable scale and mark a distance 4km 9hm on the scale.
2. On a railway map the distance between two-point 100 km. and it is shown by 2.5 cm. What is
theR.F? Draw a diagonal scale to measure up to 700 km. Mark a distance 209 km onthe scale.
3. The R.F of a scale is 1/50000. Draw the scale to show km and hm. Show distance of 6.2 km.
4. Construct a scale of 1.5 cm = 1 dm to read up to 1 m and show on it a length of 0.6 m.
5. On a map 6cm2 represent an area of land 2664 m2. Calculate the R.F. the Draw a scale to read up
to single meter and long enough to show 3 hm. Draw a rectangular of 240 m x 108 m with the help
of the scale.
6. A room of building of 512 cm3 volume is represented by a similar block of 64 cm3 volume. Find
the R.F and construct a plane scale to measure up to 30m .Measure a distance of 24m on the scale.
7. Construct a diagonal scale of R.F = 1: 32,00,000 to show kilometers and long enough to measure
up to 400km. Show the distance of 257km and 353km on your scale.
8. A car running at a speed of 54 km/hr. Construct a diagonal scale to show 1km by 4cm and to
measure up to 5km. Mark also on the scale the distance covered by the car in 3min.
9. On a map 4.5 represent an area of land 2178 m2 calculate the R.F . Draw a suitable scale to
read up to single meter and long enough to show 3 hm at a time. Draw the rectangle of 223 m X
107 m. using this scale.
10. On a plan a square of 2 cm side represent a square of area 25 m2 . Draw a suitable scale of the
plan to read up to a single decimeter. Measure a distance of 3.25M.
11. Distance between A and b is 40 km. it is shown on a sheet by 8 cm. Find the R.F of the
scale .Such that 90 km.and a single km can be read from it. Draw a triangle of side 25 km using the
above scale.
12.Construct a Vernier scale of R.F = 1/20 and capable of reading metres ,decimetres and
centimetres.Show on it the following length: 1)1.44m, 2)16.8 decimetres.

9
 Engineering Curves
3.1 Introduction

Elliptical shape Parabolic shape

Hyperbola Spiral

Curves formed by the intersection of a plane with a right circular cone. e.g. Parabola, hyperbola and
ellipse
Conic:Conic is defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane such that the ratio of its distance
from a fixed point and a fixed straight line is always constant.
Fixed point is called Focus. Fixed line is called Directrix.
Conic Sections
• Sections of a right circular cone obtained by cutting the cone in different ways
• Depending on the position of the cutting plane relative to the axis of cone, three conic sections can
be obtained
– ellipse,
– parabola and
– hyperbola
An ellipse is obtained when a section plane A–A, inclined to the axis cuts all the generators of the
cone.
• A parabola is obtained when a section plane B–B, parallel to one of the generators cuts the cone.

10
Obviously, the section plane will cut the base of the cone.
• A hyperbola is obtained when a section plane C–C, inclined to the axis cuts the cone on one side
of the axis.
• A rectangular hyperbola is obtained when a section plane D–D, parallel to the axis cuts the cone.

OBLONG
METHOD CONCENTRIC CIRCLE METHOD

11
PARABOLA BY INTERSECTING PARABOLA BY GENERAL
METHOD METHOD

Cycloid is the curve traced by a point on the rim of a circular wheel as the wheel rolls along a
straight line without slipping.

Epicycloid is a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle rolling on the exterior of
another circle.

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Hypocycloid is the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which is rolling on the
interior of another circle.

Involute is the locus of a point considered as the end of a taut string being unwound from a given
curve in the plane of that curve.

Example of involute: involute gear

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Archemedian Spiral is a plane curve generated by a point moving away from or toward a fixed
point at a constant rate while the radius vector from the fixed point rotates at a constant rate.

3.2 Problems:
1.Draw an ellipsehaving major axis and minor axis of 90mm. and 60mm.,respectively (Concentric
circle method).
2.consider a ball thrown in air which attains 100 m height and covers a horizontal distance of 150 m
on ground. Draw the path of the ball (parabola by rectangle method)
3. Draw an ellipse having major axis and minor axis, say major axis = 100mm and minor axis = 70
mm. ((apply Oblong method).
4. Draw a line AB 12cm. long. Take a point F 4cm from the end A on this line. Locate another P
6cm from A and 4 cm. from the line AB. The line AB indicates the direction of the parabola where
F is a focus and measures the latus- rectum.
5. Construct an ellipse when the distance between the two foci is 90mm and the minor axis is
65mm Long. Determine the length of the major axis and draw half of the ellipse by concentric
Circle method and the other half by oblong method.
6. A beaker of 50mm. diameter partly filled up with water is tiled such that the highest point of the
water surface is 60mm. away from the bottom surface of the beaker. Draw the shape of the water
surface in the tiled position.
7. Four points of an ellipse from a rectangle of 40mm 50mm having longer side parallel to the
major axis. The foci of the ellipse lie at distance of 10mm on either side of the rectangle. Draw the
ellipse.
8.A fountain jet discharge water from ground level at an inclination of 50 0 to the ground . The jet
travels a horizontal distance of 90mm. from the point of discharge and falls on the ground. Trace
the path of the jet in any suitable scale.
9. Draw an ellipse having focus distance 80mm and minor axis 70mm also find out the major axis.
(Apply concentric circle / oblong method)
10.Draw a cycloid generated by a point P on the circumference of a circle of diameter 56 mm when
the circle rolls along a straight line.Draw a normal and a tangent to the curve at any convenient
point.
11.Draw an epicycloid generated by a point P on the circumference of a rolling circle of diameter
50 mm when it rolls outside a directing circle of 150 mm diameter for one complete revolution.
Draw a normal and a tangent to the curve at any convenient point.
12.Draw a hypocycloid where the diameters of the rolling and the directing circles are equal to 50
mm and 150 mm respectively.
13.Draw an involute of a pentagon with each side of 15 mm length.
14.Draw an involute of a circle of 35 mm diameter.
15.Draw an Archimedean spiral of one convolution with the shortest and longest radius vectors of
10 mm and 50 mm respectively.

14
 PROJECTION

4.1 Introduction
In engineering, 3-dimensonal objects and structures are represented graphically on a 2-dimensional
media. The act of obtaining the image of an object is termed “projection”. The image obtained by
projection is known as a “view”. A simple projection system is shown in figure.
All projection theory are based on two variables:
 Line of sight
 Plane of projection.
4.2 Plane of Projection
A plane of projection (i.e, an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat plane upon which the
image created by the line of sight is projected. The image is produced by connecting the points
where the lines of sight pierce the projection plane. In effect, 3-D object is transformed into a 2-D
representation, also called projections. The paper or computer screen on which a drawing is created
is a plane of projection.

Figure : A
simple Projection system
4.3 Projection Methods
Projection methods are very important techniques in engineering drawing.
Two projection methods used are:
 Perspective and
 Parallel
Parallel projection
 Distance from the observer to the object is infinite projection lines are parallel – object is
positioned at infinity.
 Less realistic but easier to draw.

15
Perspective projection
 Distance from the observer to the object is finite and the object is viewed from a single point
– projectors are not parallel.
 Perspective projections mimic what the human eyes see, however, they are difficult to draw.
Orthographic Projection Orthographic projection is a parallel projection technique in which the
plane of projection is perpendicular to the parallel line of sight. Orthographic projection technique
can produce either pictorial drawings that show all three dimensions of an object in one view or
multi-views that show only two dimensions of an object in a single view. These views are shown in
figure

Orthographic projections of a solid showing isometric, oblique and multi-view drawings.

4.4 Difference between first angle and third angle projections:

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4.5 Symbol of projection
The type of projection obtained should be indicated symbolically in the space provided for the
purpose in the title box of the drawing sheet. The symbol recommended by BIS is to draw the two
sides of a frustum of a cone placed with its axis horizontal The left view is drawn.

4.6 Problems on Projection of Points , Lines , Surfaces and Solids:

Projection of Points

1. Draw the projection of the following points.

Point A which is 40 mm above HP and 55 mm in front of VP (First Quadrant)
Point B, which is 10 mm above HP and 15 mm behind VP.(Second Quadrant)
Point C, which is 25 mm below HP and 20 mm behind VP (Third Quadrant)
Point D, which is 20 mm below HP and 20 mm in front of VP(Fourth Quadrant)
Point E is on the reference line
Point F is on both HP and VP.

2. Draw the projection of following points on the same reference line keeping the projectors 15 mm
apart.

17
 i. In the HP & 25 mm BVP
ii. 30 mm AHP & In the VP.
iii. 45 mm AHP & 20 mm IVP
iv. In the HP &25 mm I VP
v. 40mm BHP& 25 mm IVP
vi. In the HP& In the VP

Projection of Lines

1. Draw the projection of a line in the following position assuming each one to be of 50mm length.
(a) Line AB is parallel to the H.P and V.P 25mm behind the V.P and 30mm below H.P.
(b) Line C.D is in V.P parallel to the H.P and C is 30mm above the H.P.
(c) Line EF is parallel to and 25mm in front of the V.P and is in the H.P.
(d) Line GH is in both V.P and H.P.
(e) Line JK is perpendicular to the H.P and 20mm in front of the V.P the nearest point from the
H.P is J which is 15mm above the H.P.
(f) Line LM is 30mm behind the V.P and perpendicular to H.P. L is the nearest point from the
H.P. Which is 15mm above H.P.
(g) Line NP is 30mm below H.P and perpendicular to V.P. P is the nearest point from V.P. Which
is 10mm in front of V.P.
(h) Line ST is perpendicular to H.P and behind V.P. The nearest point
from the H.P is S which is 20mm from V.P and 15mm below H.P.

2. A straight line AB of 65mm long is parallel to the H.P and its elevation measure 35mm. The end
A which is nearest to V.P is 15mm above H.P and 20mm in front of V.P.Draw the projection of line
AB find out also the inclination with the V..P

3. Draw the projection of a line AB. Of length 7 cm. makes angle 350 with H.P and 400 with V.P
point A3cm above H.P and 2.5 cm in front of V.P . Draw also the side elevation

4. Draw the projection of a line AB. Of length 7.5 cm. makes angle 40 0 with H.P and 300 with V.P
point A is on H.P and 2.5 cm in front of V.P.

5. Draw the projection of a straight line AB of length 7cm. which makes an angle 32 0 with H.P and
470 with V.P Point A is 1.5 cm above H.P and 2 cm in front of V.P.

Projection of Surfaces

1.(a) Draw the projection of the circular lamina of diameter 35 mm resting on a point on its circumference
on H.P. Surface of the lamina makes an angle of 600 with H.P.
(b) Draw the projection of the circular lamina of diameter 35 mm resting on a point on its circumference on
V.P. Surface of the lamina makes an angle of 600 with V.P.

2.(a) Draw the projection of the hexagonal lamina of side 35 mm resting on one its 8corner on V.P. Surface
of the lamina makes an angle of 600 with V.P.
(b) Draw the projection of the hexagonal lamina of side 35 mm resting on one its side on V.P. Surface of the
lamina makes an angle of 600 with V.P.

3. Draw the projection of the pentagonal lamina of side 3.5 cm resting on one its corner on H.P.

18
Surface of the lamina makes an angle of 600 with H.P.

4. A rectangle ABCD of size 40mm x 60mm has a corner on H.P and 20mm away from V.P. All
the side of the rectangle are equally inclined to H.P and parallel to V.P . Draw its projection.

5. Draw the projection of a pentagon of 40mm side having its surface inclined at 300 to V.P and the
side

6. An equilateral triangular plate of 50mm side has its plane parallel to H.P and 30mm away from
its. Draw the projection when one of its side s is
(i) Perpendicular to V.P (ii) parallel to V.P and (iii) inclined to V.P at an angle 450

Projection of Solids:

1. Draw the projection of a cone having base diameter 60mm and axis 55mm long resting on HP. The axis of
the solid is parallel to VP and inclined at 450 to H.P.

2. Draw the projection of a cylinder having base diameter 60mm and axis 55mm long resting on HP. The
axis of the solid is parallel to VP and inclined at 450 to H.P.

3. Draw the projections of hexagonal prism of base 25mm side and axis 60mm long is resting on one of its
corners of the base on H.P. The axis of the solid is inclined at 45 0 to H.P.

4. Draw the projections of hexagonal prism of base 25mm side and axis 60mm long is resting on one of its
corners of the base on H.P. The axis of the solid is inclined at 45 0 to H.P.

5. Draw the projection of a cylinder of base 40mm diameter and axis height 55mm. When it is
resting on H.P.on one of its base.

6.A cube of 40mm side is resting on its base on H.P. such that two of the vertical faces are equally
inclined to V.P. Draw its projections and draw the side elevation.

7. Draw the projections of hexagonal prism of base 25mm side and axis 60mm long is resting on
one of its corners of the base on H.P. The axis of the solid is inclined at 45 0 to H.P.

8. Draw the projection of a pentagonal pyramid with side of base 30mm with a slant face on H.P.
such that the axis is parallel to V.P.

9. Draw the projection of a cylinder of 50 diameter and axis 65mm long when it lying on H.P .with
its axis inclined at 450 to H.P. and parallel to V.P.

10. A hexagonal pyramid of base side 25mm and axis 60mm long is resting on an edge of the base
on H.P. Draw the projections of the solid, Whe the axis makes an angle 45 0 with V.P. and the base of
the solid is nearer to V.P.

11. A cylinder with 50mm diameter of its base and axis 70mm has it axis inclined at 300 to the V.P.
and the elevation of the axis is inclined at 300 to ground line xy. Draw the projections of the
cylinder.

19
12. Draw the projection of a cube of edge 30mm resting on the ground on one of its corners with a
solid diagonal perpendicular to V.P.

13. A hexagonal prism of 30mm side of base and 70mm height, resting on the H.P. such that the
axis is inclined at 300 to the H.P. and 600 to the V.P. Draw its projections. Keep the top end
of the prism near to the V.P.

14.Draw the projections of a cube of side 50mm which rests on a point of its corner on H.P. and one
of its solid diagonal is parallel to H.P. and perpendicular to V.P.

15. A cone of base 80 mm diameter and height 100 mm lies with one of its generators on HP and
the axis appears to be inclined to VP at an angle of 400 in the top view. Draw its top and front
views.

20
 Section of solids
5.1 Introduction
In engineering industries, when the internal structure of an object is complicated, it is very
difficult to visualize the object from its orthographic views since there will be several hidden
lines. In such case, the internal details are shown by sectional views. Sectional views are
an important aspect of design and documentation since it is used to improve clarity and reveal
interior features of parts.
Sectional drawings are multi-view technical drawings that contain special views of a part or
parts, that reveal interior features. A primary reason for creating a section view is the elimination
of hidden lines, so that a drawing can be more easily understood or visualized. Traditional section
views are based on the use of an imaginary cutting plane that cuts through the object to reveal
interior features. This imaginary cutting plane is controlled by the designer

5.2 Examples:

21
22
5.3 Problems of Section of Solids:
1. a cone having base diameter 60mm and axis 55mm long resting on HP. Its is cut by a plane passing
through mid of the axis but makes an angle of 450 to the H.P. Draw the sectional plan and true shape of the
section. Also develop the lateral surface.

2. Draw the projection of a cylinder having base diameter 60mm and axis 55mm long resting on HP. It is cut
by a plane passing through mid of the axis but makes an angle of 45 0 to the H.P. Draw the sectional plan and
true shape of the section. Also develop the lateral surface.

3. Draw the projections of hexagonal prism of base 25mm side and axis 60mm long is resting on one of its
corners of the base on H.P. It is cut by a plane passing through mid of the axis but makes an angle of 45 0 to
the H.P. Draw the sectional plan and true shape of the section. Also develop the lateral surface.

4. Draw the projections of hexagonal prism of base 25mm side and axis 60mm long is resting on one of its
corners of the base on H.P. It is cut by a plane passing through mid of the axis but makes an angle of 450 to
the H.P. Draw the sectional plan and true shape of the section. Also develop the lateral surface.

5. A pentagonal pyramid of base side 3.5 cm vertical ht. 5.5 cm is resting on its base on H.P such
that one of the base side is parallel to V.P . It is cut by a sectional plane at an angle 45 0 with H.P.
Passing through mid of the axis. Draw the sectional plan and true shape of the section .

6. A triangular pyramid of base side 35mm ht. 5.5cm is resting on its base on H.P. Such that one of
the base side is parallel to V.P. It is cut by a plane Passing through mid of the axis at an angle 45 0
with H.P. Draw the sectional plan and true shape of the section.

7. A square prism of base side 3.5 cm vertical height 5.5 cm is resting on its base on H.P such that
one of the base side is parallel to V.P. It is cut by a sectional plane at angle 40 0 with H.P passing
through mid of the axis. . Draw the sectional plan and true shape of the section.

8. A cylinder 50mm diameter and 70mm axis length has its axis parallel to V.P .but makes an angle
of 300 to the H.P. Its is cut by a plane passing through mid of the axis but makes an angle of 450 to
the H.P. Draw the sectional plane and true shape of the section.

9. A cone of base diameter 60 and axis 75mm rests on its base on H.P. It is cut by a plane
perpendicular to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. Draw the sectional plane , elevation and the true
shape of the section. Name the true shape.

10. A square pyramid of base side 4 cm vertical height 6 cm is resting on its base on H.P such that
one of the base side is parallel to V.P.It is cut by plane passing through a point on the axis located
1.5cm from its top at an angle of 550 with H.P. Draw the sectional plan and true shape of the
section.

11. A heaxagonalprism of side 30 mm and axis 60mm long resting on HP with one of its base side
parallel to VP. Its axis is cut by a plane passing through 25mm from ground line makes an angle of
200 with H.P. Draw the front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.

12. A hexagonal prism of base side 30mm and height 75mm is resting on its base on H.P such that
one of the bases is parallel to V.P. It is cut by a plane passing through the mid of the axis at an angle
of 300 with H.P. Draw the sectional plan, true shape and Develop the lateral surface of the sectional
prism

23
 13. A hexagonal pyramid of base side 35mm and vertical height 55mm is resting on its base on
H.P. such that one of the base side is parallel to V.P. It is cut by a sectional plane at an angle with
H.P. passing through mid of the axis. Draw the sectional plan, true shape and develop the lateral
surface of the section.

14. A cone having base diameter 60mm and axis 55mm long resting on HP with its axis is parallel
to VP. Its axis is cut by a plane passing through 45mm from ground line makes an angle of 45 0 with
H.P. and perpendicular to V.P. Draw the sectional top view and true shape and develop the lateral
surface of the section.

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 Development of surfaces
6.1 Introduction

A development is the unfold / unrolled flat / plane figure of a 3-D object. It is also called a pattern
where the plane may show the true size of each area of the object. When the pattern is cut, it can be
rolled or folded back into the original object as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1. Typical development of the surface of a cuboid.

6.2 Types of development

There are three major types of development followed by industries.Examples are shown in figure 2.

 Parallel line development: In this parallel lines are used to construct the expanded pattern of each
three-dimensional shape. The method divides the surface into a series of parallel lines to determine
the shape of a pattern.
 Radial line development: In this, lines radiating from a central point to construct the expanded
pattern of each three-dimensional shape is used. These shapes each form part of a cone and lines
radiating from the vertex of the cone generate the expanded pattern of the curved surface as shown
in the following explorations.
 Triangulation method: This is generally used for polyhedron, single curved surfaces, and warped
surfaces.
 Approximate development: In this, the shapes obtained are only approximate. After joining, the
part is stretched or distorted to obtain the final shape

Figure 2. Typical examples of the various types of development.

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6.3 Examples:

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6.4 Problems:
1. a cone having base diameter 60mm and axis 55mm long resting on HP. Its is cut by a plane passing
through mid of the axis but makes an angle of 450 to the H.P. Draw the sectional plan and true shape of the
section. Also develop the lateral surface.

2. Draw the projection of a cylinder having base diameter 60mm and axis 55mm long resting on HP. It is cut
by a plane passing through mid of the axis but makes an angle of 450 to the H.P. Draw the sectional plan and
true shape of the section. Also develop the lateral surface.

3. Draw the projections of hexagonal prism of base 25mm side and axis 60mm long is resting on one of its
corners of the base on H.P. It is cut by a plane passing through mid of the axis but makes an angle of 45 0 to
the H.P. Draw the sectional plan and true shape of the section. Also develop the lateral surface.

4. Draw the projections of hexagonal prism of base 25mm side and axis 60mm long is resting on one of its
corners of the base on H.P. It is cut by a plane passing through mid of the axis but makes an angle of 45 0 to
the H.P. Draw the sectional plan and true shape of the section. Also develop the lateral surface. 1. A cone of
base diameter 5cm ht. 6.5 cm is resting on its base on H.P axis is parallel to V.P. It is cut by a plane
passing through mid of the axis at an angle 450 with H.P. Develop the lateral surface of the cut
cone.

5. A pentagonal prism of base 3.5 and height 5.5 cm is resting on its base on H.P such that one of
the base is Parallel to V.P .It is cut by plane passing through the mid of the axis. At an angle of 45 0
with H.P. Develop the lateral surface of the cut prism

6. A cylinder base diameter 5cm and height 6cm is resting on its base on H.P it is cut by plane
passing through mid of the axis at an angle of 300 with H.P. Draw the develop surface of the
remaining cylinder.

7. A pentagonal pyramid of base 4cm and height 6.5 cm is resting on its base on H.P such that one
of the base is perpendicular to V.P .It is cut by plane passing through the mid of the axis. At an
angle of 450 with H.P. Develop the lateral surface of the cut prism

8.A square pyramid of 30mm side of base and height 60mm rests with its base on H.P .with one of
the edges of the base is parallel to V.P. it is cut by a cutting plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined
at 450 to H.P. bisecting the axis. Draw the development of the truncated pyramid.

9.A hexagonal prism of base 3cm and height 7 cm is resting on its base on H.P such that one of the
base is perpendicular to V.P .It is cut by plane passing through a point on the axis located 2.5cm
f9rom its top at an angle of 450 with H.P. Develop the lateral surface of the cut prism

10. A square prism of base side 30mm and 65mm long axis standing with its base on H.P such that
one of the base edges is parallel to V.P. it is cut by a section plane perpendicular to V.P and inclined
at an angle of 450 to H.P. and passing through the mid point of the axis of the prism. Draw the
development of the lateral surface of the truncated prism.

11. A Hexagonal pyramid of base 3cm and height 6.cm is resting on its base on H.P such that one of
the base is parallel to V.P .It is cut by plane passing through the mid of the axis at an angle of 30 0
with H.P. Develop the lateral surface of the cut prism.

12. A Cylinder of 45mm base diameter 55mm long axis rests with its base on H.P. It is cut by a

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perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 600 to H.P. The plane passing through a point on the axis
located 12mm from its top. Draw the development of the lateral surfaces of the truncated cylinder.

13. A cylinder 40mm diameter and 70mm axis length has its axis parallel to V.P and perpendicular
to H.P. It is cut by a plane passing through mid of the axis but makes an angle of 30 0 to the H.P.
Draw the sectional plane and true shape and develop the lateral surface of the section.

14. A cone of base diameter 50mm and height 65mm is resting on its base on H.P axis is parallel to
V.P. It is cut by a plane passing through mid of the axis at an angle of 30 0 with H.P. Develop the
lateral surface of the cone.

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 Isometric projection
7.1 Principles of Isometric projection:
When a solid is resting in its simple position, the front or top view, taken separately, gives an
incomplete idea of the form of the object. When the solid is tilted from its simple position such that
its axis is inclined to both H.P and V.P, the front view or the top view or sometimes both, give an
„air idea of the pictorial form of the object, i.e., all the surfaces are visualized in a single
orthographic view.
“Iso” means „equal‟ and “metric projection” means „a projection to a reduced measure‟. An
isometric projection is one type of pictorial projection in which the three dimensions of a solid are
not only shown in one view, but also their dimension can be scaled from this drawing.

Isometric projection is a method for visually representing three-dimensional objects in two

dimensions in techinical and engineering drawings. It is an axonometric projection in which the
three co-ordinate axes appear equally foreshortened and the angle between any two of them is 120
degrees.

7.2 Isometric Scale:

Construction of isometric scale:
Draw a horizontal line OA.
From O draw a line OC at 45 o to represent actual or true length and another line OB at 30 o to
OA to measure isometric length.
On OC mark the point 0, 1, 2 etc to represent actual lengths.
From these points draw verticals to meet OB at 0 , 1 , 2 etc. The length A1 represents the
isometric scale length of A1' and so on.

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7.3 Difference between isometric view and isometric projection

Isometric View Isometric Projection

Drawn to actual scale Drawn to isometric scale
When lines are drawn parallel to isometric When lines are drawn parallel to isometric axes,
axes, the true lengths are laid off. the
lengths are foreshortened to 0.81 time the actual
lengths.

Example 1 :

Example 2 :

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7.4 Conversion of Isometric Views to Orthographic Views:

8.5 Conversion of Orthographic Views to Isometric Views:

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