CHAPTER 8

AC POWER ANALYSIS
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
8.3 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE
8.4 APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR
8.5 COMPLEX POWER
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.1 Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power 𝑝(𝑡) absorbed by an element is the
product of the instantaneous voltage 𝑣(𝑡) across the element and
the instantaneous current 𝑖(𝑡) through it: 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 × 𝑖 𝑡
The instantaneous power (in watts) is the power at any instant of
time.

Let the voltage and current at the terminals of the circuit be

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 )
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖
where 𝑉𝑚 and 𝐼𝑚 are the amplitudes (or peak values), and 𝜃𝑣 and
𝜃𝑖 are the phase angles of the voltage and current, respectively.
The instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is:
2
𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 )cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 )
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.1 Instantaneous power
We apply the trigonometric identity
1
cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 − 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 + 𝐵
2
So
1 1
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝑖
2 2
This shows us that the instantaneous power has two parts.
• The first part is constant or time independent. Its value
depends on the phase difference between the voltage and the
current.
• The second part is a sinusoidal function whose frequency is
2𝜔, which is twice the angular frequency of the voltage or
current.
Set 𝑇 = 2𝜋/𝜔 is the period of voltage or current. We observe
that 𝑝(𝑡) is periodic, 𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑝 𝑡 + 𝑇0 , and has a period of 𝑇0 =
𝑇/2, since its frequency is twice that of voltage or current. 3
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.2 Average power
The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore
difficult to measure. The average power is more convenient to
measure. In fact, the wattmeter, the instrument for measuring
power, responds to average power.
The average power, in watts, is the average of the
instantaneous power over one period.

4
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.2 Average power
Thus, the average power is given by
1 𝑇0
𝑃 = න 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0
1 𝑇0 1 1 𝑇0 1
= න 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0 2 𝑇0 0 2
Where 𝑇0 = 1/2𝜔,
𝑇0
1 1
• First part: 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 න 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
2𝑇0 0 2
𝑇0
1
• Second part: 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 න cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 0
2𝑇0 0

Thus, the average power becomes

1
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
2 5
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
The phasor forms of 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) are 𝑽 = 𝑽𝒎 ∠ 𝜽𝒗 and 𝑰 =
𝑰𝒎 ∠𝜽𝒊 , respectively
To use phasors, we notice that
𝑉𝐼 ∗ = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 ∠ 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 + j sin 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
The real part of this expression as the average power 𝑃
1 ∗
1
𝑃 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
2 2
• When 𝜃𝑣 = 𝜃𝑖 , the voltage and current are in phase
1
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
2
• When 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = ±900 , we have a purely reactive circuit, and
1
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 00 = 0 𝑊
2

6
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Example 8.1
Given that:
• 𝑣(𝑡) = 120 cos 377𝑡 + 450 𝑉
• 𝑖(𝑡) = 10 cos 377𝑡 − 100 𝐴
Find the instantaneous power and the average power absorbed
by the passive linear network.

7
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Example 8.1
Solution
The instantaneous power is given by
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 1200 cos(377𝑡 + 450 ) cos(377𝑡 − 100 )
Applying the trigonometric identity
1
cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 − 𝐵
2
gives
𝑝 = 600 cos 754𝑡 + 350 + cos 550
or
𝑝 𝑡 = 600 cos 550 + 600 cos 754𝑡 + 350 𝑊
The average power is
𝑃 = 600 cos 550 = 344,2 𝑊

8
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Problem 8.1
Calculate the instantaneous power and average power
absorbed by the passive linear network:
𝑣(𝑡) = 330 cos(10𝑡 + 200 ) 𝑉 and 𝑖(𝑡) = 33 sin(10𝑡 + 600 ) 𝐴

9
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Example 8.2
Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance 𝑍 =
30 − 𝑗70 Ω when a voltage 𝑉 = 120∠00 is applied across it.

Solution
The current through the impedance is
𝑉 120∠00 120∠00 0𝐴
𝐼= = = = 1,576∠66,8
𝑍 30 − 𝑗70 76,16∠ −66,80
The average power is
1 ∗
1
𝑃 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉𝑚 𝐼 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
2 2
1
= × 120 × 1,576 cos 0 − 66,80 = 37,24 𝑊
2

10
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Problem 8.2
A current 𝐼 = 33∠30𝟎 𝐴 flows through an impedance 𝑍 =
40∠ −220 Ω . Find the average power delivered to the
impedance.

11
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Example 8.3
For the circuit shown in below Fig., find the average power
supplied by the source and the average power absorbed by the
resistor.

12
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Example 8.3
Solution
The current 𝑰 is given by
5∠300
𝐼= = 1,118∠56,570 𝐴
4 − 2𝑗
The average power supplied by the voltage source is
1 1
𝑃 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉𝐼 = × 5 × 1,118 𝑐𝑜𝑠(30° − 56,570 ) = 2,5 𝑊
∗
2 2
The current through the resistor is
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼 = 1,118∠56,570 𝐴
And the voltage across it is
𝑉𝑅 = 4𝐼𝑅 = 4,472∠56,570 𝑉
The average power absorbed by the resistor is
1 ∗
1 1
𝑃 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 = × 4,472 × 1,118 cos 0 = 2,5 𝑊 = 𝐼𝑅 2 × 𝑅
2 2 2
13
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Problem 8.3
In the circuit of Fig. 11.4, calculate the average power absorbed
by the resistor and inductor. Find the average power supplied by
the voltage source.

14
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Example 8.4
Determine the average power generated by each source and
the average power absorbed by each passive element in the
circuit of below Fig. 11.5

15
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Example 8.4
Solution

We apply mesh analysis. For mesh 𝐼1

𝐼1 = 4𝐴
For mesh 𝐼2
𝑗10 − 𝑗5 𝐼2 − 𝑗10𝐼1 + 60∠300 = 0
⇒ 𝐼2 = −12∠(−600 ) + 8 = 10,58∠79,10 𝐴
For the voltage source, the current flowing from it is 𝐼2 , so that
the average power is
1 ∗
1
𝑃𝑆 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉𝑆 𝐼2 = × 60 × 10,58 × cos 300 − 79,10 = 207,8 16 𝑊
2 2
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Example 8.4
Solution

For the current source, the voltage across it is

𝑉1 = 20𝐼1 + 𝑗10(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 80 + 𝑗10(4 − 2 − 𝑗10,39)
= 183,9 + 𝑗20 = 184,984∠6.210 𝑉
The average power supplied by the current source is
1 ∗
1
𝑃𝐴 = − 𝑅𝑒 𝑉1 𝐼1 = − × 184.984 × 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 6.210 − 00 = −367.8 𝑊
2 2
For the resistor, the power absorbed is:
1 ∗
1
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒(𝑉2 𝐼1 ) = × 20 × 4 × 4cos(00 ) = 160 𝑊 17
2 2
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Example 8.4
Solution

For the capacitor

𝑉𝐶 = −j5 × I2 = −𝑗5 × 10,58∠79,10 = 52,9∠ 79,10 − 900 𝑉
1 ∗
1
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉𝐶 𝐼2 = 52,9 × 10,58 cos 79,10 − 900 − 79,10 = 0 W
2 2
For the inductor
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 10,58∠ −79,10 𝐴
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑗10𝐼𝐿 = 105,8∠ −79,10 + 900 𝑉
1 ∗
1
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 = 105,8 × 10,58cos(0) = 0 𝑊 18
2 2
8.1 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER
8.1.3 Average power in frequency domain
Problem 8.4
Calculate the average power absorbed by each of the five
elements in the circuit

19
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
Where an ac circuit is connected to a load 𝒁𝐿 and is represented
by its Thevenin equivalent. The load is usually represented by an
impedance, which may model an electric motor, an antenna, a TV,
and so forth. In rectangular form, the Thevenin impedance 𝒁 𝑇ℎ
and the load impedance 𝒁𝐿 are

𝑍𝑇𝐻 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑗𝑋𝑇𝐻

𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿
The current through the load is
𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝐼= =
𝑍𝑇ℎ + 𝑍𝐿 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑗𝑋𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 20
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
The average power delivered to the load is

1 2 1 𝑉𝑇ℎ 2
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅𝐿 = 2 2
𝑅𝐿
2 2 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑋𝑇ℎ + 𝑋𝐿
For maximum average power transfer, 𝒁𝐿 must be selected so
that 𝑋𝐿 = −𝑋𝑇ℎ and 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ
∗
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ − 𝑗𝑋𝑇ℎ = 𝑍𝑇ℎ
For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance 𝒁𝐿
must be equal to the complex conjugate of the Thevenin
impedance 𝒁 𝑇ℎ
21
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER

So, the maximum average power transfer for the sinusoidal

steady state is
1 𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 1 𝑉𝑇ℎ 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 2
𝑅𝑇ℎ =
2 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑋𝑇ℎ − 𝑋𝑇ℎ 8 𝑅𝑇ℎ
For maximum average power transfer to a purely resistive load,
the load impedance (or resistance) is equal to the magnitude of
the Thevenin impedance.
22
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
Example 8.5
Determine the load impedance 𝒁𝐿 that maximizes the average
power drawn from the circuit

23
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
Example 8.5
Solution
First, we obtain the Thevenin equivalent at the load terminals. To
get 𝒁 𝑇ℎ , consider the circuit below, we find

𝑍𝑇ℎ = 8 − 6𝑗 ||4 + 5𝑗 = 2,933 + 𝑗4,467 Ω

24
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
Example 8.5
Solution
Second, To find 𝑽 𝑇ℎ , consider the circuit in below Fig.

10∠00
𝑉𝑇ℎ = × 8 − 6𝑗 = 7,454∠ −10,30 𝑉
4 + 8 − 6𝑗
The load impedance draws the maximum power when
∗
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑇ℎ = 2,933 − 𝑗4,467 (Ω)
The maximum average power is
1 𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 7,4542
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 2,368 𝑊
8 𝑅𝑇ℎ 8 × 2,933 25
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
Problem 8.5
For the circuit shown in below Fig., find the load impedance 𝒁𝐿
that absorbs the maximum average power. Calculate that
maximum average power.

26
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
Example 8.6
In the circuit in below Fig., find the value of 𝑍𝐿 and 𝑅𝐿 that will
absorb the maximum average power. Calculate that power.

a) General impedance load b) Purely resistive load

27
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
Example 8.6
Solution
We first find the Thevenin equivalent at the terminals

𝑍𝑇ℎ = 40 − 𝑗30 ||𝑗20 = 9,412 + 𝑗22,35 Ω

20𝑗
𝑉𝑇ℎ = × 150∠300 = 72,76∠1340 𝑉
40 − 𝑗30 + 𝑗20
28
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
Example 8.6
Solution
For the situation of general impedance load, the value of Z𝐿 that
will absorb the maximum average power is
∗
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑇ℎ = 20 = 9,412 − 𝑗22,35 (Ω)
The maximum average power is
1 𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 72,762
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 70,3 𝑊
8 𝑅𝑇ℎ 8 × 9,412
For the situation of purely resistive load, the value of R 𝐿 that will
absorb the maximum average power is
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑍𝑇ℎ = 9,4122 + 22,352 = 24,25 (Ω)
The maximum average power is
1 𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 1 𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 2
𝑅𝐿 = 2
2 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑋𝑇ℎ + 𝑋𝐿 2 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 2 + 𝑋𝑇ℎ
1 72,762 × 24,25
= 2 2
= 39,3 (𝑊)
2 9,412 + 24,25 + −22,35 29
8.2 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
Problem 8.6
In below Fig., the resistor 𝑅𝐿 is adjusted until it absorbs the
maximum average power. Calculate 𝑅𝐿 and the maximum average
power absorbed by it.

30
8.3 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE
The idea of effective value arises from the need to measure the
effectiveness of a voltage or current source in delivering power to
a resistive load.
The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that
delivers the same average power to a resistor as the periodic
current.

31
8.3 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE
Our objective is to find 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 that will transfer the same power to
resistor 𝑅 as the sinusoid 𝑖. The average power absorbed by the
resistor in the ac circuit is
1 𝑇2 𝑅 𝑇2
𝑃 = න 𝑖 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑇 0
while the power absorbed by the resistor in the dc circuit is
2
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅
So that,
1 𝑇2
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = න 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑇 0
The effective value of the voltage is found in the same way as
current; that is,
1 𝑇 2
𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 = න 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑇 0
32
8.3 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE
For the sinusoid 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡, the effective or rms value is
1 𝑇 2
𝑋𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑋𝑚 cos 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
2 𝑇
𝑋𝑚 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑋𝑚
= න 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 0 2 2
Keep in mind that above equations are only valid for sinusoidal
signals.
The average power can be written in terms of the rms values
1 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
2 2 2
= 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
Similarly, the average power absorbed by a resistor 𝑅 can be
written as
2
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ×𝑅 = 33
𝑅
8.3 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE
Example 8.7
Determine the rms value of the current waveform in Fig. If the
current is passed through a 2Ω resistor, find the average power
absorbed by the resistor
5𝑡, 0<𝑡<2
𝑖 𝑡 =ቊ
−10, 2<𝑡<4
Solution
The rms value is
1 𝑇2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

1 2 4
1 2 4
= න 5𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 + න −10 𝑑𝑡 = 3
25𝑡 ቚ + 100𝑡 ቚ = 8,165 𝐴
4 0 2 4 0 2

The power absorbed by a 2Ω resistor is

2 𝑅 = 8,1652 × 2 = 133,3 (𝑊)
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
34
8.3 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE
Problem 8.7
Find the rms value of the current (A) waveform of below Fig. If
the current flows through a 9Ω resistor, calculate the average
power absorbed by the resistor.

35
8.3 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE
Example 8.8
The waveform shown in Fig. is a half-wave rectified sine wave.
Find the rms value and the amount of average power dissipated in
a 10Ω resistor.

36
8.3 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE
Example 8.8
Solution
The period of the voltage waveform is 𝑇 = 2𝜋, and
10 sin 𝑡 , 0<𝑡<𝜋
𝑣 𝑡 =ቊ
0, 𝜋 < 𝑡 < 2𝜋
The rms value is obtained as
𝑇 𝜋 2𝜋
1
2 = න 𝑣 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 න 10 sin 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 + න 02 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 𝜋
But, sin2 𝑡 = 1 − cos 2𝑡 /2
𝜋
2
1 100 50 sin 2𝑡 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 1 − cos 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡− ቚ = 25
2𝜋 0 2 2𝜋 2 0
⟹ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 5 𝑉
The average power absorbed is
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 52
𝑃= = = 2,5 𝑊
𝑅 10
37
8.3 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE
Problem 8.8
Find the rms value of the full-wave rectified sine wave in Fig.
Calculate the average power dissipated in a 6Ω resistor.

38
8.4 APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR
In previous section, we saw that if the voltage and current at the
terminals of a circuit are
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 ) and 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 )
The average power is
1
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
2
Set 𝑺𝒎 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 , we have 𝑷 = 𝑺𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊
𝑺 is known as the apparent power, and 𝑝𝑓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 is
called the power factor
The apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values of
voltage and current
The power factor is dimensionless, since it is the ratio of the
average power to the apparent power
𝑃
𝑝𝑓 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
𝑆𝑚
The angle 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 is called the power factor angle
39
8.4 APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR
If 𝑽 is the voltage across the load 𝒁 and 𝑰 is the current through
it. This is evident from the fact that
𝑉 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑣 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍= = = ∠ 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = ∠ 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
𝐼 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑖 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between
voltage and current. It is also the cosine of the angle of the load
impedance.
𝑽 𝟐
𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑺𝒎 𝒑𝒇 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒑𝒇 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑹𝒆 𝒁 = 𝒑𝟐𝒇
𝑹𝒆 𝒁

Example 8.9
A series-connected load draws a current 𝑖(𝑡) = 4 cos(100𝜋𝑡 +
100 ) (𝐴) when the applied voltage is 𝑣 𝑡 = 120 cos(100𝜋𝑡 −
200 ) 𝑉 . Find the apparent power and the power factor of the
load. Determine the element values that form the series-
connected load. 40
8.4 APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR
Example 8.9
Solution
The apparent power is
120 4
𝑆𝑚 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 240 𝑉𝐴
2 2
The power factor is
𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = cos −200 − 100 = 0,866
The load impedance 𝒁
𝑉 120∠ −200 0
𝑍= = 0
= 30∠ −30 = 25 3 − 𝑗15 Ω
𝐼 4∠10
The power factor can be obtained from 𝑍 as
𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃𝑍 = cos −300 = 0,866

41
8.4 APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR
Example 8.9
Solution
The load impedance 𝒁 can be modeled by a 25 3 Ω resistor in
series with a capacitor with 𝑍𝐶 = −𝑗15 Ω
𝑍 = 25 3 − 𝑗15 Ω = 𝑅 + 𝑍𝐶 Ω
So that,
1 1 1
𝐶= = = 𝐹 = 212,2 𝜇𝐹
𝑗𝜔𝑍𝐶 𝑗100𝜋 × −𝑗15 1500𝜋

Problem 8.9
Obtain the power factor and the apparent power of a load whose
impedance is 𝒁 = 60 + 𝑗40 (Ω) when the applied voltage is 𝑣 𝑡 =
155,56 cos(377𝑡 + 100 ) 𝑉.

42
8.4 APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR
Example 8.10
Determine the power factor of the entire circuit of below Fig. as
seen by the source. Calculate the average power delivered by the
source.

Solution
The total impedance is
𝑍 = 6 + (−𝑗2| 4 = 6,8 − 𝑗1,6 = 7∠ −13.240 Ω
The power factor is
𝑝𝑓 = cos −13,240 = 0,9734
43
8.4 APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR
Example 8.10

Solution
Since the impedance is capacitive. The rms value of the current
is
𝑉 30 2∠00 0
𝐼= = 0
= 6,061∠13,24 𝐴
𝑍 7∠ −13,24
The average power supplied by the source is
1 1
𝑃𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑝𝑓 = 30 2 × 6,061 × 0,9734 = 125 (𝑊)
2 2
The average power absorbed by the circuit is
1 2 1 1 𝑉 2
𝑚
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑒 𝑍 = 6,061 2 × 6,8 = 125 𝑊 = 𝑝𝑓2
2 2 2 𝑅𝑒 𝑍 44
8.4 APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR
Problem 8.10
Calculate the power factor of the entire circuit of below Fig. as
seen by the source. What is the average power supplied by the
source?

45
8.5 COMPLEX POWER
Consider the ac load in below Fig. Given the phasor form 𝐕 =
𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑣 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 ∠𝜃𝑣 and 𝑰 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑖 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 ∠𝜃𝑖 of voltage
𝑣(𝑡) and current 𝑖(𝑡), the complex power 𝑺 absorbed by the ac
load is the product of the voltage and the complex conjugate of
the current, or
1 ∗
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠ 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
2
= 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑗𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 sin 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
The load impedance 𝒁 may be written as
𝑉 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍= = ∠ 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝐼 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
Thus, 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑍 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 , and
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑅= cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 ; 𝑋 = sin 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 𝑅 𝑊
𝑃 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑆 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑟𝑠
𝑆 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠ 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
= 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 2 𝑋 (𝑉𝐴𝑅)
𝑄 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑆 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 sin 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 46
8.5 COMPLEX POWER
Complex power (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage phasor
and the complex conjugate of the rms current phasor. As a
complex quantity, its real part is real power 𝑃 and its imaginary
part is reactive power 𝑄.
• 𝑄 = 0: Resistive loads (unity 𝑝𝑓 ).
• 𝑄 < 0 for capacitive loads (leading 𝑝𝑓 ).
• 𝑄 > 0 for inductive loads (lagging 𝑝𝑓 ).
2
1 ∗ 2 𝑍 =
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Complex Power: 𝑆 = 𝑄 + 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 𝑍∗
= 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠ 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
Apparent Power: 𝑆𝑚 = 𝑆 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2
Real Power: 𝑃 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑆𝑚 𝑝𝑓
Reactive Power: 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
𝑃
Power Factor: 𝑝𝑓 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
𝑆𝑚 47
8.5 COMPLEX POWER
It is a standard practice to represent S, P, and Q in the form of a
triangle, known as the power triangle, shown in below Fig. This is
similar to the impedance triangle showing the relationship
between Z, R, and X.

48
8.5 COMPLEX POWER
Example 8.11
The voltage across a load is 𝑣(𝑡) = 60 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 100 ) 𝑉 and the
current through the element in the direction of the voltage drop is
𝑖 𝑡 = 1,5 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 500 ) 𝐴. Find: (a) the complex and apparent
powers, (b) the real and reactive powers, and (c) the power factor
and the load impedance.
Solution
a) For the rms values of the voltage and current, we write
60 0
1,5
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∠ −10 ; 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∠ 500
2 2
The complex power is
1 ∗ 1
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 = 60∠ −100 1,5∠ 500 = 45∠ −600 𝑉𝐴
2 2
The apparent power is
𝑆𝑚 = 𝑆 = 45 𝑉𝐴
49
8.5 COMPLEX POWER
Example 8.11
Solution
b) We can express the complex power in rectangular form as
𝑆 = 45∠ −600 = 45[cos −600 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 −600 ]
= 22,5 − 𝑗38,97(𝑉𝐴)
Since 𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄, the real power is 𝑃 = 22,5𝑊
while the reactive power is 𝑄 = −38,97 𝑉𝐴𝑅
c) The power factor is
𝑝𝑓 = cos −600 = 0,5 (leading)
It is leading, because the reactive power is negative. The load
impedance is
𝑉 60∠ −100 0 Ω
𝑍= = = 40∠ −60
𝐼 1,5∠500
which is a capacitive impedance

50
8.5 COMPLEX POWER
Problem 8.11
For a load, 𝑉(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 110∠850 𝑉, 𝐼(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 3∠150 𝐴. Determine:
(a) The complex and apparent powers.
(b) The real and reactive powers.
(c) The power factor and the load impedance.

51
8.5 COMPLEX POWER
Example 8.12
A load 𝒁 draws 12 𝑘𝑉𝐴 at a power factor of 0,856 lagging from a
120𝑉 𝑟𝑚𝑠 sinusoidal source. Calculate: (a) the average and
reactive powers delivered to the load, (b) the peak current, and (c)
the load impedance.
Solution
a) Given that 𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃 = 0,856, we obtain the power angle as
𝜃 = cos −1 0.856 = 31.130 . If the apparent power is 𝑆𝑚 =
12000 𝑉𝐴, then the average or real power is
𝑃 = 𝑆𝑚 cos 𝜃 = 12000 × 0,856 = 10,272 𝑘𝑊
while the reactive power is
𝑄 = 𝑆𝑚 sin 𝜃 = 12000 × 0.517 = 6,204 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
b) Since the 𝑝𝑓 is lagging, the complex power is
𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 10,272 + 𝑗6,204 𝑘𝑉𝐴

52
8.5 COMPLEX POWER
Example 8.12
A load 𝒁 draws 12 𝑘𝑉𝐴 at a power factor of 0,856 lagging from a
120𝑉 𝑟𝑚𝑠 sinusoidal source. Calculate: (a) the average and
reactive powers delivered to the load, (b) the peak current, and (c)
the load impedance.
Solution
From 𝑆 = 0,5 𝑉𝐼 ∗ , we obtain
∗
2𝑆 2(10272 + 𝑗6204)
𝐼 = = = 121 + 𝑗73 = 100 2∠31,130 𝐴
𝑉 120 2∠00
⟹ 𝐼 = 100 2∠ −31,130 𝐴
Thus the peak current is
𝐼𝑚 = 100 2 = 141,4 A
c) The load impedance
𝑉 120 2∠00
𝑍= = = 1,2∠31,130 Ω
𝐼 100 2∠ −31,130
which is an inductive impedance. 53
8.5 COMPLEX POWER
Problem 8.12
A sinusoidal source supplies 100 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅 reactive power to load
𝒁 = 250∠ −750 Ω. Determine:
(a) the power factor,
(b) the apparent power delivered to the load
(c) the rms voltage.

54
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
The principle of conservation of power applies to ac circuits as
well as to dc circuits.

Two load impedances 𝒁1 and 𝒁2 are connected in parallel

across an ac source 𝑽. KCL gives
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
The complex power supplied by the source is (from now on,
unless otherwise specified, all values of voltages and currents will
be assumed to be rms values)
1 ∗ 1 ∗ ∗
1 ∗ 1 ∗
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝑉𝐼1 + 𝑉𝐼2 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 55
2 2 2 2
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
The principle of conservation of power applies to ac circuits as
well as to dc circuits.

If the loads are connected in series with the voltage source, as

shown in above Fig., KVL yields
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
The complex power supplied by the source is
1 ∗ 1 1 1
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝐼 = 𝑉1 𝐼 + 𝑉2 𝐼 ∗ = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2
∗ ∗
2 2 2 2
Where 𝑺1 and 𝑺2 denote the complex powers delivered to loads
𝒁1 and 𝒁2 , respectively 56
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
Example 8.13
Below figure shows a load being fed by a voltage source
through a transmission line. The impedance of the line is
represented by the (4 + 𝑗2) Ω impedance and a return path. Find
the real power and reactive power absorbed by:
(a) the source,
(b) the line, and
(c) the load.

57
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
Example 8.13
Solution

The total impedance is

𝑍 = 4 + 𝑗2 + 15 − 𝑗10 = 19 − 𝑗8 = 20,62∠ −22,830 Ω
The current through the circuit is
𝑉𝑆 220 2∠00 0 𝐴
𝐼= = = 15,09∠22,83
𝑍 20,62∠ −22,830
a) For the source, the complex power is
𝑆𝑠 = 0,5𝑉𝑠 𝐼 ∗ = 0,5 220 2∠00 15,09∠ −22,830
= 2347,4∠ −22,830 = 2163 − 𝑗910,8 𝑉𝐴
From this, we obtain the real power as 2163.5 𝑊 and 58
the
reactive power as 910.8 𝑉𝐴𝑅 (leading).
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
Example 8.13
Solution

b) For the line, the voltage is

𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 4 + 𝑗2 𝐼 = 4,472∠26,570 15,09∠22,830
= 67,48∠49,40 𝑉
The complex power absorbed by the line is
𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0,5 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐼 ∗ = 0,5 67,48∠49,40 15,09∠22,830
= 509,2∠26,570 = 455,4 + 𝑗227,7 (𝑉𝐴)
Or
𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0,5 𝐼 2 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0,5 15,09 2 4 + 𝑗2 = 455,4 + 𝑗227,7 (𝑉𝐴)
That is, the real power is 455,4 𝑊 and the reactive power is
59
227,76 𝑉𝐴𝑅 (lagging).
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
Example 8.13
Solution

c) For the load, the voltage is

𝑉𝐿 = 15 − 𝑗10 𝐼 = 18,03∠ −33,70 15,09∠22,830
= 272,07∠ −10,870 𝑉
The complex power absorbed by the load is
𝑆𝐿 = 0,5𝑉𝐿 𝐼 ∗ = 0,5 272,07∠ −10,870 15,09∠ −22,830
= 2053∠ −33,70 = 1708 − 𝑗1139 𝑉𝐴
The real power is 1708 𝑊 and the reactive power is
1139 𝑉𝐴𝑅 (leading). Note that 𝑺𝑠 = 𝑺𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑺𝐿 , as expected. We
have used the rms values of voltages and currents 60
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
Problem 8.13
In the circuit in below Fig., the 60Ω resistor absorbs an average
power of 240 𝑊. Find 𝑽 and the complex power of each branch of
the circuit. What is the overall complex power of the circuit?
(Assume the current through the 60Ω resistor has no phase shift.)

61
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
Example 8.14
In the circuit of below Fig., 𝒁1 = 60∠ −300 Ω and 𝒁2 =
40∠450 Ω. Calculate the total:
(a)apparent power
(b)real power
(c) reactive power,
(d) 𝑝𝑓 , supplied by the source and seen by the source.

62
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
Example 8.14
Solution

The current through 𝒁1 is

𝑉 120∠100 0 𝐴 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼1 = = = 2∠ −40
𝑍1 60∠ −300
while the current through 𝒁2 is
𝑉 120∠100 0
𝐼2 = = 0
= 3∠ −35 𝐴 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍2 40∠45
The complex powers absorbed by the impedances are
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 1202
𝑆1 = ∗ = = 240∠ −300 = 207,85 − 𝑗120 𝑉𝐴
𝑍1 60∠300
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 1202 0
𝑆2 = ∗ = 0
= 360∠45 = 254,6 + 𝑗254,6 (𝑉𝐴)
𝑍2 40∠ −45
63
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
Example 8.14
Solution

The total complex power is

𝑆𝑡 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 = 462,4 + 𝑗134,6 (𝑉𝐴)
a) The total apparent power is
𝑆𝑡 = 462,42 + 134,62 = 481,6 𝑉𝐴
b) The total real power is
𝑃 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑆𝑡 = 462,4 𝑊
c) The total reactive power is
𝑄𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑆𝑡 = 134,6 𝑉𝐴𝑅
d) The power factor:
𝑃𝑡 462,4
𝑝𝑓 = = = 0,96
𝑆𝑡 481,6 64
8.6 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER
Problem 8.14
Two loads connected in parallel are respectively 3 𝑘𝑊 at a 𝑝𝑓 of
0,75 leading and 6 𝑘𝑊 at a 𝑝𝑓 of 0,95 lagging. Calculate the pf of
the combined two loads. Find the complex power supplied by the
source.

65