POLYNOMIALS:

A polynomial in x a variable is an algebraic expression containing the sum of

terms of the form ax n where a is a constant called the coefficient of x n and n is
strictly a natural number (including a zero).
The terms may be arranged systematically in either ascending or
descending powers of x with the highest power of x defining the degree of the
polynomial.

Thus a polynomial of degree n is of the form below,

n (n−1) (n−2) 2 1
P ( x )=a 0 x +a1 x +a 2 x +⋯ ⋯⋯+ an−2 x +a n−1 x +an .
This is in descending powers of n.

OR
2 n−2 n−1 n
P ( x )=a 0+ a1 x +a 2 x +⋯⋯ ⋯+ an−2 x +a n−1 x + an x .
This is in ascending powers of n.

Where a 0 ≠ 0, a 0 , a1 , a2 ⋯⋯ , an are constants and n is a positive integer. The highest

power is called the degree of the polynomial.

BELOW ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF POLYNOMIALS.

1. P ( x )=7 x−5. Is a polynomial of degree 1.

2
2. P ( x )=5 x +11 x +2. Is a polynomial of degree 2.
3 2
3. P ( x )=8 x −4 x +6 x +7 . Is a polynomial of degree 3.
4 3 2
4. P ( x )=6 x +14 x −9 x −7 x +3. Is a polynomial of degree 4.
5. ……………. E.t.c
3 2 3
BUT. P ( x )=8 x −6 x + 5+ x is not a polynomial since not all powers of x are
3
positive integers or zero. i.e, the power of n in the term x is – 1 .

Note:
It is not a must to have all the terms with the ascending or descending
degrees of x without a skip.e.g. P ( x )=9 x 4 + 4 x 2−10. Is a valid polynomial, this
implies P ( x )=9 x 4 +0 x 3 +4 x 2 +0 x−10.

Polynomials of low degree have special names. Some polynomials with defined
names are represented in the table below;
 Degree(n) Name of the polynomial Expression
1 Linear a o x +a 1
2
2 Quadratic a 0 x +a1 x+ a2
3 2
3 Cubic a 0 x +a1 x + a2 x + a3
4 3 2
4 Quartic a 0 x + a1 x +a 2 x + a3 x+ a4
5 4 3 2
5 Quintic a 0 x +a1 x +a 2 x +a3 x + a4 x +a5

LONG DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS

A polynomial of degree n can be divided by another polynomial of degree m if

m ≤n . This is done by manipulating the coefficients of the polynomial and the
divisor, the involved polynomials may be expressed in the form in which the
powers of the variable decrease stepwise. (decreasing powers of x).

The division may leave a remainder, however if no remainder is left, the

dividing polynomial is called a factor of the other one.

Example from normal numbers.

Perform the division, 258 ÷ 13

258 11
This implies that; =19+ and so the number 258 can be written,
13 13
258=( 19× 13 ) +11

Thus;
258=number , 19=Quotient ,13=Divisor∧11=remainder .

In polynomial division its done in pretty much the same way, as the following
example shows.

Example

Perform the following divisions stating the quotients and remainders.

 1. Divide 8 x 3−4 x 2+6 x +7 by ( x−1 )

` Therefore; Quotient=8 x 2 + 4 x+10∧remainder=17

2. Divide 2 x 6−3 x 4−5 by x 2−3

4 2
Quotient=2 x +3 x +9∧Remainder =22

From the above examples, its clear that a polynomial P(x) can be expressed as
Polynomial=Quotient × Divisor+remainder .

Note: The main objective of long division is for obtaining the quotient and
remainder.

EXERCISE 1.

1. Divide the following polynomials by the given divisors using long division;
(a) 2 x3 + 9 x 2−4 x−21 by 2 x−3
(b) 2 x3 +3 x 2 +17 x+ 16 by x 2 +5
(c) 6 x 4 +14 x 3−9 x 2−7 x +3 by ( 2 x2 −1 )
(d) 2 x5 +2 x 4 +2 x 3+ 3 x 2−29 x +15 by x 2 + x−3
 (e) 5
x + x−9 by x+1

2. By long division, find the quotient and remainder when the following
divisions are performed.
(a) 4 x3 −5 x + 4 divided by 2 x−1
(b) x 3−2 x 2+5 x +8 by x−2
(c) 4 3 2
x + x +7 x−3 by x −x +3
(d) x 4 +2 x 3+ 10 x 2 +13 x+ 11÷ x 3 + x 2+ x+1.

THE REMAINDER THEOREM

Suppose P(x ) is the polynomial, Q(x ) the quotient, D( x ) the divisor when R(x )
is the remainder, then the polynomial may be expressed as;
Polynomial=Quotient × Divisor+remainder i.e

P (x) R(x )
∴ P ( x ) =Q ( x ) × D ( x )+ R (x) or =Q ( x )+
D( x) D(x )

In particular, if D ( x )=x−α , the above expression then becomes,

P ( x )=Q ( x ) ∙ ( x −α )+ R (x)

When x−α =0, this implies that x=α and so,

P ( α )=Q ( α ) ∙ 0+ R(α )

Thus; P ( α )=R(α )

Hence the remainder theorem states:

When a polynomial P ( x ) is divided by x−α , the remainder is P(α )

Note.
The value of x substituted for is obtained by equating x−α to
zero.
−b
Thus if P(x ) is divided by ax +b , then the remainder is P a . ( )
EXAMPLES.

1. Find the remainder when 2 x3 +7 x 2−5 x−4 is divided by;

 1
(i) x−3 (ii) x +3 (iii) 2 x+1 (iv) x−5
3

Solutions.
(i) x−3
3 2
Let P ( x )=2 x +7 x −5 x−4
x−3=0❑ x=3 , then by the remainder theorem
⇒

R ( α )=P(α )
3 2
R ( 3 )=P ( 3 ) =2(3) + 7(3) −5(3)−4
¿ 98
The remainder is therefore = 98

(ii) x +3
x +3=0❑ x=−3
⇒
3 2
R (−3 )=2(−3) +7 (−3) −5(−3)−4
¿ 20

(iii) 2 x+1
−1
2 x+1=0❑ x=
⇒ 2

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
−1 −1 −1 −1
R =2 +7 −5 −4
2 2 2 2
¿0
1
(iv) x−5
3
1
x−5=0❑ x =15
3 ⇒
3 2
R ( 15 )=2 (15) +7 (15) −5(15)−4
¿ 8246
2. Find the remainder when x 3 +3 x 2 +5 x +8 is divided by;
3
(i) x−2 (ii) 2 x+5 (iii) x (iv) x+ 6
4
THE FACTOR THEOREM

Suppose when x−α divides P(x ) exactly , then there is no remainder implying that
x−α is a factor of P(x ). So when R ( x )=0, the polynomial may be expressed as;

P ( x)
P ( x )=(x−α )∙ Q(x ) or =Q( x )
x−α

If x=α , then; P ( α )=0 ×Q(α ), therefore,

P ( α )=0.

Hence the factor theorem states:

If P ( α )=0, then (x−α ) is a factor of P ( x ) and conversely: If

(x−α ) is a factor, then P ( α )=0.

EXAMPLES.

1. Show that x−1 is a factor of x 3 + x 2−x−1

Solution
Let P ( x )=x 3+ x 2−x −1
For x−1=0❑ ⇒
x=1
3 2
P ( 1 )=1 +1 −1−1
¿ 2−2
¿0
Since P ( 1 )=0, (the remainder is zero) thus x−1 is a factor of
3 2
x + x −x−1
2. Show that 2 x3 + x 2−13 x +6 is divisible by ( x−2 ) .
Solution
3 2
Let P ( x )=2 x + x −13 x +6
For x−2=0❑ x=2
⇒
3 2
P ( 2 )=2(2) +2 −13 ( 2 ) +6
¿0
Since P ( 2 )=0 , 2 x3 + x 2−13 x +6 is divisible by ( x−2 ) .

3. Show that ( x−2 ) is a factor of 4 x3 −9 x 2−16 x+36 . Hence factorise the

polynomial completely.
 Solution
3 2
Let P ( x )=4 x −9 x −16 x +36
For x−2=0❑ x=2
⇒
3
P ( 2 )=4(2) −9 ¿
¿ 32−36−32+36
¿0
∴ ( x−2 ) is a factor of P(x)
By long division

4 x3 −9 x 2−16 x+36=( x−2 ) ( 4 x 2−x−18 )

¿ ( x−2 ) ( x+ 2 )( 4 x−9 )

4. Find the value of a if 8 x 3−12 x2 −4 x +a is divisible by 2 x−1.

Solution
Let P ( x )=8 x 3−12 x 2−4 x +a
1
2 x−1=0 ❑ x=
⇒ 2
1
By the factor theorem, P 2 =0, () ∴

() () ()
3 2
1 1 1
8 −12 −4 + a=0
2 2 2
1−3−2+a=0
Hence a=4 .

5. The expression 2 x3 + p x 2+ qx−14 is divisible by x−2, but leaves a remainder

of −125 when divided by x +3. Find the values of p and q.
 Solution
Let P ( x )=2 x 3 + p x 2+ qx−14 and x +3=0❑ x=−3
⇒
x−2=0❑ x=2 By the remainder theorem
⇒

By factor theorem P (−3 )=−125

3 2
P ( x )=0 ∴ 2(−3) + p (−3) +q (−3 ) −14=−125
3 2
∴ 2(2) + p ( 2 ) +q (2 )−14=0 −54+ 9 p−3 q−14=−125
16+ 4 p+2 q−14=0 9 p−3 q=−57 ⋯ ⋯ [ 2 ]

8+2 p+q−7=0 ∴ 9 p−3 (−2 p−1 ) =−57

i.e q=−2 p−1 ⋯ ⋯ [ 1 ] 9 p+6 p+3=−57
15 p=−60
i.e p=−4
and q=−2 (−4 )−1=7
∴ p=−4∧q=7

EXERCISE 2
1. Find the value of k if x 3 + x 2+ ax+ 8 is divisible by ( x−1 ). Hence factorise the
polynomial completely.
2. The polynomials x 3 +4 x 2−2 x +1 and x 3 +3 x 2−x +7 leave the same remainder
when divided by x−q . Find the possible values of q.
3. Find the values of a in the expression below when the following conditions
are satisfied x 3 + x 2−2 ax+ a2 has remainder 8 when divided by x−2.
4. Write down an expression of the form x 3 +ax 2+ bx+ c which gives a remainder
4 when divided by x , x−2 and x +3.
5. The expression x 7−ax 3 +b is divisible by x−1 without a remainder, but has a
remainder 8 when divided by x−2. Find the values of a and b and the
remainder when the expression is divided by x +2.
6. The remainder when 2 x3 + ax 2−6 x+ 1 is divided by x +2 is thrice the remainder
obtained when the same expression is divided by x−1. Find the value of a.
7. Three of the factors of the polynomial x 4 + ax3 +bx 2 + x +c are x , x +1 and x−1.
Find the values of a, b and c. Hence find the remaining factor and factorise
the polynomial completely.
8. Find the values of a and b such that x 2+ 4 x +3 is a factor of
x −9 x +ax +b .
7 5

9. The expression b+ ax−4 x 2+8 x 3 gives a remainder of – 19 when divided by

x +1 and a remainder of 2 when divided by 2 x−1. Find the values of a and b.
 10.The polynomial ax 3−23 x 2 +bx +c has a remainder of 11 when divided by x−3
and remainder of – 21 when divided by x +1 and x−2 is a factor. Find the
values of a, b and c.
11.The remainder when 2 x3 + p x 2+ kx +1 is divided by x−2 is twice the remainder
when divided by x−1. If x +1 is a factor of the polynomial, find the values of
p and k.
12.A quadratic polynomial is divisible by 2 x−1, has a remainder – 1 when
divided by x +1 and has a remainder 2 when divided by x +2. Find the
polynomial.
13.A cubic polynomial has the highest power having a coefficient of 2. Given
that x−1 and x−2 are its factors and the polynomial leaves a remainder 2
when divided by x +1. Find the polynomial in factor form.
14.When a polynomial P(x) is divided by 2 x+1 the remainder is 3 and the
quotient is x 2−x +4 . Find P(x).

REMAINDER THEOREM WHEN p(x) IS NOT GIVEN

Sometimes p(x) is not given when the objective is to find the remainder
whose form depends on the divisor involved. Important to note that when
the divisor is of any degree ( but less than or equal to the one of P(x) ),
then the remainder is of degree less by one. Therefore if P(x) is divided by a
factor D(x), the remainder R(x) is of the form in the table below.

Degree, n of P(x) Divisor, D(x) Remainder, R(x)

n≥1 ax +b A
n≥2 2
a x +bx +c Ax+ B
n≥3 3 2
ax +bx +cx +d
2
Ax + Bx+C

Correspondingly using the rule P ( x ) ≡ D ( x ) ∙Q ( x )+ R ( x), the resulting

identities become;
P ( x ) ≡ ( ax+ b ) ∙Q ( x ) + A
P ( x ) ≡ ( ax 2+ bx+ c ) ∙ Q(x )+ Ax +B
P ( x ) ≡ ( a x 3+ b x2 +cx + d ) ∙ Q(x )+ Ax 2+ Bx +C

Examples
1. When a polynomial P(x) is divided by x−2 the remainder is 4, and when
divided by x−3 the remainder is 7. Find the remainder when P(x) is divided by
( x−2 ) ( x−3 ) .
Solution
x−2=0 ❑ ⇒
x=2 and x−3=0❑ x=3
⇒

So by the remainder theorem

R ( 2 )=P ( 2 )=4 and R ( 3 )=P ( 3 ) =7
When the divisor is ( x−2 ) ( x−3 ) which is quadratic, the
remainder is linear. As in the table above. Thus,
Let R ( x )= Ax+ B, then R ( 2 )=2 A+ B and R ( 3 )=3 A+ B
Therefore; 2 A + B=4 ⋯[1]
3 A + B=7 ⋯[2]
[ 2 ] −[1]: A=3 and B=−2.
Hence the remainder is ¿ 3 x−2.

Alternatively
x−2=0 ❑
⇒
x=2 and x−3=0❑ x=3
⇒

So by remainder theorem P ( 2 )=4 and P ( 3 )=7

Let P ( x )=( x−2 ) ( x−3 ) Q ( x ) + Ax+ B
∴ P (2 )=2 A +B and P ( 3 )=3 A+ B
Thus 2 A + B=4 ⋯[1]
3 A + B=7 ⋯[2]
On solving equations (1) and (2), we obtain, A=3 , B=−2
Hence the remainder is¿ 3 x−2.

2. When a polynomial f(x) is divided by x + 1, x – 2 and x + 2 the remainders are

6, 3 and 15 respectively. Find the remainder when f(x) is divided by
( x +1 ) ( x−2 )( x +2 ) .
Solution
x +1=0 ❑ x=−1 , x−2=0❑ x=2 and x +2=0 ❑ x=−2
⇒ ⇒ ⇒

∴ By the remainder theorem (−1 )=6 , f ( 2 )=3 and f (−2 )=15.

Since the divisor ( x +1 ) ( x−2 )( x +2 ) is cubic, the remainder is quadratic i.e,

2
Let f ( x ) ≡ ( x +1 ) ( x −2 )( x +2 ) ∙Q ( x ) + A x + Bx+C
∴ f (−1 )=A−B+C , f ( 2 )=4 A +2 B+C and f (−2 )=4 A−2 B +C
Therefore; A−B+ C=6 ⋯ ⋯[1]
4 A +2 B+C=3 ⋯ ⋯[2]
 4 A−2 B+C=15 ⋯ ⋯[3]
[ 2 ] −[3] : 4 B=−12 ∴ B=−3
[ 2 ] −[1]: 3 A +3 B=−3
A+ B=−1 ∴ A−3=−1 i.e A=2
[ 2 ] +[3]: 8 A+2 C=18
4 A +C=9 ∴ 8+C=9 i.e C=1
Hence when f(x) is divided by ( x +1 ) ( x−2 )( x +2 ) , the remainder is 2 x 2−3 x +1.

3. The polynomial P(x) is divisible by ( x−1 ) ( x−2 ), but leaves a remainder 8 when
divided by ( x +3 ). Find the remainder when the polynomial is divided by
( x−1 ) ( x+ 3 ).

Solution
Since ( x−1 ) ( x+ 3 ) is quadratic, the remainder is linear (i.e. Ax+ B)
Let P ( x )=( x−1 ) ( x−2 ) Q 1 ( x ) ⋯ ⋯[1]
P ( x )=( x−1 ) ( x+3 ) Q2 ( x )+ Ax +B ⋯ ⋯[2]
Consider P(1) from x−1=0 since its common and P(-3) from x +3=0.
From [1]: P ( 1 )=0
and from [2]: P ( 1 )= A+ B
∴ A + B=0 ⋯ ⋯[3]
Now when P(x) is divided by ( x +3 ), the remainder is 8
∴ P (−3 )=8
and from [2]: P (−3 )=−3 A+ B
∴−3 A+ B=8 ⋯ ⋯[4 ]
[ 3 ] −[4] : 4 A=−8 ∴ A=−2 and B=2

Therefore the remainder when P(x) is divided by ( x−1 ) ( x+ 3 ) is¿ 2−2 x .

4. Show that if a polynomial P(x) is divided by ( x−α ) ( x−β ) where α ≠ β , the

remainder is .
Solution
As the divisor is quadratic, the remainder is linear in x.
Suppose Q(x) is the quotient and the remainder, R(x) = Ax + B, then
f ( x )= ( x −α )( x−β ) Q ( x ) + Ax+ B now βf ( α )=αβA + βB ⋯[3]
∴ f ( α )=αA +B ⋯[1] and αf ( β ) =αβA +αB ⋯[4 ]
and f ( β )= βA+ B ⋯[2] Thus
[ 1 ] −[2]: gives [ 4 ] −[3] : gives
f ( α )−f ( β )=αA + B− ( βA+ B ) ; αf ( β ) −βf ( α )=αβA +αB−( αβA + βB )
¿ A ( α −β ) ¿ B ( α −β )
 f ( α )−f ( β) αf ( β )−βf (α )
i.e. A= and B=
α −β α −β

α≠β α =β
Hence for , the remainder is since if ,
then α −β=0 and so R(x) will be undefined or meaningless.

Exercise 2

1. The expression px 4 +qx 3 +3 x 2−2 x +3 has a remainder x +1 when divided by

x −3 x+ 2. Find the values of p and q.[ Ans : p=1 , q=−3 ]
2

2. If a polynomial P(x) is divided by ( x−3 ) the remainder is 4 and iif divided by

( x +2 ), the remainder is -7. Find the remainder when P(x) is divided by x 2−x−6 .

[ Ans :
11
5
x−
13
5 ]
3. When the expression x 3 +ax 2+ bx+ c is divided by x 2−4 , the remainder is 18−x and
when divided by x +3, the remainder is 21. Find the values of a, b, c and hence
obtain the remainder when the expression is divided by x +1.
[ Ans : a=3 , b=−5 , c=6 ; R=13 ]
4. A polynomial P(x) has a remainder 8 when divided by x – 2 and remainder 2
when divided by x + 1. Find the remainder when divided by x 2−x−2.
[ Ans :2 x +4 ]
5. When the polynomial x 3 +ax 2+ bx+ c is divided by x +3, the remainder is – 26 and
when divided by x 2−x−2, the remainder is 10 x+ 4 . Find the values of a, b and c.
[ Ans : a=2 , b=5 , c=−2 ]
6. When the polynomial P(x) is divided by x−2, the remainder is 11 and when
divided by x−3, the remainder is 16. Find the remainder when P(x) is divided
by ( x−2 ) ( x−3 ) . [ Ans :5 x +1 ]
3 2
7. Express the function f ( x )=2 x +3 x −5 in the form
f ( x )=( x2 −x+1 ) Q ( x )+ Ax +B where A and B are constants and Q(x) is a function of
x. Hence state the values of A and B and the function Q(x).
8. The polynomial P(x) is divisible by x 2−3 x+ 2, but leaves a remainder of – 24
when divided by x +3. Find the remainder when P(x) is divided by x 2+ 2 x−3 .
[ Ans : 6 x −6 ]
9. Given that x 5 +2 x 3 +3 x 2−5=( x3 +1 ) Q ( x )+ Ax 2+ Bx +C , where A, B and C are
constants and Q(x) is a function of x. Find the values of A, B and C and state the
function Q(x).
10. Given that f ( x )=x 5−6 x 4 +12 x 3−12 x 2+ 11 x−6. Using the factor theorem or
otherwise, obtain one cubic factor of f(x). Hence factorise f(x) completely.
11.The expression ax 4 + bx 3−x 2+ 2 x +3 has a remainder 3 x+ 5 when it is divided by
x −x−2. Evaluate a and b.
2
[ Ans : a=1 , b=−1 ]
12.If x + 1 is a factor of 3 x + x −4 x + px +q , find the values of p and q.
2 4 3 2

[ Ans : p=1 , q=−7 ]

13.If P(x) is a cubic polynomial such that P (−3 )=P (−1 )=P ( 2 ) =0 and P ( 0 )=6. Find
P(x).
14.If x 2−x +1 is a factor of the polynomial 2 x 4−3 x 3 + px 2 +qx −3, find the values of p
and q. [ Ans : p=0 , q=2 ]
15.Given that x 4 −6 x3 +10 x 2 +mx+n is a perfect square, find the values of m and n.
[ Ans : m=−3 , n=1/ 4 ]
16.Find the relationship between p, q and r so that x 3 +3 px 2 +qx +r shall be a perfect
cube for values of x.
17.Given that 4 x3 + kx 2+ px +2 is divisible by x 2+ λ2, prove that kp=8 .

SYNTHETIC DIVISION
The synthetic division method is used in finding the remainder when a
polynomial is being divided by a linear function of the form x + λ . It is also
called, the method of detached coefficients. The method is a summary of long
division.
Procedure:
 Extract the coefficients of P(x), let them be a 0 , a 1 , a2 , … … … , an .
 The first coefficient of the quotient is equal to a 0.
 The subsequent coefficients of Q(x) are obtained by manipulating a i with
λ to obtain the quotient and remainder.

Examples
1. Using synthetic division, find the quotient and remainder when
2 x +7 x −5 x−4 is divided by x +3.
3 2

Solution
Let x +3=0: ❑ x=−3
⇒

- 3

Quotient ¿ 2 x2 + x−8 and remainder ¿ 20

2. Find the quotient and remainder when 5 x 4 +8 x 2−10 x+ 3 is divided by x−5.

Solution
Let x−5=0: ❑ x=5
⇒

Quotient ¿ 5 x 3+ 25 x 2 +133 x+ 655 and remainder ¿ 3278

3. Find the quotient and remainder when x 6−5 x 3−3 x−24 is divided by x−3.
Solution
Let x−3=0: ❑ x=3
⇒

Quotient ¿ x 5+ 3 x 4+ 9 x3 +22 x 2+ 66 x+195 and

remainder ¿ 561

Exercise 3:
 1. Use the method of synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder
when the following divisions are performed;
(a) 3 x 2−2 x +5 by x +1
(b) x 4 −3 x 3 + 4 x 2−x+ 6 by x +2
(c) 3 2
x −2 x + 8 x−3 by x−5
(d) 4 x −4 x +5 x+ 33
3 2
by 2 x+3
(e) 15 x 3−11 x 2+ 22 x +3 by 5 x−2
(f) 5 4 3
3 x −x −6 x +11 x −1
2
by 3 x−1

POLYNOMIAL WITH REPEATED FACTORS/ REPEATED ROOTS:

For ( x−a )2 to be a factor of the polynomial P(x ), then; '

P ( a ) =P ( a )=0. i.e the
value of a satisfies the polynomial and its derivative.

The remainder when the root is repeated is then given by;

'
R ( x )=( x−a ) P ( a ) + P(a)

Proof :
If P(x ) has a repeated factor of ( x−a )2 so that,
2
P ( x )=( x−a ) ∙ Q ( x )
' 2 '
P ( x )= ( x −a ) Q (x)+2 ( x−a ) Q(x )…….(Differentiating)
¿ ( x−a ) ∙ {( x−a ) Q' ( x )+ 2Q( x) }
This shows that if P(x) has a repeated factor ( x−a ), then ( x−a ) is also a
factor of P' (x).

Examples

1. Find the remainder when the polynomial P ( x )=x 3−5 x+ 2 is divided by ( x−1 )2.
( x−2 )2=0❑ x=2 .
⇒
3
P ( x )=x −5 x+ 2 ∴ R ( x )=( x−1 ) (−2 ) + (−2 )
' 2
P ( x )=3 x −5 ¿−2 x +2−2
3
P ( 1 )=( 1 ) −5 ( 1 ) +2=−2 ¿−2 x
' 2
P ( 1 ) =3 ( 1 ) −5=−2
2. Given that P ( x )=x 4 +bx +c is divided by ( x−2 )2 find the values of b and c.
Solution
4
P ( x )=x +bx +c 16+2 b+ c=0 … [1]
' 3
P ( x )=4 x +b 32+b=0 … [2]
2
( x−2 ) =0❑ x=2 b=−32
⇒
4
P ( 2 )=( 2 ) + b ( 2 ) +c=0 16+2 (−32 ) +c=0
 ' 3
P ( 2 )=4 ( 2 ) + b −48+c=0
c=48
Exercise 4:
1. Given that x 3 +4 ax 2+ bx+3 is divisible by ( x−1 )2. Find the values of a and b.
1
[Ans: a= 4 , b=−5]

2. Find the remainder when the polynomial f ( x )=x 3−5 x +2 is divided by:
(i) 2
x +1 (ii) ( x−1 )2
[Ans: (i) 2−6 x (ii) −2 x ]

3. Without long division, determine the remainder when the polynomial

x −6 x +2 x +3 is divided by ( x−1 ) . [Ans: −12 x+12 ]
4 3 2

4. Given that the polynomial P ( x )=x 4−8 x 3 +10 x 2+ p has a repeated linear factor,
find the possible values of p. [Ans: −3 , 0 , 125]

5. If ( x +1 )2 is a factor of 2 x 4 +7 x 3+ 6 x2 + Ax+ B. Find the values of A and B.

[Ans: A=−1 , B=−2]

6. Solve the equation 18 x 3−111 x 2 +24 x−147=0 given that it has a repeated root.
7
∧7
[ Ans: 3 , 3 ]
2 3

7. Solve the equation x 3−8 x 2+ 13 x −6=0 given that it has a root that is repeated.
8. Find the condition that the equation x 3−3 hx + g=0 should have a repeated
root. [Ans: 4 h3=g2 ]

SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS.

The remainder or factor theorem may be used in factorizing polynomials. i.e.

check for the factors of the constant terms that make p ( x )=0.
Note: the constant term is in the form; αβ , −αβγ and αβγδ etc.

Suppose that a polynomial P(x) factorises into the form for example,
n (n−1) (n−2)
P ( x )=a 0 x +a1 x +a 2 x +⋯ ⋯⋯+ an= ( x −α )( x−β ) ( x−γ )
multiplying the R.H.S. the constant term will be of the forms mentioned
 above in the note. This must be equal to a n. So αβ =a n, −αβγ =an. Etc
Therefore α , β , γ ⋯ must be factors of a n.

Note: If P(x ) is a polynomial such that x−a is its factor, then x=a is a root
of the polynomial equation P ( x )=0.

Examples

1. Factorise the following completely;

(a) x 3−4 x 2+ x +6
Solution
Factors of 6 are ± 1, ± 2, ± 3 and ± 6 (constant term)
Try them in turn
3 1
P ( 1 )=1 −4 ( 1 ) +1+6=4 ∴ x−1 is not a factor
P (−1 )=(−1 ) −4 (−1 ) + (−1 ) +6=¿0 ∴ x+ 1 is a factor P ( 2 )=2 −4 ( 2 ) +2+6=0
3 2 3 2

∴ x−2 is a factor P (−2 )=(−2 )3 −4 (−2 )2−2+6 ≠ 0 ∴ x+ 2

3 2
is not a factor P ( 3 )=3 −4 (3 ) +3+ 6=0 ∴ x−3
is a factor

Hence P ( x )=x 3−4 x2 + x +6=( x+1 )( x−2 ) ( x−3 )

Alternative
3 1
P ( 1 )=1 −4 ( 1 ) +1+6=4 ∴ x−1 is not a factor
P (−1 )=(−1 ) −4 (−1 ) + (−1 ) +6=¿0 ∴ x+ 1 is a factor then obtain
2 2

the other factors by long division

Thus; P ( x )=( x+ 1 ) ( x 2−5 x +6 ) =( x +1 )( x−2 )( x−3 ).

 OR
3 1
P ( 1 )=1 −4 ( 1 ) +1+6=4 ∴ x−1 is not a factor
P (−1 )=(−1 ) −4 (−1 ) + (−1 ) +6=¿0 ∴ x+ 1 is a factor Use
2 2

principle of undetermined coefficients i.e

Let x 3−4 x 2+ x +6 ≡ ( x +1 ) ( a x 2 +bx +c )

3 2
≡ a x + ( a+b ) x + ( b+c ) x+ c

Comparing coefficients of x 3, x 2, x and the constants

a=1 , b=−5 , c=6

thus;
P ( x )=( x+ 1 ) ( x −5 x +6 ) =( x +1 )( x−2 )( x−3 )
2

(b) 3
x −2 x −5 x +6
2

(c) 3
2 x +5 x −4 x−3
2

(d) 3
6 x +19 x + x−6
2

(e) 4 3
x + x −3 x −4 x−4
2
(f)
4
2 x −x −6 x +5 x
3 2
(g)
4
3 x −x +7 x −3 x−6
3 2
(h)
4
x −x + 4 x−4
2
(i)
3
27 x −1
(j) 3
2 x −9 x +3 x +4
2

(k) 3
2 x +11 x +17 x+ 6
2

(l) 3
x + x −2 x
2

(m) 4
x + x −7 x −x +6
3 2

(n) x +32
5

2. A polynomial x 3 +a x 2+ bx+ c leaves a remainder of 18 when divided by x – 3,

and the remainder 10 when divided by x 2−3 x+ 2. Find a, b and c.
Solution
x−3=0❑ x=3 , then from the remainder theorem;
⇒

P ( 3 )=18 since P ( x )=x 3+ a x 2+bx + c

3 2
3 +a ( 3 ) +3 b+ c=18
 27+ 9 a+3 b+ c=18
9 a+ 3 b+c=−9 ⋯ ⋯ [1 ]
Thus P ( 1 )=P ( 2 )=10,

P ( x )=( x 2−3 x+ 2 ) Q ( x ) + Rem=( x−1 ) ( x −2 )+ Rem

3 2 3 2
∴ P ( 1 )=1 +a ( 1 ) +b+ c and P ( 2 )=2 +a ( 2 ) +2 b+ c
1+a+ b+c=10 and 8+ 4 a+ 2b +c=10
a+ b+c=9 ⋯[2] and 4 a+2 b+ c=2 ⋯[3]

[ 3 ] −[2] : 3 a+ b=−7 ⋯[4 ] and [ 1 ] −[2]: 8 a+ 2b=−18

4 a+b=−9 ⋯[5]

[ 5 ] −[4] : a=−2 and form [4 ], 3 (−2 ) +b=−7 i.e. b=−1

from [2] −2−1+ c=9 gives c=12

∴ a=−2 , b=−1 and c=12

3. Express P ( x )=x 3−5 x 2+2 x +8 as a product of its factors.

4. Solve the equations;

(a) 2 x3 + x 2−8 x−4=0
(b) x 3 +2 x 2−x−2=0
(c) 2 x3 −x 2−13 x−6=0
(d) x 4 −3 x 2 +2 x+ 4=0
(e) 5 x 4−16 x 3−42 x 2−16 x +5=0
5. If 2 x−1 is a factor of 8 x 3+ 4 x 2 + px+15 , find the value of p and factorise the
expression completely when p has this value.

END:

Other reference notes…… are below:

 POLYNOMIALS
A polynomial is an expression of the form; a x n +b x n−1+ …+k where a,b,…k are real
numbers and n is a positive integer.

By specification; a x n +b x n−1+ …+k this is a polynomial of degree n.

Further still; A polynomial is a summation of terms in x n where n=0,1,2,3…(e.g)

x +5 x −4 x +1 is a polynomial of degree (3)

3 2

10 x −7 x−11 is a polynomial of degree (5)

5

( 2 x 2−1 ) ( x 4−7 ) is a polynomial of degree (6)

Rational function: suppose N(x) and D(x) are polynomials, then; → D(x ) is{ }
N (x )

called a rational function.

→ the rational function is a proper fraction only if the degree of N(x) is strictly less
than the degree of D(x)

For example:
2
x 1 x −2 x−3
2
, 2 , 2 2 etc are proper fractions.
x −4 x −3 x−2 ( x −1)( x −x +1)

→ the rational function is an improper fraction,if the degree of N(x) ≥ the degree of
D(x) e.g.;
2 3 5 2
5 x−1 x x +1 x −3 x +2
, 2 , 2 , etc
x +4 x −x−2 x −1 ( x 2−1 ) (x +5)

LONG DIVISION: long division can only be carried out on an improper

17 12
fraction/improper function e.g. 7 , 4

Note:

<long division>
→ remainder acquired depends on the kind of divisor used;

examples to study; i.e;

1. Find the remainder when the polynomial

 x +4 x −3 x−7 is divided by
3 2

a) (x−2)
b) (x +3)
c) (x−1)
d) ( x 2−x−2)
e) x 2+ 4 x−3
Solutions
a) <long division>
∴ remainder is 11 (constant)
∴ quotient is x 2+ 6 x+ 9
b) <long division>
∴ remainder is 11 (constant)
∴ quotient is x 2+ x−6
c) <long division>
∴ remainder = -5 (constant)
Quotient is → x2 +5 x +2
d) <long division>
∴ remainder ¿(4 x +3) ; (linear)
Quotient is →(x +5)
e) <long division>
∴ remainder →−7 ; (constant)
Quotient is → x
2. Find the remainder and quotient when 32 x 4−8 x 3−1 id divided with;
a) 2 x−1
b) x 3 +1
c) x 3−x +1
Solution:
a) <long division>
→ since the remainder is 0 then (2 x−1) is a factor of 32 x 4−8 x 3−1
b) <long division>
∴ remainder ¿−32 x +7 (linear)
Quotient ¿ 32 x−8
c) <long division>
∴ remainder ¿ 32 x2 −40 x+ 7 (quadratic)
Quotient ¿ 32 x−8

“conclusion”

TYPE OF DIVISOR General Remainder Other remainder

 a) Linear Constant None
b) Quadratic Linear Constant
c) Cubic Quadratic Linear or constant

REMAINDER THEOREM:

This theorem provides a short cut to finding remainders.in this method, the
quotient is by-passed i.e., It is not known:

Note:

From divisionary theory:

<long division>
→ Number ¿ ¿Divisor¿ ׿ Quotient¿+¿ Remainder¿

Divisor ←<long division>

i.e. →Polynomial ¿ ¿Divisor¿ ׿ Quotient¿+¿ Remainder

P ( x )=D ( x ) ∙ Q ( x ) + R(x )

“General method”

CASE:1 Linear Division; Let the divisor be (x−a) where a is a constant then;
P ( x )=D ( x ) ∙ Q ( x ) + R

P ( x )=( x−a ) Q ( x )+ R

Set ( x=a ) ; P ( a )=( a−a ) Q ( a ) + R

P ( a ) =R

∴ Remainder ¿ P(a)

i.e.; if the divisor is (x−a) ; then the remainder ; R=P (a); where a is the value of x
that makes ( x−a )=0 .
→ this statement is the Remainder theorem.

i.e. ; if the divisor is x−2 ; R=P (2)

if the divisor is x +5 ; R=P(−5)

 if the divisor is 2 x−3 ; R=P 2 etc. (3)
1 7 14
if the divisor is 2 x− 9 ; R=P 9 ( )
recall example 1:

P ( x )=x 3+ 4 x 2−3 x−7

i. Divisor is (x−2)
R=P (2)
R=8+16−6−7
R=11
ii. Divisor is (x +3)
R=P (−3 )
3 2
R=(−3) +4 (−3) −3 (−3 ) −7
R=−27+36+ 9−7
R=11
iii. Divisor is (x−1)
R=P (1)
3 2
R=(1) −4 (1) −3 ( 1 )−7
R=−5

Recall example 2:
4 3
P ( x )=32 x −8 x −1

i. Divisor ¿ 2 x−1
R=P ( 12 )
¿ 32 ( ) −8 ( ) −1
4 3
1 1
2 2
¿ 2−1−1
¿0

Example 3: When the polynomial x 3 +2 x 2 +ax +b is divided by (x +2) and (x−3) , the
remainders are −1 and 4 reqpectively.find the numbers a and b.
3 2
→ P ( x )=x +2 x + ax+ b

Divisor x +2 ;→ R=P (−2 ) ; R=−1

3 2
−1= (−2 ) + 2(−2) + a (−2 )+ b
 −1=−8+8−2 a+b

↔−2 a+ b=−1… … (1)

Divisor x−3 ; → R=P ( 3 ) ; R=4

3 2
4=(3) + 2(3) + a ( 3 ) +b

4=27 +18+3 a+ b

−41=3 a+b

↔ 3 a+b=−41 … … (2)

Solving (1) and (2);

<equation>
b=−1+2 a

b=−1+2(−8)

b=−17

∴ a=−8∧b=−17

FACTOR THEOREM: factor theorem derives its meaning from remainder

theorem; i.e. if; a polynomial P(x ) is to be divided by (x−a) and the remainder is 0
then; P ( a ) =0.
→ P ( x )=D ( x ) Q ( x ) +0 this statement a factor theorem and can be used to factorise a
polynomial.

Illustration; long divide; 12 by 3.

<long division>
→ 12=3 × 4+0 ; 3 and are factors of 12”

If; <long division>

→ P ( x )=D ( x ) Q ( x ) +0

→ divisor and quotient are both factors of the polynomial and remainder is 0.

∴ If ( x +5 ) is a factor of P ( x ) → P (−5 )=0

Since; P ( x )=( x+ 5 ) Q ( x ) +0

Set x=−5 ; P (−5 )=(−5+ 5 ) Q ( x ) +0

P (−5 )=0

( )
−1
So; if (3 x +1) is a factor of f ( x ) → f 3 =0

() 1
If (2 x−1) is a factor of P ( x ) → P 2 =0

Example 4: The expression 3 x 3+ 2 x 2−bx +a is divisible by (x−1) but leaves a

remainder of 10 when divided by (x +1).Find the values of a and b.

3 2
→ P ( x )=3 x +2 x −bx+ a

Divisor ; ( x−1 ) → R=P ( 1 ) but R=0 hence x−1 is a factor

∴ P ( 1 )=0
3 2
(1) + 2(1) −b ( 1 )+ a=0

3+2−b+a=0

a−b=−5 … … .(1)

Divisor; x +1→ R=P (−1 ) but R=10

∴ P (−1 )=10
3 2
3(−1) +2(−1) −b (−1 ) + a=10

−3+2+b +a=10

a+ b=11 … … .(2)

Solving (1) and (2)

<equation>
→ b=11−a

b=11−3
 b=8

∴ a=3∧b=8

Exercise:

Case 2: Quadratic divisors:

Remainder theorem works wider this case only if the quadratic divisor is
factorisable i.e.;

If the D ( x )=x 2−( a+ b ) x+ ab →(x−a)( x−b) it means the remainder →(mx +c) “Linear”
if unknown
→ P ( x )=D ( x ) ∙Q ( x )+ R (x)

P ( x )=( x−a )( x−b ) Q ( x ) +mx+ c

Set x=a ; P ( a )=ma+c … …(1) solving the eqns simultaneously to obtain

Set x=b ; P ( b )=mb+c … …(2) m and c yields the remainder.

Example: Recall; P ( x )=x 3+ 4 x 2−3 x +7 given that when its divided by x−2 and
x +1the remainders are 25 and 13 respectively. Find the remainder when this
polynomial is divided by( x 2−x−2 )
2
D ( x )=x −x−2 →( x−2)(x+ 1)

→ P ( x )= ( x −2 )( x +1 ) Q ( x ) +ax +b

Set x=2 ; P ( 2 )=2 a+b ; P ( 2 )=(2)2+ 4(2)2−3 ( 2 ) +7

P ( 2 )=8+16−6+ 7

P ( 2 )=25

∴ 2 a+b=25 … … .(1)

Set x=−1 ; P (−1 )=−a+ b ; P (−1 )=(−1)3 +4 (−1)2−3 (−1 ) +7

P (−1 )=−1+ 4+3+7

P (−1 )=13
 ∴−a+b=13 … …(2)

Solving (1) and (2) becomes;

<equation>
→ a=4

And b=13+a
b=13+ 4

b=17

∴ R ( x )=4 x +17

Example 2 When the polynomial x 4 + ax+b is divided by x 2−5 x+ 6 ;the remainder is

−9 x +3. Find the values of a and b.
4 2
P ( x )=x +ax +b ; D ( x )=x −5 x+ 6

D ( x )=(x −2)(x−3)

→ P ( x )=D ( x ) Q ( x ) + R( x )

P ( x )=( x−2 ) ( x−3 ) Q ( x ) +(−9 x+ 3)

Set x=2 ; P ( 2 )=−18+3

P ( 2 )=−15

Set x=3 ; P ( 3 )=−27 +3

P ( 3 )=−24

But; P ( x )=x 4 +ax +b

P ( 2 ) → 16+2 a+ b=−15

2 a+b=−31 … …(1)

P ( 3 ) →81+3 a+ b=−24

3 a+ b=−105 … … (2)

Solving (1) and (2)

<equation>
a=−74

Using; b=−31−2 a
b=−31−2(−74)

b=117

∴ a=−74∧b=117

Example 3 When a polynomial f (x) is divided by (x +5) and (x−3) the remainders
are 7 and respectively. Find the remainder when f (x) is divided by x 2+ 2 x−15 .
→ f ( x )=D ( x ) Q ( x )+ R

f ( x )= ( x +5 ) Q ( x )+7

→ f (−5 )=7

f ( x )= ( x −3 ) Q ( x ) +15 ; → f ( 3 )=15

But: f ( x )=( x2 +2 x−15 ) Q ( x )+ mx+c

f ( x )= ( x +5 )( x−3 ) Q ( x )+ mx+c

Set x=−5 ; f (−5 ) →−5 m+ c … .(1)

Set x=3 ; f ( 3 ) → 3 m+ c … .(2)

Eqn (1) – Eqn (2)

<equation>
m=1

→ c=7+5 m

¿ 7+5

∴ c=12

∴ Required remainder; →(x +12)

Examples:

1) Show that (x +2) is a factor of x 3−4 x 2−8 x+ 8

Hence factorise the polynomial completely.
 Solution:
Let; P ( x )=x 3−4 x2−8 x +8
For (x +2) to be a divisor; R=P (−2)
3 2
P (−2 )=(−2) −4 (−2) −8 (−2 ) +8
P (−2 )=−8−16+16 +8
P (−2 )=0
∴ R=P (−2 )=0
Since P (−2 )=0 then the (x +2) is a factor of x 3−4 x 2−8 x+ 8.
Hence;
<long division>
3 2 2
→ x −4 x −8 x +8=( x +2)( x −6 x +4)
2) Factorise completely: 2 x3 −7 x 2+2 x +3
Let: P ( x )=2 x 3 −7 x2 +2 x+ 3
Set; x=1 ; P (1 )=0 →(x−1) is a factor method of inspection
Set; x=3 ; P ( 3 )=0 →(x−3) is a factor
−1 1
( )
Set; x= 2 ; P −2 =0 → ( 2 x+ 1 ) is a factor
∴ 2 x3 −7 x 2+2 x +3 ¿=(x−1)(x−3)(2 x +1)
OR: since; (x−1) is a factor;
<long division>
3 2 2
→ 2 x −7 x +2 x+3=( x −1)(2 x −5 x−3)
2
¿ ( x−1 ) (2 x −6 x + x−3)
¿ ( x−1 ) [ ( 2 x )( x−3 )+1 ( x−3 ) ]
¿(x −1)(x−3)(2 x +1)
Example 3 : Given that x 3 +12 x 2 +ax +b is divisible by x 2+ 8 x−9.find the values
of a and hence factorise the polynomial completely.
Solution:
From; P ( x )=x 3+ 12 x 2 +ax +b
2
D ( x )=x + 8 x −9 ↔( x+ 9)( x−1)
→ P ( x )= ( x +9 )( x−1 ) Q ( x )+ 0
Set; x=−9 , P (−9 ) =0
Set; x=1 , P ( 1 ) =0
→ P ( 1 ) =1+ 12+ a+b
0=13+a+ b
a+ b=−13 … … .(1)
→ P (−9 )=−729+ 972−9 a+ b
0=243−9 a+b
−9 a+ b=−243 ……. (2)
 <equation>
a=23
And b=−13−a
¿−13−23
b=−36
∴ a=23∧b=−36
3 2
∴ P ( x ) =x +2 x + 23 x −36
Hence;
<long division>
∴ ( x 3+ 12 x 2 +23 x−36 ) =(x 2 +8 x−9)(x +4 )
¿(x + 9)(x −1)(x + 4)
OR: When polynomial is of degree 3 and divisor was quadratic, remaining
factor is assumed Linear →(x +c )
i.e.;
→ ( x 3+12 x 2+ 23 x −36 ) =( x−1 )( x +9 )( x +c )
Set x=0 ; −36=(−1)(9)(c)
c=4
Hence; ( x 3 +12 x 2 +23 x−36 )=( x−1)(x +9)(x + 4)
3) Find the value of P and q which make x 4 +6 x 3 +13 x 2+ px +q a perfect square of
second degree.
2
→ x +6 x +13 x + px+ q=( x + ( Bx+ C ) )
4 3 2 2

→ x 4 +6 x 3 +13 x 2+ px +q=[ x 2+ ( Bx +C ) ][ x 2 + ( Bx +C ) ]
¿ x 2 (x 2+ ( Bx+ c ))+ ( Bx+ c ) ( x 2 +Bx +c )
4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
¿ x + B x + c x + x B+ c x +B x +Bxc + Bcx+ c
∴ x +6 x + 13 x + px+ q=x 4 +2 B x 3 + ( B 2+ 2 ) x 2 + ( 2 Bc ) x + c2
4 3 2

( ↓ ) x3 :6=2 B ; B=3
( ↓ ) x2 :13=9+2 c ; c=2
( ↓ ) x : P=12
( ↓ ) x 0 :q=4

SYNTHETIC METHOD
The method is viable but not applicable at this level; due to its
inconsistences; sometimes.
Example:
1) Use synthetic method to find the quotient and the remainder when
x +4 x −3 x−7 is divided by x +3
3 2
 Solution:
<illustration>
∴ quotient ¿ x 2+ x−6
∴ Remainder ¿ 11
2) Use synthetic method to fnd the remainder and quotient when 32 x 4−8 x 3−1 is
divided by 2 x−1
Solution:
<illustration>
→ Remainder ¿ 0
1 3 2
Quotient ¿ 2 (32 x + 8 x + 4 x+ 2)
3 2
¿ 16 x + 4 x +2 x+1

Exercise 11

Given that x 2+ px +q and 3 x 2+ q have a common factor (x−b) where, p,q and b
are non-zero constants show that: 3 p2 +4 q=0.
Solve the equations;
a) x 3−5 x 2+ 6 x =0
b) x 4 −5 x 2−36=0