AP Precalculus- Unit 2:

Exponential and Logarithmic

Functions Flashcards
Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences
Sequence: an ordered list of numbers, with each listed number being a term. It could be finite or
infinite

Arithmetic Sequence: when each successive term in a sequence has a common difference (constant
rate of change)
Geometric Sequence: when each successive term in a sequence has a common ratio (consistent
proportional change)

Over equal-length input-value intervals, if the output values of a function change:

at a constant rate → linear function (addition)
at a proportional rate → exponential function (multiplication)
^ all can be determined by two distinct sequence or function values

nth term (arithmetic):

an = a0 + dn

a0 = initial value (zero term)

d = common difference

(similar to slope-intercept form)

nth term using any term (arithmetic):

an = ak + d (n – k)

ak = kth term of the sequence

(similar to point-slope form)

nth term (geometric):

gn = g0rn

g0 = initial value (zero term)

r = common ratio

(similar to exponential function)

nth term using any term (geometric):

gn = gk ∙ r(n – k)

gk = kth term of the sequence

(similar to shifted exponential)

Exponential Functions f(x) = bx

-are always increasing or always decreasing
└ no extrema except on a closed interval
-always concave up or always concave down
└ no inflection points
-if input values increase/decrease without bound, end behavior:

or

or
Horizontal Translation/Vertical Dialation: f(x) = b(x+k) = bx ∙ bk = abx where a = bk

Horizontal Dialation: f(x) = b(cx) → change of the base of function bc is a constant and c ≠ 0

Exponential functions model growth patterns with successive output values over equal-length input-
values intervals are proportional
A constant may need to be added to the dependent variables of a data set to see proportional growth
pattern
An exponential function can be constructed from: a ratio and initial value/two input-output pairs

base of exponent (b) → growth factor in successive unite changes in input values; percent change in
context

forms of exponential functions can be used in different scenarios:

ex. if d = number of days f(x) = 2d → quantity increases by factor of 2 every day

f(x) = (27)(d/7) → quantity increase by a factor of 27 every 7 days/week

General Form of an Exponential Function:

An exponential function has the general form

f(x) = abx

a = initial value ≠ 0

b>0

Additive Transformation of an Exponential Function:

g(x) = f(x) + k

If the output values of g are proportional over equal-length input-value intervals, then f(x) is exponential

Negative Exponent Property:

b-n = (1/bn)
 Product Property:

bmbn = b(m+n)

Power Property:

(bm)n = bmn

The number e:

e = 2.718…

the natural base e is often used as the base in exponential functions

Competing Function Model Validation

Model can be an appropriation for data if data set/regression is without pattern
Predicted vs actual results → error in model
May be appropriate to overestimate/underestimate for given interval

Composition of Functions
(f ⸰ g)(x)/f(g(x)) à maps set of input values to set of output values such that the output values of g are
used as input values of f
└ domain of composite function is restricted to input values of f for which the corresponding
output values is the domain of f
Typically, f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) are different values as f ⸰ g and g ⸰ f are different functions
Additive Transformations → vertical/horizontal translations (g(x) = x + k)
Multiplicative Transformations → vertical/horizontal dilations (g(x) = kx)

Identity Function:
when f(x) = x
Then g(f(x)) = f(g(x)) = g(x)
Acts as 0 (additive identity) when adding
Acts as 1 (multiplicative identity) when multiplying

Inverse Functions
Inverse Function → in each output value is mapped from a unique input value
Ex. f(x): inputs on x-axis and outputs on y-axis (f(a) = b) →

f-1(x): inputs on y axis and outputs on x axis (f-1(b) = a)

composite of function and inverse = identity function

function’s domain and range → inverse function’s range and domain (respectively)
*domain may be restricted
Inverse of Exponential Functions
f(x) = a logb x with base b, where b > 0, b ≠ 1, and a ≠ 0

generally, exponential functions and log functions are inverse functions (reflections over h(x) = x)

└ f(x) = logb x and g(x) = bx → f (g(x)) = g( f(x)) = x

exponential growth → output values changing multiplicatively as input values change additively

logarithmic growth → output values changing additively as input values change multiplicative

Logarithmic Functions
logbc = value b must be exponentially raised to in oder to obtain the value c

logbc if and only if ba = c (a & c = constants) (b > 0) (b ≠ 1)

if b not specified, log is common log with base 10 (b = 10)

used to model situations involving proportional growth or repeated multiplication
a logarithmic function can be constructed from a proportion and a real zero/ two input-output pairs

each unit represents a multiplicative change of the base of the log

domain of general form → any real number greater than 0

range of general form → all real numbers

If input values of the additive transformation function g(x) = f (x + k) are proportional over equal-
length output value intervals à →(x) is logarithmic (Does not apply vice versa)

since inverse of exponential function → logarithmic functions are:

- always increasing or always decreasing
- always concave up or always concave down

- do not have extrema except on closed intervals

- do not have points of inflection

In general form, features of log function include:

-vertically asymptotic to x = 0

-end behavior is unbounded

 └

or

Log Product Property:

Log Quotient Property:

Log Exponential Property:

Natural Log Property:

Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and

Inequalities
- must look for extraneous solutions
-exponential can be written as log functions
 combination of transformations of exponential function in general form *

combination of transformation of log function in general form *

* inverse of function can be found by determining the inverse operation to reverse the mapping

Semi-Log Plots

- y-axis is logarithmically scaled, while the x-axis is linearly scaled

- used to visualize exponential functions
- a constant does not need to be added to reveal that an exponential model is appropriate

- linear model for semi-log plot:

 where n > 0 and n ≠ 0

└ linear rate of change:

└ initial linear value: