LESSON 4

DATA MANAGEMENT

Overview:
The lesson begins with students engaging in a review of various measures
of central tendency. Following the review, students are given cases where these
measures are calculated. Students are also asked to examine both strengths and
limitations of these measures. Sometime will be devoted to having students
discuss question with a partner before reporting to the class. Assessments will be
given to students on their ability to calculate these measures, and also to get an
overall sense of whether they recognize how these measures respond to
changes in data values.

Peace Concept:
Develop critical thinking and positive attitude towards data management.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the students can:

1. Compute the measures of central tendency and variability of various data set.
2. Perform data analysis on quantitative data using descriptive and inferential
statistics.
3. Show how Descriptive Statistics is used to describe data and how Inferential
Statistics is used to reach conclusions from the analysis of the obtained data.
4. Determine the most appropriate statistical tool and procedure in treating
statistical data.
5. Identify the characteristics of normal curve and compute probabilities
involving the normal distribution.
6. Differentiate correlation and regression analysis and which one is most
fitting to answer various questions.

Materials Needed:

 Module (Printed/Soft copy)

 Internet Connection
 Smart phone/Laptop
 Ball pen and Calculator
 Google Classroom, FB Group Chat and YouTube videos

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Duration: 3 hours

LEARNING CONTENT:

Lesson 4.1 Descriptive Statistics Refresher

4.1.1 Measures of Central Tendency

The measure of central tendency is a statistical value which describe the

point of concentration of many values given in the distribution. It is a number that
represents the typical value in a collection of numbers. The three most common
measures of position or central tendency are the mean, median, and mode.
These measures tell us where the middle of data lies. The meaning of each
measure and how each measure is computed from ungrouped (data presented at
random or in an array) or from grouped (data presented in a frequency
distribution) are discussed as follows.

A. MEAN:

The sum of a collection of numerical data divided by the number of data

items; the balance point of a data set; the most reliable, but the most sensitive
measure of average.

Mean of an Ungrouped Data

When the data is ungrouped, we add the values of the data and dividing
by the total number of values.

1. Arithmetic Mean (or average):

The symbol represents the sample mean.

X = ∑x = X1 + X2 + X3 + . . . + Xn
n
Where: ∑ is the sum of (in other words, add them up),

X represents the individual cases or value and

n is the total number of values in the sample.

Example 1: Find the mean score of 6 students in statistics quiz whose

scores are: 75 85 83 76 89 80.

Solution: Let be the mean of the numbers

= 75 + 85 + 83 + 76 + 89 + 80
6
= 488 / 6

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 = 81.33

For a population, the Greek letter µ (mu) is used for the mean.

The formula is µ = ∑x = X1 + X 2 + X 3 + . . . + X N
N

2. Weighted Mean:

Xw = ∑ xw = X1.W1 + X2.W2 + X3.W3 + . . . + Xn.Wn

W1 + W2 + W3 + . . . + Wn

where ∑ is the sum of (in other words, add them up),

w are corresponding weights of values and
x are values of cases or observations.

Example 2: A student received an “A” in English Composition I (3 credits), a “C”

in Introduction to Psychology (3 credits), a “B” in Biology I (4 credits), and a “D” in
Physical Education (2 credits). Assuming A = 4 grade points, B = 3 grade point,
C = 2 grade points and D = 1 grade points, find the student’s weighted average.

Solution:

Course Credits (W) Grade (X) W.X

English Composition I 3 A (4 points) 12
Introduction to Psychology 3 C (2 points) 6
Biology I 4 B (3 points) 12
Physical Education 2 D (1 point) 2
∑W =12 ∑WX = 32
Xw = 32 / 12 = 2.666

Th
Therefore, the weighted average is 2.7.

Mean of a Grouped Data

Grouped data is data that has been bundled together in categories or presented
in a frequency distribution. There are two methods in computing:

1. Using the Midpoint Method

2. Using the Unit – Deviation Method
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 Method 1: Midpoint Method:

Where: ∑ the summation symbol read as sigma

f is the frequency per class
mp is class midpoint
n total number of frequency

Steps
1. Set up the class midpoint (mp) column.
2. Multiply frequency of each class (f) and
Corresponding class midpoint (mp).
3. Add the results in step 2.
4. Add frequency column to get ∑ f.pm
5. Substitute data in the formula. Solve.

Example 3: Find the mean of the given data below.

Solution

Step 5. Substitute the values in the formula.

Method 2: The Unit – Deviation Method

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 where, Xa is the assumed mean, that is the midpoint of the class
claimed as the origin and assigned with 0 deviation.
f is the absolute frequency per class.
d is the class deviation.
n is the total number of values.

i is the interval size, (difference between two consecutive

tower limits or upper limits of the class)

Steps:

1. Assigned an assumed mean from any one of the midpoints.

2. Set up the unit deviation column by writing 0 opposite the assumed mean,
and so on, for the succeeding midpoint lower than the assumed mean,
and and so on, for the succeeding midpoint higher than the assumed
mean.
3. Multiply algebraically the deviation of each class by the frequency of the
class.
4. Find the values for and substitute the values in the formula, Solve.

Example 4: Find the mean age using the unit – deviation method.

Solution:

Step 4.
i = \*
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– 20 = 5 13
 [60, 61, 62, 63, 64,] i=5

Step 5.

B. MEDIAN

The median (MD) is the number that falls in the middle position once the
data has been organized or arranged from lowest to highest. Not affected by the
outliers. Outliers or extreme values that are substantially large or smaller than
the other values. These are bad data which may have been encoded incorrectly
and therefore, need to be verified and investigated.

Median of an Ungrouped Data

Step 1. Arrange the data in order.

Step 2. Select the middle point. Let’s consider the two cases in finding the middle
point:
Case 1 If n is odd, the middle values is the median of the data set.
Case 2 If n is even, the average of the middlemost values is the median.

Example 5: For case 1

Find the median of the scores: 12, 4, 8, 17, 13, 15, 6, 14, 10.
Solution: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, n is odd

Median
Interpretation: Out of 9 scores, 4 scores are below 12 and the other 4 scores
are above to 12.

Example 6: For case 2

The number of cloudy days for the top 10 cloudiest cities is shown.
Find the median.
209, 223, 211, 227, 213, 240, 240, 211, 229, 212
n = 10 which is even
Solution:
Arrange the data in order.
209, 211, 211, 212, 213, 223, 227, 229, 240, 240
Md = (213 + 223)/2 = 218

Hence, the median is 218 days.

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 Interpretation: Out of 10 cloudiest cities, 5 scores are below 218 and
the other 5 scores are above 218.

Median of a Grouped Data

In computing for the median of a grouped data, the following formula is used:

Mdn = lbmd + (i)

Where: lbmd is the lower boundary of the median class

n is the total cases in the distribution

fmd is the absolute frequency of the median class the median value

i is the size of interval

cf<md is the less than cumulative frequency entry before the median class

Step: 1. Find n/2 , the point or location of the median

2. Locate the median class by accumulating frequency by the less than

method up to a value n/2 or slightly greater than n/2

3. Find the corresponding values of lbmd, n, fmd , i. and cf<md

4. Substitute data in the formula then Solve.

Example 7: The following table shows the frequency distribution of ages of 90

employees in a government agency. Find the median.

Solution

Step 1. Find the location of the median: n/2 = 90/2 = 45

Step 2. Compute for cf: cf1 = 5, cf2 = 5 + 9 = 14, cf3 = 14 + 14 = 28,

Cf4 = 28 + 16 = 44, cf5 = 44 + 11 = 55

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Step 4.

Thus, out of 90 employees, about 45 of them have ages below 40 years

while the other 45 employees have ages equal to or higher than 40 years.

C. MODE
The value that occurs most often in the data set (if there is such a value).
A data set that has only one value that occurs with the greatest frequency is said
to be unimodal. If a data set has two values that occur with the same greatest
frequency, both values are considered as the mode and the data set is said to
bimodal. If the data set has more than two values that occur with the same
greatest frequency, each value is used as the mode, and the data set is said to
be multimodal. When no data value occurs more than once, the data set is said
to have no mode.

Mode of Ungrouped Data

To find the mode for a set of data:

Step 1. Select the measure that appears most often in the set;

Step 2. If two or more measures appear the same number of times,

then each of these values is a mode; and

Step 3. If every measure appears the same number of times, then the
set of data has no mode.
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Example 8: Find the mode of the ages of some college students:

18, 20, 19, 21,25, 18, 19, 17, 20,21, 20, 18, 20, 18,

Solution: The number 18 and 20 occur more often than the others.
Thus 18 and 20 are the mode (bimodal).

Example 9: Find the mode of the data set:

Solution: Each value in the list 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23 occurs only once.

Thus, there is no mode.

Mode of Grouped Data

Method 1. Estimating the mode by the rough method:

The midpoint of a class with the highest frequency is the mode.

Example 10: Using the data from Example 7, the mode of the ages of the 90
employees in a government agency is the midpoint of the class interval 45 – 49,
which is 47 years.

Class interval
with highest
frequency

Method 2. Using the formula: Mo = lbmc + (i)

where: lbmc is the lower boundary of the modal class;

d 1 is the difference between the frequencies of the modal class

and the next lower class;

d 2 is the difference between the frequencies of the modal class

and the next upper class;

i is the size of class interval.

mc is the modal class or class interval with the highest frequency.

Steps: Step 1: Find the modal class.

Step 2: Find the values corresponding to , , , .

Step 3: Substitute the values in the formula. Then solve.

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Example 11: Find the mode of the frequency distribution showing the age of 90
employees in a government agency from example 7.

Solution

Who’s representing?

Example 12: Sonya’s Kitchen received an invitation for one person from a food
exposition. The service crew seven member is very eager to go. To be fair to all,
Sonya decided to choose a person whose age falls within the mean age of her
seven members. She made a list such as below:

Service Crew Age

Manager 47
Cook A 21
Cook B 20
Cashier 19
Waiter A 18
Waiter B 18
Waitress 18

a. What is the mean age of the service crew?

b. Is there someone in this group who has this age?
c. How many persons are older than the mean age? How many are younger?
d. Do you think this is the best measure of central tendency to use? Explain.
Answer: The mean age is 23. There is no one represented by this age. There
is only one person older than 23 and six persons are younger than 23.
 Take note of how the mean is affected by extreme values. Very high or very
low values can easily change the value of the mean.
The next example will solve the problems encountered.

Who’s in the middle?

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 From Example 12, the ages of the crew are given as 18, 20, 18, 19, 21, 18
and 47. Follow the steps below.
a. Arrange the ages in numerical order.
b. What is the middle value?
c. Is there a crew with this representative age?
d. How many crew are younger than this age? Older than this ages?
e. Who is now the representative of Sonya’s Kitchen in the Food Fair?
f. Compare the results from the previous discussion (how the mean is
affected by the set of data). Explain.

Answer:
a. 18, 18, 18, 19, 20, 21, 47 b. 19 c. Yes
d. 3 younger this age and 3 older than this age.
e. The cashier

Learning Activity:

Case 1: Averaging Incomes

There are 34 families living in your neighborhood. The household family monthly
incomes are shown below. Find the mean, median and mode of the data set.

Case 2: Grade Point Averages

The average undergraduate grade point average (GPA) of the 25 top-ranked

medical schools is shown below. Find the mean, median and mode of the data
set.

Complete the frequency distribution table by finding the unknown values.

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 Prelim Exam Scores of 50 College Students in GEC104

Less Than Lower

Class
Score Frequency Midpoint Cumulative Class
Boundaries
Frequency Boundary
46-50 2
41-45 9
36-40 13
31-35 11
26-30 10
21-25 5

Questions based on the table:

a. What is the class size/interval?

b. What is the midpoint of the class with the highest frequency?
c. What is the median class?
d. What is the modal class?
e. What is the less than cumulative frequency of median class?

1. Find the mean, median, and mode of the prelim exam scores of 50 college
students in GEC104 (see data on item 1) and interpret the results.

4.1.2. Measure of Variability

A measure of variability of a set of data is a number that conveys the idea

of spread for the data set.

A. RANGE

The range measures the distance between the largest and the smallest
values and, as such, gives an idea of the spread of the data. However, the range
does not use the concept of deviation. It is affected by the outliers but does not
consider all values in the data set. Thus, it is not very useful measure of
variability.

Let us consider this situation:

The following are the daily wages of 8 factory workers of two garment
factories. Factory A and Factory B. Find the range of salaries in peso (Php).
Factory A: 400, 450, 520, 380, 482, 495, 575, 450.
Factory B: 450, 400, 450, 480, 450, 450, 400, 672.

Computing the mean wages of workers, both factories have mean wage of P469.

Finding the range of wages: Range (R) = Highest wage - Lowest wage

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 Range A : RA = 575 – 380 = 195
Range B : RB = 672 – 400 = 272

Comparing the two wages, you will note that wages of workers of factory B
have a higher range than wages of workers of factory A. These ranges tell us
that the wages of workers of factory B are more scattered than the wages of
workers of factory A.

Look closely at wages of workers of factory B. You will see that except for
672 the highest wage, the wages of the workers are more consistent than the
wages in A. Without the highest wage of 672, the range would be 80 from 480 –
400 = 80. Whereas, if you exclude the highest wage 575 in A, the range would be
140 from 520 – 380 = 140.

Can you now say that the wages of workers of B are more scattered or
variable than the wages of workers of factory A?

The range tells us that it is not a stable measure of variability because its
value can fluctuate greatly even with a change in just a single value, either the
highest or lowest.

B. MEAN ABSOLUTE DEVIATION (MAD)

The MAD utilizes deviations of the data values from the mean in its
computation. It is the average of the absolute deviation values from the mean,
computed using the formula:

M.A.D. = Σ | x - x |
n
Where: M.A.D. = Mean Average Deviation
Σ = symbol for summation
n = total number of scores
x = individual score
x = mean of all scores

Example: 1. Find the mean average deviation of the age of the 11 students in
Math 31.
18,18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 24, 25, 26, 28,
Step: 1. Find the mean age using;
X = Σx = (18 + 18 + 19 + … + 28) ÷ 11 = 22.4years
N

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Step: 2. Subtract algebraically each value from the mean.

x (x- x) |x-x|
18 (18 - 22.4)= -4.4 4.4
18 (18 - 22.4)= -4.4 4.4
19 (19 - 22.4)= -3.4 3.4
20 (20 - 22.4)= -2.4 2.4
21 (21 - 22.4)= -1.4 1.4
23 (23 - 22.4)= 0.6 0.6
24 (24 - 22.4)= 1.6 1.6
24 (24 - 22.4)= 1.6 1.6
25 (25 - 22.4)= 2.6 2.6
26 (26 - 22.4)= 3.6 3.6
28 (28 - 22.4)= 5.6 5.6
Σ | x- x | = 31.6

Step:3. Take the absolute values of all deviations from the mean to make all the
results of step 2 positive values.
Step: 4. Add | x- x | values.
Step: 5. Substitute values in the formula and solve.
M.A.D. = Σ | x- x |
11
M.A.D. = 31.6 ÷ 11 = 2.63
Interpretation : On the average ages of the 1 students vary by 2.63 years

C. VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION

The variance and standard deviation are the most common and useful
measures of variability. These two measures provide information about how the
data vary about the mean. The variance is a measure of variation which
considers the position of each observation relative to the mean, while the
standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

For the sample variance, it is computed For the sample standard

deviation,
using the formula: it is given by:

∑(X - x )2 ∑(X - x )2
s2 = s=
n-1 n-1

Where ( x - x ) is the deviation of each score x from the sample mean x.

Note: When the sum of squares of deviation is divided by n, the measure is said
to be biased, thus for the sample variance, the sum of squares of deviation
is divided by (n - 1).

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Example: Compute the value of the variance and the standard deviation from the
following measurement and interpret the results: 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17

Steps in computing variance and standard deviation:

Step 1. Compute the mean of the data

Step 2. Find the deviation of each value from the mean

Step 3. Square the deviations resulting in step 2

Step 4. Add the results in step 3

Step 5. Substitute data in the formula and simplify.

Solution:
Step 1 Step 2 step 3

x x- x (x- x )2
5 5 -11 = -6 (-6)(-6) = 36
7 7 -11 = -4 16
9 9 -11 = -2 4
10 10 -11 = -1 1
12 12 -11 = 1 1
13 13 -11 = 2 4
15 15 -11 = 4 16
17 17 -11 = 6 36
2
Σx = 88 Σ(x - x ) = 114

x = Σx = 88 = 11 ∑(X - x )2
2
n 8 s = n-1

= 114 / (8-1) = 114/7

= 16.29 (Variance)
The standard deviation is s = √ 16.29 = 4.04
Interpretation: The scores spread about the mean of 11 by about 4.04 points.

Lesson 4.2 The Normal Distribution

The normal distribution is considered the most important continuous

probability distribution. This is undoubtedly the most widely used distribution.
Many of the variables measured in researches or studies are approximately
normally distributed. A few examples are height, weight, sales volume in the
supermarket, and achievement test scores. Many inference tests require
sampling distributions that are normally distributed.

The normal distribution is a theoretical distribution with parameters μ and

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1 2

δ 2π
δ, the mean and standard deviation, respectively. The equation for the normal
distribution is

f (x) = ℮-(1/2) [(x - μ) / δ ]

Where f(x) is the height of a curve for a given value x, δ is the population
standard deviation, e = 2.71828… and π = 3.14159…The normal curve most of
its area contained within the range - 3δ to +3δ. Figure 4.2a shows the area
under the normal curve. The total area under the curve is 1 and the area under
the curve between any two points can be interpreted as the probability of
occurrence of the value included between those given points.

μ+1δ μ+2δ μ+3δ

Figure 4.2a Area under the normal curve

When a set of scores is normally distributed, 34.13% of the area under the
normal curve is contained between the mean μ and a score that is equal to μ+1δ
(that is a score which is one standard deviation away from the mean). The same
percentages of the areas are found in the other side of the curve, below the
mean, since the curve is symmetrical.

Example. Consider a population of 10,000 college admission test scores.

The scores are normally distributed with mean of 85 and a standard deviation of
15. Therefore, 34.13% of the scores are contained between scores 85 and 100
(from μ+1δ = 85 + 15 = 100); thus, 3,413 scores fall between 85 and 100.
Furthermore, 13.59% of 10,000 or 1,359 scores fall between 100 and 115
[ μ+2δ = 85 + 2(15) = 115 ]; 2.14% of 10,000 or 214 scores fall between 115 and
130; 0.14% of 10,000 or 14 scores above 130.

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The Standard Normal Distribution

A process of transformation which alters a given raw score into a standard

normal score is called the standardization procedure. The resulting normal
random variable has mean 0 and standard deviation 1 and is denoted by Z called
the standard normal variable.

The transformation process: If X is a normal random variable with mean

(μ), and standard deviation (δ), then

Z = (x - x) / s for a sample or Z = (x - μ) / δ for a population

This standardized random variable Z has a normal distribution which is

known as the standard normal distribution. The standard score, or a score, is
the number of standard deviations that a given value x is above or below the
mean.

The graph of its probability density function is shown in figure 4.2b.

Figure 4.2b The Standard Normal Curve

To find the probability that X takes on values that are greater than or equal to
some particular value x, we first transform the x-value into the corresponding Z-
score and the following equality holds:
X-μ
P (X ≥ x) = P Z ≥ = P (Z ≥ z)
δ
Example 1. For each of the following, use the table of Areas Under the Normal
Curve. Given a standard normal distribution, find the area under the curve that
lies a) between z = 0 and z = 1.34

Solution: From the table of areas under the

0 1.34
Standard Normal Curve on the next page, locate 1.3
from the first column, then 0.04 above (on the first row) since 1.3 + 0.04 = 1.34.

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0 1.34
Thus, P(0 < z < 1.34) = 0.4099 or 41% probability.

b) to the right of z = 1.34

Solution: To the right of z = 1.34 means greater than 1.34. The area between the
mean (μ = 0) and z = 1.34 is 0.4099. Thus, P(Z ≥ 1.34) = 0.5 - 0.4099 = 0.0901

c) to the left of z = - 1.34

P(Z ≤ -1.34) = 0.5 - 0.4099 = 0.0901
- 1.34 0

d) to the right of z = - 1.34

P(Z ≥ -1.34) = 0.4099 + 0.05 = 0.9099 - 1.34 0

e) to the left of z = 0.86

- 0 0.86
P(Z ≤ 0.86) = 0.5 + 0.86 = 0.5 + 0.3051
= 0.8051

f) between z = -1.34 and z = 0.86

P(-1.34 < z < 0.86) = A1.34 + A 0.86 -1.34 0 0.86

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 = 0.4099 + 0.3051
= 0.7150

g) between z = 0.86 to z = 2.54

P(0.86 < z < 2.54) = A2.54 - A 0.86
= 0.4945 - 0.3051
= 0.1894 0 0.86 2.54

Example 2. Suppose in the example 1 regarding college admission test where

mean is 85 and a standard deviation of 15, a particular student got a score of 97,
what is the percentile rank of this score?

Solution: Transforming 97 into a standard score,

X: 85 97
Z = (x - μ) / δ = (97 - 85)/15 = 0.8 Z: 0 0.8
This corresponds to the area from z = 0 to z = 0.8 which is 0.2881, thus the
commulative area is 0.7881 ( 0.5 + 0.2881) which is equivalent to 78.81%.
Therefore, the percentile rank is 78.81%

Application of Normal Distribution

1. Suppose the weekly sales revenues of major supermarkets (in thousand
pesos) are normally distributed with a mean of 172 and standard deviation of
30. Find the percentage of such revenues between 190 and 220. Among 300
among such supermarkets, how many are expected to generate between
190 and 220?

Solution: Let μ = 172 δ = 30

x1 = 190 and x2 = 220 0 0.6 1.6

Z1 = (x1 - μ) / δ = (190 - 172) / 30 = 0.6, A1 = A (z = 0 to z = 0.6) = 0.2257

Z2 = (x2 - μ) / δ = (220 - 172) / 30 = 1.6, A2 = A(z = 0 to z = 1.6) = 0.4452
Thus, the area of the region R = P(190 ≤ x ≤ 220) = P(0.6 ≤ x ≤ 1.6)
= 0.4452 - 0.2257
= 0.2195 or 21.95%
Interpretation: 21.95% of such weekly revenues are between P190,000 and
P220,000. Thus, if 300 such supermarkets are randomly selected, it is
expected that 21.95% of them will have weekly sales revenues between
P190,000 and P220,000. The actual number expected to generate weekly
revenues between P190,000 and P220,000 is 66 ( N = 300 x 0.2195 =
65.85≈ 66).
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Learning Activity 1. Problems

1. Given a standard normal distribution, find the area under the curve that lies
a. between z = -0.46 to z = 2.21
b. to the left of z = -0.6
c. to the right of z = 1.96

2. Find the probability that

a. P (Z ≥ - 1.28)
b. P (- 0.82 ≤ z ≤ 1.30)
c. P (0.82 ≤ z ≤ 1.30)
d. P (- 2.6 ≤ z ≤ - 0.55)
3. Find the z-score when the
a. area from z = 0 to +z is 0.3770
b. area to the right of z is 0.1230
c. area to the left of z is 0.8621
d. area to the right of - z is 8621

Learning Activity 2. Application

1. The average weekly income of 20,000 workers is P1,680 with a standard

deviation of P150. Assuming the weekly incomes are normally distributed,
find the number of workers who earn:
a. From P1,260 to P1,560 per week
b. Less than or equal to P1,443 per week
c. Greater than or equal to P1,987.50 per week

2. If the number of grams of hydrocarbons emitted by an automobile per mile is

normally distributed with mean= 1 gram and sd = 0.25 gram, find the
probability that a randomly selected automobile will emit between 0.8 and
1.48 grams of hydrocarbons per mile.

3. Pines Appliance Center guarantees their washing machine for a period of 1

year. The washing machine life was normally distributed with a mean of 3.7
years and a standard deviation of 1.8 years. What is the probability that a
washing machine will break down during the guarantee period of 1 year?

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