DEPARTMENT OF

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

Course Name/Title Engineering

Drawing
Course Code MTec 2041

Target group- Electrical Automation and

control Technology (Non-Teaching)
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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Definitions:
Different literatures define drawing in different terms while basically their core message remains
the same. For instance, look the following definitions given for drawing on different literatures;
Drawing is:
 A graphic representation of a real thing, an idea, or a proposed design for later
manufacture or construction.
 A graphic that represents an idea, a concept, or an entity which actually or potentially
exists in life.
 A way of communicating all necessary information about an abstraction such as an idea
or a concept.
History of Drawing:
Drawing is one of the oldest forms of communication, dating back even further than the verbal
communication.
Cave dwellers painted drawings on walls of their caves thousands of years before paper was
invented. But in later years, Egyptian hieroglyphics were a more advanced form of
communicating through drawings.
But the theory of projections of objects upon imaginary plans of projection apparently was not
developed until the early part of 15th century. It is Leonardo da Vinci who used drawings to
record and transmit to others his ideas and designs for mechanical constructions, in which many
of these drawings are still in use. But it is probable that Leonardo da Vinci prepared mechanical
drawings showing orthographic views as we do now. He did paint drawings; its subjective was
perspective projection instead of orthographic projection.
It is about 1749 that, the drawing with the current conventional representations came into
existence by Washington DC civil engineers.
Purpose of engineering drawing:
To appreciate the need for technical drawings, one must understand the design process, which
ranges from identification of the problem or need up to development of working drawings.
We can generally conclude purpose of engineering drawing as:
 to clarify problem or need

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  to document the various ideas and concepts formed
 to document the proposed solution

We can divide drawing into two basic types. These are:

 Artistic drawing
 Range in scope from the simplest line drawing to the most famous paintings. It
depends on painting skill rather than the technical skill. On the other hand it
reflects the individuals work.
 Used to express aesthetic, philosophic, feelings, beliefs, or other abstract ideas. So
that it is necessary to understand the artists’ idea in order to read the drawing.
 Technical drawing
 It is a means of clearly and concisely communicating all of the information
necessary to transform an idea or concept into reality.
 It is not an abstract or subtle. It does need an understanding of its creator. It is a
universal communication means for the professionals.
 Nevertheless of its graphical representation it conveys notes, dimensions, and
specifications (material).
Drawing instruments:
The preparation of technical drawing is possible only through knowledge and skill in the use of a
variety instruments. With the aid of knowledge and skill practice will bring perfection!
The following listed drawing instruments are the basic ones:
 Pencils: conventional wood pencil, or lead holder(mechanical pencil)
 Papers and drafting media(A4, A3, tracing paper, polyster film, tracing cloth, …)
 Drafting machines like T-square, drawing board or binder, ruler, set squares, compasses,
protractors, French curves, templates, eraser, dividers, … etc

Drawing paper:
For this course, we use 210mm X 297mm sized paper or A4 for the assignments or class works.

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We have the following elements to be noticed over the format of our drawing paper:
Border line: it is the peripheral heaviest lines which enclose all drawings.
Title Block: It is a box where all information about the drawing such as drawn by, checked by,
date, scale, title of drawing, drawing number and company name are specified.
Guide line: is the lightest line used to guide the height of alphabets.

Lines: Just as in English textbook the correct words are used for making correct sentences; in
Engineering Graphics, the details of various objects are drawn by different types of lines. Each
line has a definite meaning and sense to convey.
The following are some line types that are commonly used:

- Visible Outlines, Visible Edges: Type 01.2 (Continuous wide lines) the lines drawn to
represent the visible outlines/ visible edges / surface boundary lines of objects should be
outstanding in appearance.

- Dimension Lines: Type 01.1 (Continuous narrow Lines) Dimension Lines are drawn to
mark dimension.

- Extension Lines: Type 01.1 (Continuous narrow Lines) There are extended slightly
beyond the respective dimension lines.

- Construction Lines: Type 01.1 (Continuous narrow Lines) Construction Lines are
drawn for constructing drawings and should not be erased after completion of the
drawing.

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 - Hatching / Section Lines: Type 01.1 (Continuous Narrow Lines) Hatching Lines are
drawn for the sectioned portion of an object. These are drawn inclined at an angle of 45°
to the axis or to the main outline of the section.

- Break Lines: Type 01.1 (Continuous Narrow Freehand Lines) or (Continuous

Narrow Lines with Zigzags) used to represent break of an object.

- Hidden lines (Dashed Narrow Lines): Hidden edges / Hidden outlines of objects are
shown by dashed lines of short dashes of equal lengths of about 3 mm, spaced at equal
distances of about 1 mm. the points of intersection of these lines with the outlines /
another hidden line should be clearly shown.

- Center Lines: Type 04.1 (Long-Dashed Dotted Narrow Lines) Center Lines are drawn
at the center of the drawings symmetrical about an axis or both the axes. These are
extended by a short distance beyond the outline of the drawing.

- Cutting Plane Lines: Type 04.1 and Type 04.2 Cutting Plane Line is drawn to show the
location of a cutting plane. It is long-dashed dotted narrow line, made wide at the ends,
bends and change of direction. The direction of viewing is shown by means of arrows
resting on the cutting plane line.
Precedence of Lines
1. When a Visible Line coincide with a Hidden Line or Center Line, draw the Visible Line.
Also, extend the Center Line beyond the outlines of the view.
2. When a Hidden Line coincides with a Center Line, draw the Hidden Line.
3. When a Visible Line coincides with a Cutting Plane, draw the Visible Line.
4. When a Center line coincides with a Cutting Plane, draw the Center Line and show the
Cutting Plane line outside the outlines of the view at the ends of the Center Line by thick dashes.

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 CHAPTER 2:

DRAWING TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS AND BASIC GEOMETRY

Technical Drawing Instruments and Materials

Technical drawing instruments allow drafters to produce precise drawings. Technical

drawing instruments are the tools used by professional and student drafters to render the
precision graphics needed to manufacture a product or structure.

These instruments take many forms because of the variety of lines and graphics needed
for designs. Some instruments are manual, while others are computer-based. All professional
quality drafting instruments are manufactured with precision because the drawings they're used
to make must be precise.

The following information assumes a right-handed drafter. Wherever "left" or "right" is

written, the opposite direction may be substituted to apply to a left-handed drafter.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS

Drawing Table

Drawing Board

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Parallel Bar

T-Square

Set Squares
300x 600 triangle

450x 450 triangle

Scale

Ruler

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Drawing Pencil

Refillable pencil

Ink fountain pen

Fine pen

Pencil sharpener

Eraser

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Circle template

Ellipse template

French Curve

Compass

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Divider

Compass Adapter

Protractor

Paper sizes

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Tracing paper

Board clips

Masking Tape

Description of Drawing Instruments and Materials

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Drawing Table/Board
This has different dimensions that depends on the needs of a drafter. This should be a perfectly
smooth flat board of soft wood or metal are made in such a way that it cannot warp or split. All
angles should be perfectly true and smooth. The drawing board should be smooth and free from
any hard particle.

T-Squareare especially useful when constructing accurate orthographic drawings or architectural

drawings. A T-Square is normally used with a drawing board, set squares and clips. The common
parts of a T-square are the head and the blade. The common materials to produce T-square are
wood, plastic and metal. The substitute of a T-square is a slider which is shown on the figure
upper right.

Parallel barthis bar will slides up and down the board to allow you to draw horizontal lines.
Vertical lines and angles are made with triangles in conjunction with the parallel bar. The
parallel bar is commonly found in architectural drafting offices because architectural drawings
are frequently very large. Architects often need to draw straight lines the full length of their
boards and the parallel bar is ideal for such lines.

Set Squares The most common are 45 by 45 degrees and 60 by 30 degrees. When using set
squares they should always used along with a T-Square. The Set-square rest on the straight edge

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of the T-Square and this ensures when the angle is drawn that it is accurate. Please see figure
above.

Scale The architectural draftsman's scale is made in various lengths, but 12 -inch triangular
scale will be found best for student use. This has in one face the normal full size division of the
foot. The scale at which the drawing is to be made may depend upon three things: first the size
of the paper on which the draftsman wishes to work; second the size of the building or detail to
be drawn; third, the amount of detail that is desirable to show in the drawing.

A ruleris possibly one of the most important pieces of drawing equipment. Be remembered that
the edge of a ruler is not guaranteed to have a perfectly straight edge unlike a good T-Square or
set square.The recommended material for a ruler is a plastic but for cutting purpose, it is
advisable to use a metal ruler. Recommended maximum dimension of a ruler is 12 inches and it
is commonly known as one foot ruler.

Paper sizesThe rolls vary in width from 36 to 54 inches and contain a measurement from 10 to
50 yards. A 36 inch roll may be cut without waste into sheets 36 by 26, 26 by 18, 18 by 13, 13
by 9 by 6 1/2 inches.

Tracing paper is a thin white transparent paper for general use where one drawing is to be made
over another. But if ink was applied then you cannot use again. These material is recommended
to use in preparation of plans and specifications.

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Board clipsThey simply clip on to the board holding the paper firmly against the drawing board.
You can choose either plastic or metal clips. Figure below shows the importance of a board clips.

Pencil sharpener is an essential for sharpening pencils. Accurate drawings cannot be produced
unless they are sharp. However, when shading a blunt pencil is sometimes useful.This is an
electrical pencil sharpener and it is a heavy duty. Very precise and sensitive pencil sharpener. Be
very carefull in dealing with it so that it will not consume your pencil easily.

Drawing Pencils are a basic requirement of any graphics course. You need a
number ranging from 2B to 2H. These letters refer to the hardness of the pencil lead. When
sketching a soft lead such as 2B is can be used to produce quick drawings and shading. On the
other hand , when drawing precisely a 2H or even a harder pencil such as a 4H is ideal. This type
of pencil keeps its sharp edge for longer and produces very fine lines.

A refillable pencil is very convenient to use if you are constructing a drawing

that needs a constant thickness of line. The refills are available in a range of thicknesses and
either hard or soft leads.
Disadvantages are that the refillable pencils are relatively expensive and so are the refills. Also,
the leads tend to break more easily.
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 Ink fountain pens Often the pens can be bought with a variety of ‘nibs’ as a set.
These can be used to draw / write in a vast range of styles. This type of writing is called
‘Calligraphy’. Ink pens are rarely used now as word processing software can be used to produce
accurate styles of writing in a range of fonts.

A fine pen (color - normally black) produceaccurate lines. Fine pens are available
with various thicknesses of 'tips'. They are especially useful for printing and placing notes
alongside designs and sketches.

Eraser is a soft and a consumable materials. There are two kinds of it, an eraser for
pencil and an eraser for ink pen.

Circle templates They are plastic with a number of accurate circles cut out. Small circles are
difficult to draw using a traditional compass because the compass can easily slip on the paper.
With a template, the circle diameter is selected and a sharp pencil is used to draw round the
cutout circle. If these material is being used properly can produce precision on making circles but
it is limited only for small diameter.

Ellipse templates The description is similar to circle templates and these material can produce
precise outcome for drawing ellipse / oval shapes accurately.

French Curves are purchased in sets of three or four. These can be used in the same way as
circle or ellipse templates. This will create an irregular curve shape.
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A compass is an absolute essential piece of equipment. It is well worth buying a good set which
includes at least two compasses allowing the drawing of small and large circles. The drawing
opposite is a ‘bow’ compass. This is very effective in making big diameter of a circle and curves.

Divider is looks like a compass but it differs with its uses. Both ends are pointed, not like a
compass the other end has an attachment of a lead pencil.

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Compass Adapter is an attachment of a compass and effective for inking process.

A protractor is a typical protractor , a semi-circular piece of plastic with 180 degrees printed
around its curve. These instrument is not advisable to draw curves. The purpose of these
instrument is for determining angles only.

Lettering
Lettering is an art of writing text on a drawing by using alphabets, numerals and symbols. Texts
are necessary to provide specific information, like dimensions, notes, special instructions, etc.
The text should be clear and concise. Two types of lettering are commonly used --- (1) single
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stroke, and (2) double stroke. Single stroke or double stroke letters may be vertical or inclined.
The line width of a double stroke letter is greater than that of a single stroke letter.

Lettering Rules
The following are the general rules of lettering to observe in conducting lettering works:
1. Draw letters as simple as possible. Artistic or cursive lettering should be strictly avoided.
2. Draw letters symmetrical about the vertical axis or horizontal axis. Asymmetric letters
like F, R, Z, 4, etc. may be drawn as they are.
3. Always skip a space between rows of letters.
4. Normal lettering is made 1/8” or 3.5 mm high.
5. Titles should be lettered 1/4” or 5 to 7 mm high.
6. Fractions are lettered twice the height of normal letters.
7. Use a medium lead pencil (B, HB, F or H) for normal lettering
8. Use a hard lead pencil (4H to 9H) for drawing guidelines.
9. Round-off the sharp corners wherever necessary, e.g., D, P, S, etc.
10. Draw all letters legible and uniform.
11. The height of all the letters in one line should be the same.
12. Use single stroke vertical CAPITAL letters as much as possible.
Note: The word letter is used for alphabet, numerals, symbols, punctuation mark, etc.

Height and Width of Letters

The letters may have different heights depending on their purposes BIS (SP 46:2003) has
recommended the heights of letter as : 1.8mm, 2.5mm, 3.5mm, 5mm, 7mm, 10mm, 14mm, and
20mm. Large-sized letters are used for main titles and headings, medium-sized letters for
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subtitles and important notes and small-sized letters for dimensions and general notes. The height
of letters bears direct relationship with the size of drawing, i.e., large-sized letters for larger
drawings and small-sized letters for smaller drawings. Larger letters are preferred for ink
lettering. For pencil lettering, smaller letters are suitable. The readers are advised to use letters
of 10mm, 7mm and 5mm height to write titles, subtitles and notes/dimensions respectively on
the pencil drawing.
The body height of lowercase letters is taken as 0.7 times the height of capital letters. The tail
and the stem of the lowercase letters are drawn 0.30 times the height of a capital letter. Thus, the
total height of a lowercase letter is the same as that of capital letters.

The height-to-width ratio varies from letter to letter. Most of the letters follow the ratio 7:5 or
7:6. The letters I and l are the narrowest while the letter W is the widest. Table 2.3 below shows
the width of various letter groups.

Line Width
The line width of a letter depends on its height. Large-sized letters have more line thickness that
small-sized letters. The appropriate line widths for the letters of different heights are shown in
the figure below.

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 Gothic Lettering: Vertical & Italic Lettering
Styles of Lettering
Single stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering: This is the most common and preferred lettering style.
“Single Stroke” refers to the thickness obtained in one stroke of a pencil or ink pen. It does not
mean that a pencil or pen should not be lifted while completing a particular letter. The letters are
drawn upright. Figure 2.6 shows the alphabets, numerals, symbols and punctuation mark drawn
in a single stroke vertical gothic style (height = 7mm, line width = 0.5mm). The width of various
characters may be noted carefully.

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Single Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering: The inclined letters are sloped to the right at 75º from
the horizontal. The inclinations of all the letters should be the same. Figure 2.8 shows a sample
lettering of this style.

Double Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering: This style is preferred for ink drawings. The lettering
template is used to draw the outline of the letter. The letters are then filled in with ink.
Obviously, double stroke letters are thicker than single stroke letters. They are drawn
comparatively larger than single stroke letters. The line width varies from 0.1 to 0.2 of the height
of the letters. The sample lettering is shown in Fig. 2.9.

Double Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering: When thicker letters, mentioned in the previous
paragraph, are drawn inclined at 75º to the horizontal, the style is called double stroke inclined
lettering. See Fig. 2.10.

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Lettering Practice

Quite a good amount of practice is necessary for ensuring perfection in lettering. To start with,
lettering may be done with instruments, i.e., lettering set-squares or specially designed lettering
triangles. Lettering template (a plastic plate on which letters are carved) may be used for double
stroke Gothic lettering but for single-stroke lettering, the use of lettering template is not
recommended. Rounded corners and curved letters should be drawn freehand. After sufficient
practice, lettering may be completely done freehand. The instruments may be used for reference.

Pencil Grade: Use of proper grade of pencil enhances the quality of lettering. An H grade pencil
is the best choice for single stroke lettering. An HB grade pencil may be used for freehand
lettering. A pencil with a finely rounded tip gives a better result.

Hand Strokes: Practice of line strokes is extremely essential to ensure the speed in freehand
lettering. The horizontal lines in the letters are drawn from left to right. The vertical or inclined
lines are drawn downwards. The curves in the letter are drawn clockwise if they bend to the
right. An anticlockwise stroke is preferred if the curve bends to the left, see fig. 2.11. The reverse
strokes should not be used in any case.

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23
Use of Grid/Guide Lines: Initially, the grid may be used for lettering practice. It ensures the
proportion of each letter. Each grid cell is 1mm x 1mm. The grid lines should be very thin. Guide
lines provide an alternative to a grid. Three horizontal guide lines for capital letters and four
horizontal guidelines for lowercase letters may be use initially. Vertical guide lines may be
drawn to determine letter widths and spacing. After sufficient practice, two horizontal guide lines
(for capital letters and lowercase letters) should be used.

Spacing: The distance between the two letters in a word may not be necessarily the same. The
adjacent letters in a word are so placed that the background areas between them are seen
approximately equal. The spacing between words may be taken equal to the height of the letters.

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Fractions and Indices Lettering: While lettering a fraction, keep the height of the numerator and
denominator equal to 3/4th of the height of a non-fractioned number. The spacing between division
bar and the numerator or denominator should be such that the total height of fraction will be twice
of that of a non-fractioned number. The height of index may be taken as half of the height of a
base letter. See fig. 2.13(a) and (b).
Normal, Compressed and Expanded Letters: The normal, compressed and expanded letters are
shown in fig. 2.14. Normal letters, as the name suggests, have normal proportions and spacing.
They should be preferred as much as possible. Compressed letters have narrowed proportions (i.e.,
more height-to-weight ratio) and spacing. They are preferred when the available space is small.
Extended letters, on the other hand, have widened proportions (i.e., lesser height-to-weight ratio)
and spacing. They are used to utilize a large available space. Compressed and expanded letters
may be used to distinguish a sentence from other sentences.

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Alphabet of Lines
The "Alphabet of Lines" refers to the different styles of symbolic lines used in drafting such as
to show different features about an object that is drawn: hidden. construction, cutting-plane,
visible (object),dimension,extension,phantom,center,section,andborder.

Lines in technical drawings are part of a specialized graphic language that is standardized
throughout industry. Each type of line has a very precise symbolic meaning. Correct usage of
this “alphabet of lines” is essential whether you use traditional drafting methods or CAD.

In Drafting, or Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) -- the alphabet of lines are the different lines
that draftsmen, architects, engineers, et al use when constructing a drawing.

For example, a thick solid line is called an object line and represents the outline of a part on a
drawing. A dash line represents an edge that is not visible in a particular view, hence it is called a
hidden line.

Other common lines used in drafting include dimension lines, extension lines, construction lines,
border lines, center lines among many others depending on the type of drawing.

Symbolic Lines are meant for symbolic purposes only. For example, you might sketch symbolic
lines in an elevation view to represent a door swing. Symbolic lines are not part of the actual
geometry of the family. Symbolic lines are visible parallel to the view in which you sketch them.
Symbolic lines are mostly used in 2D drawing preparations.

Comparing Model Lines & Symbolic Lines

Model lines are always visible in three-dimensional views; they show throughout the whole model
while symbolic lines show only on the plane in which you placed them. Take for an example a
kitchen cabinet which in a 3d view or elevation is a 3d model with hardware and materials applied
to but in plan view all you want to see is lines representing the cabinet extents only then this is
where you would want to use symbolic lines.
The main thing to remember about model lines vs. symbolic lines is that symbolic lines are 'view
specific' while model lines show up in all views by default.

Model lines. By default, model lines are also visible in floor plan and RCP views. To control
their visibility in plan and elevation views

With the Symbolic Lines command, you can sketch lines that are meant for symbolic purposes
only. For example, you might sketch symbolic lines in an elevation view to represent a door
swing. Symbolic lines are not part of the actual geometry of the family. Symbolic lines are visible
parallel to the view in which you sketch them.

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An example of symbolic lines, phantom line to show the object is swing type, center lines to
represent and show the centers, and hidden lines to show the hidden portion of the object.
Symbolic lines are used in the drawing to meant for symbolic purposes

An example of model lines, to show the object in 3D.Note that in model lines symbolic lines are
no longer visible. The 3D detail shows the specifications in text form using a leader.

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Line Weight

Line weight and line quality are extremely important to a successful set of design drawings.
Usually a set of design drawings will go to many different people including the client, other
designers or architects, manufacturers, builders, and others within the profession. The lines used
for design drawings must be crisp and dark so that they are easy to reproduce and clear copies
can be made from them.

The line weight is the light or darkness and width of a line. Manual pencil drafting, drafting in
ink and computer-aided drafting documents must have a variety of line weights. Varied drawing
line weights, typically three, should be used on every drawing. These include light, medium, and
bold lines. Guidelines are used for page layout and borderlines are used for framing the page.
These different weights technically help to create an easy to understand document and
artistically add visual interest to the document. These documents must also have consistent
quality, which is uniformity of lines throughout a drawing. These two elements give a sense of
professionalism to the documents, provide visual interest, create a clear and easy to read
document, and demonstrate the drafting skills and abilities of the designer.

Keep in mind that the hardness/softness and the diameter of the pencil lead only help control the
line weight. You should need to use a consistent amount of pressure on the pencil as you draft to
keep each weight of line uniform. If the line seems either too light or too dark try varying the
amount of pressure you place on the pencil as you draft. Remember, these drawings are meant to
be copied and distributed to a variety of design professionals so the lines need to be crisp and
readable.

Line Types

There are standards for different types of lines along with line weight and quality called line
type. Each has a definite meaning and is recognized as a typical symbol or object within the
building trades industry. Listed below are the standard types of lines that will typically be used in
design drawings.

Solid Lines or object lines – are used to indicate visible objects that can be seen in plan,
elevation or 3D

Cutting PlaneLines –are heavy dash line followed by two shorter dashes. Each end has a short
line at right angle to cutting plane line, with arrowheads pointing in direction from which cut
surface is viewed. It is usually labelled with a letter at either end to identify cut surface
drawing called a “section”.

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Dashed Lines – are used for hidden objects or edges . These are used to show hidden parts of an
object or objects below or behind another object. Dashed are also used to indicate shelving or
cabinets above a counter. These lines should be in contact at corners and when perpendicular
to another line.

Movement, Ghost or Phantom Line – are thin lines and used to indicate alternate positions of
parts or an object. It also shows repeated details or location of absent parts. It is drawn as one
(1) long and two (2) evenly-spaced short dashes with the long dash at each end. These lines
are a series of dashes and very short dashes and are used to show movement or imply
direction. These typically are used instead of a dashed line to show an alternate position of an
object that can be moved. One object would be drawn with a solid line and its alternate
position would be dashed or phantom line. This can include bi-swing doors, the space needed
for drawer and cabinet door openings, sliding door opening direction, hinge points for doors
and windows in elevation.

Leader Line – are used to connect notes or references to objects or lines in a drawing. Leader
lines start as a solid line and end in an arrow. Leader lines may be drawn at an angle or
curved.

Break lines – are used when extents of a drawing cannot fit on the size of paper being used for
the drawing. It can also be used when you only need to illustrate a portion of a design or
partial view.

Center Lines – are used to indicate the center of a plan, object, circle, arc, or any symmetrical
object. Use a series of very long and short dashes to create a center line. If two center lines
intersect use short dashes at the intersection.

Section Line – is used to show a cutaway view of a floor plan. A section cutting all the way
through a floor plan is referred to as a full section. The direction of the arrows shows the
direction of the section view. The symbols on the end of the section line indicate the drawing
number on top and the page number the section will be located on the bottom.

Dimension Line – is used to show measurement of an object. It can be used to indicate length,
width, diameter, etc. The dimensions are listed in feet and inches (imperial) or meter and mm
(SI) on floor plans and elevations. Detailed drawings of cabinetry or other custom pieces are
dimensioned either in Imperial or SI.

The Following Figures shows the standard line conventions and samples on drawing
applications:

Standard line types and line weights A

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Standard line types and line weights B

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Example on how to apply line convention to a drawing

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Using phantom lines, center lines, hidden line and dimension leader in a drawing

Using break lines in a drawing

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Using phantom lines in a repeated detail indicating the alternate position of parts of the
item delineated.

Using section lines in a drawing

Phantom lines shall be used to indicate the alternate position of parts of the item delineated,
repeated detail, or the relative position of an absent part and shall be composed of alternating one
long and two short dashes, evenly spaced, with a long dash at each end.

Application of Line types and Line weights to engineering drawing:

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Standard line types and line weights C

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35
Drawing Template and Title block
Drawing Templates

Drawing templates are a key component of the drawing system. They specify styles and layers
available for such items as lines and hatched regions, in addition to specifying default properties
for the current drawing elements.

Included are several predefined drawing templates conforming to ANSI English, ANSI Metric,
and ISO drawing border standards. However, these templates contain only a minimum of
defined named styles. If desired, you can specify an existing template to be used as a default
each time a new drawing is created, or you can define a custom drawing environment as a new
template.

Standard layouts of drawing sheets are specified by the various standards organizations.

This is the layout of a typical sheet, showing the drawing frame, the microfilm camera alignment
marks, a typical title block, parts list and revision table:

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Above is an example of a standard sheet with notation of its parts.

The process of zoning in a drawing is referring for finding the location of a specific part, usually
used in an assembly drawing where there are many parts. This process is kind like reading
amap.A drawing may be divided up into a grid using letters and numbers. When zoning is used it
is located inside the drawing frame.
Zoning allows easy references to various parts of the drawing by referencing a coordinate such
as C7.

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The revision block or sometimes called the change block. This is record of changes made to the
original drawing. Drawing revision are made to improve the design, reduce cost, clarify
instruction, change dimension, correct errors, etc. A typical revision block may contain: Zone
location, Revision number or letter, Description of change, The date the revision was made, The
person approving the revision.All modifications to the drawing should be documented here.

A Material list or Parts list or sometimes called a bill of materials. This list is used primarily on
assembly type drawings that show more than a single part. Some of the more common Materials
listMay contain such things as the: Item number, The quantity of items required, Description of
the part,And other information.

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Some important information that may be contained in the titleblock are: Company name, Part
name, Who the drawing was drawn by, who the drawing was approved by, scale of the drawing,
Drawing number, what is the revision number, how many sheet's it took to create this drawing.

Title Blocks

The Title block is a boxed area containing general information about the part in the drawing. The
main purpose of the title block is that it contains important text information about the part such
as company name, drawing number, part number and other pertinent information. Different
companies may have some what different formats for their title blocks, but most of the time the
title block is located in the lower right corner of the drawing sheet.

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 CHAPTER 3:
THEORY OF PROJECTIONS

Classification of projections

Two broad projection types are viable with different further classifications. These are:
1. Parallel projection
2. Perspective projection

Parallel projection:
It is a projection where imaginary projection lines will not converge as a point on the viewer’s
eye. This implies that, all projection lines are either parallel or perpendicular to each other.
There are three main types of parallel projection system elucidated below:
Orthographic projection:
 Is a system of views of an object formed by projectors from the object perpendicular to
the desired planes of projection.
 Here we have three principal projection planes. That is to say:
o Horizontal projection plane (H)

o Frontal projection plane (F)

o Profile projection plane (P)

For example:

40
For the above object we can have orthographic projection as follow:

Fig. 2 Orthographic projection (Multi-view drawing)

Oblique projections:
 If the observer is considered to be stationed at an infinite distance from the object,
and looking toward the object so that the projectors are parallel to each other and
oblique to the projection, the resulting drawing is an oblique projection.
We have two types of representations of an object. Viz. Cabinet (Half scale) and Cavalier (Full
scale).

41
From the above object, you easily understand that the shaded face projection lines are 90o.
Whereas the rest are non 90o.
Here we conclude that, oblique projections show the full size of one view and are of two
varieties. The larger angle between the projectors and the plane – the closer the oblique
projection approaches the orthographic projection.
Axonometric projection:
 Is a presentation of a design idea that is accurate and scientifically correct and can be
easily understood by persons without technical training.
 Is a three dimensional drawing which is named alternatively as Pictorial drawing.
Depending on the angles found between the principal projection planes, we can sub divide it
into: isometric, dimetric and trimetric projection.

If  =  =  it is an isometric axonometric projection

If    =  it is dimetric axonometric projection
If      it is trimetric axonometric projection
Example 1: Isometric axonometric projection

42
Example 2: Diametric axonometric projection

Example 3: Trimetric axonometric projection

43
MULTIVIEW DRAWING
Definition:
Multi view projection is a method by which the exact shape of an object can be represented by
two or more separate views produced on projection planes that are at right angles to each other.
The system of constructing multi view drawing is orthographic projection. Orthographic views
are two dimensional views of three dimensional objects.
SYSTEM OF PROJECTIONS
There are two types of projection systems in use today. These are:
 Third-angle projection is used in the United States, Canada, and in many other countries.
 First-angle projection is used mainly in Europe.

Basically their difference relays on the position of projection plane or imaginary projection plane
or viewer’s drawing paper.

First angle projection system:

Observer <============> object <==============> Projection Plane

Here imagine that, the viewer is at left of the front view and looks at the object.
Note:
 Always top view will be placed below front view
 Always left side will be drawn on the right side of front view
 Always we place the right side to the left of the front view
 Bottom view will be shown above the front view

44
Symbolic representation of first angle orthographic projection is:

45
Example:

Third angle projection system:

Observer <============> Projection Plane <==============> object

Note:
 Top view is always projected above the front view
 The right hand side view is shown on the right hand side of the front view
 The left hand side view is shown on the left hand side of the front view

46
The standard symbolic representation for the third angle projection is:

Examples:

Comparisons

FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION

47
 R.S.V F.V L.S.V

CHOICE & LAYOUT OF VIEWS

Six principal views can be obtained for any object by using the principles of multi view drawing
or orthographic projection which are the maximum views. Width dimension remains the same for
top, front and bottom views. Whereas height is common for right side, front, left-side, and rear
views.
Only views that are necessary for a clear and complete description should be selected. Because
the repetition of information may tends to confuse the reader. So that, it is important to have a set
of views that describe an object clearly.
Technical drawings usually include only the front, top and right side orthographic views because
together they are considered sufficient to completely define an object’s shape.
GROUND RULES FOR SELECTION OF VIEWS
 Right hand side view should be used in preference to a left side view and a top view in
preference to a bottom view.
 Place the object to obtain the smallest number of hidden lines. When both views of an equal
numbers of hidden lines exist, the right side view will be traditionally selected.
PRESEDENCE OF LINES
The following listed lines are the various types conventionally used over the world now a day;
 Visible Lines – solid thick lines that represent visible edges or contours
 Hidden Lines – short evenly spaced dashes that depict hidden features

48
  Section Lines – solid thin lines that indicate cut surfaces
 Center Lines – alternating long and short dashes
 Dimensioning
 Dimension Lines - solid thin lines showing dimension extent/direction
 Extension Lines - solid thin lines showing point or line to which dimension
applies
 Leaders – direct notes, dimensions, symbols, part numbers, etc. to features on
drawing
 Cutting-Plane and Viewing-Plane Lines – indicate location of cutting planes for sectional
views and the viewing position for removed partial views
 Break Lines – indicate only portion of object is drawn. May be random “squiggled” line
or thin dashes joined by zigzags.
 Phantom Lines – long thin dashes separated by pairs of short dashes indicate alternate
positions of moving parts, adjacent position of related parts and repeated detail
 Chain Line – Lines or surfaces with special requirements
 Visible object line dominates all others. Object hidden line has precedence than center
line.
Below, there is a conventional representation for the precedence of lines. Places where required a
great attention are labeled and numbered. Please try to identify and understand.

49
When two hidden lines cross each other, precedence will be given for the more closure line.
Refer label number 1.
From this multi view drawing we observe how we label multi
view drawings.

In numbering views, near points are labeled on the outside

of the view and away points are labeled inside the view.
PROJECTIONS OF LINES AND SURFACES
A plane in orthographic projection can appear true size,
foreshortened, or as an edge. In the same manner, a line may be projected either in true length,
foreshortened or as a point in a view depending on its relationship to the projection plane.
A surface or plane may be bounded by straight lines or curves, or a combination of them. A
surface may be frontal, horizontal or profile, according to the plane of projection to which it is
parallel.

50
  If a plane surface is perpendicular to a plane of projection, it appears as a line, edge view.
If it is parallel, it appears as a surface, true size. If it is situated at an angle, it appears as a
surface, foreshortened. Thus, a plane surface always projects as a line or a surface. The
intersection of two plane surfaces produces an edge, or a straight line.
 If an edge is perpendicular to a plane of projection, it appears as a point. Otherwise, it
appears as a line. If it is parallel to the plane of projection, it shows true length; if not
parallel it appears foreshortened.

Conclusion:
 Planes or surfaces are projected either as an edge or plane.

51
  Lines can be projected as a point or a line.

PROJECTION OF TANGENT SURFACES

Tangent surfaces will be drawn by object line where the arcs are tangent not at the center lines.
Example:

Tangent lines will be drawn with no object line if arcs are tangent at the center lines.

52
NOTICE;
By this material we use third angle projection system to represent orthographic projection of
different objects, unless mentioned.
PROJECTION OF FILLETS, ROUNDS, AND RUN OUTS:
Round: - is an exterior rounded edge. Round edges can be represented by object line if surfaces
are perpendicular to orthographic projection, in that orthographic view. On the other hand if the
arcs are joined by tangent lines, the intersection point is considered sufficient to require an edge
on the view.
Observe the following examples:
Curves which bended before the turning points will not be drawn with object lines:

53
If the rounds are turned at the center line of the curves, object line will be drawn to show the
bending edge.

Fillets: - are rounded interior corners. They are preferred on design to avoid failures and stress
concentrations. Especially during casting, it will be given an attention on the manufacturing.
Note: On working drawings, fillets and rounds are never shaded. They are simply represented in
arcs.
Examples:

Run outs: - Small curves called run outs are used to represent fillets that connect with plane
surfaces tangent to cylinders. In conventional practice, fillets and rounds are represented by lines
called run outs. The run outs are terminated at the point of tangency.
Examples:

54
Partial views:

A view may not need to be complete but may show only what is necessary in the clear
description of the object. Such a view is a partial view. A break line may be used to limit the
partial view (a,b,d). If surfaces are symmetrical to center lines, a half view may be drawn(c).
Look the following drawings;

55
Revolution conventions or aligned views: -

We use this convention for objects where regular multi view projections are awkward or actually
misleading.
Established violations of rules that are customarily made for the sake of clarity are called
Conventional practices.
Study the following exercises:

Intersections:
In orthographic projection, an intersection between planes results in a line. The standard types of
intersections between cylinders are shown below:

56
 ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Orthographic drawing is the basis of all engineering drawing, and it is also the basis for
the study of Descriptive Geometry. A well-trained engineer or technician must be able to pick up
a drawing and understand it. This understanding, of necessity, involves the basic principles of
orthographic drawing.
Generally speaking, a course in Engineering Drawing consists of drawing various objects
in two or more views utilizing the principles of orthographic projection. These views may be
projected on the three principal planes - horizontal, frontal and profile – or on auxiliary planes. In
turn, the views may or may not be sectioned. Also included in a standard Engineering Drawing
course would be problems dea1lng with pictorial drawing, freehand sketching, fasteners, piping
drawings, working drawings, etc.
Many students entering an engineering school have had limited experience in
orthographic drawing in the high school or technical school which may have prepared them for
college. It may have only consisted of several weeks of Mechanical Drawing, but this previous
contact with the principals involved in orthographic drawing forms a frame of reference which
usually proves valuable in solving Engineering Drawing problems. Unfortunately, however, very
few college students have been introduced to the basic principles of Descriptive Geometry before
they enroll in the engineering school.
The question might then be asked, "Well, what is Descriptive Geometry?" Very briefly,
Descriptive Geometry is the graphical solution of point, line and plane problems in space. These
solutions are accomplished by means of the same principles of orthographic drawing which are
involved in making a simple three-view drawing of an object. Therefore the student who seeks to
understand Descriptive Geometry must also be acquainted with the basic principles of
elementary Engineering Drawing. In other words, Descriptive Geometry is the graphical solution
of the more advanced problems of Engineering Drawing; and both phases utilize the principles of
orthographic drawing.

57
1.2 DEFINITIONS
The following terms are used repeatedly throughout this course, and therefore a thorough
understanding of their meaning is imperative for the proper study of Descriptive Geometry.
1. Orthographic Projection - the use of parallel lines of sight at 90° to an image plane.
2. Image Plane - the plane which is perpendicular to the lines of sight. This plane is
located between the eye of the observer and the object which is being viewed.
3. Line of Sight - the path from the observer's eye to a particular point on the object.
These lines of sight are parallel.
4. Horizontal Plane - an image plane, all points of which are at the same elevation. [See
Fig. 1-1(a) below.] The top, or plan view, is determined by the projection of the object
on this plane. The lines of sight for this horizontal plane are vertical and are therefore
perpendicular to it.

58
5. Frontal Plane - an image plane at 90° to the horizontal and profile planes. [See Fig. l-
l(b) above.] The front elevation view is determined by the projection of the object on
this plane. The lines of sight for this frontal plane are horizontal and are therefore
perpendicular to it.
6. Profile Plane - an image plane at right angles to both the horizontal and frontal planes.
[See Fig. l-l(c) above.] The right and left side elevation views are determined by the
projection of the object on this plane. The lines of sight for this profile plane are
horizontal and are therefore perpendicular to it.
7. Folding line or Reference Plane Line - the line made by the intersection of two
image planes. It is designated as a long line, two short dashes and then another long
line.
8. Elevation View - any orthographic view for which the lines of sight are horizontal and
perpendicular to the image plane. It may be projected from a plan view, other elevation
views, or from inclined views. Any view projected from the plan view must be an
elevation view.
9. Inclined View - any orthographic view for which the lines of sight are neither
horizontal nor vertical. It may be projected from an elevation view or other inclined
views, but never from a plan view.
10. Line - the path of a moving point.
11. Straight Line - the path of a moving point proceeding constantly in the same
direction. A line having a definite length is determined by its extremities. However,
any two points on the line may be chosen for the purpose of locating the entire line in
another view. The end view of a line is a point which represents all points on the line.
12. Level Line - a line which is parallel to the horizontal image plane and which
therefore has all points on the line at the same elevation. It will appear in its true
length in the plan view. [See Fig. 1-2(a) below.]
13. Frontal Line - a line which lies parallel to the frontal image plane. The line must
show in its true length in the front view even though it may be level, vertical, or
inclined. [See Fig. 1-2(b) below.]
14. Profile Line - an inclined line which lies parallel to the profile image plane. The line
must show in its true length in the profile view. [See Fig. 1-2(c) above.]

59
15. Vertical Line - a line which is perpendicular to a level plane. It will appear in its true
length in any elevation view.
16. Inclined Line - a line neither vertical nor horizontal but which may appear in its true
length in either the frontal or profile planes. It cannot appear in its true length in the
plan view.
17. Oblique Line - a line inclined to all three principal planes. It cannot appear in its true
length in any of the three principal planes.
18. Contour Line - a straight or curved line used on topographical drawings which
locates a series of points at the same elevation. Therefore a contour line is a level line.
[See Fig. 1-3]
19. Bearing - the angle between the plan view of a line and a line running due north and
south. North is always assumed to be at the top of the drawing sheet unless otherwise
indicated by a directional arrow on the drawing. The acute angle is usually given for
the bearing. In Fig. 1-4(a) the line AB has a bearing of S 45° E. This means that the
line is located 45° east of the south line. If the bearing is taken from B to A, then it
would be expressed as N 45° W. The bearing can only be found on the plan view, and
furthermore, it is not affected in any way by the fact that the line may be level or
inclined. Fig. 1-4(b) shows some sample bearings.
20. Normal View of a Line or Plane -the view which shows the true length of the line or
the true size of the plane. A normal view of a plane shows the true size of any angle
on the plane and the true length of any line which lies on the plane.

60
21. Slope of a Line - tangent of the angle that the line makes with a horizontal plane.
Two conditions must be met in order to determine the slope of a line. First, the line
must be shown in an elevation view; secondly, the line must appear in its true length
in this elevation view.

61
1.3 MULTIVIEW DRAWINGS
By Multiview drawing we mean a logical arrangement of two or more orthographic
views of an object, shown on a one-plane sheet of drawing paper. The relationships of the views
are dependent upon the fact that both views are projected on image planes perpendicular to each
other.
Before an engineer can draw an object in space, whether it be a line, plane, or
combination of lines and planes, he must be able to visualize the object. Once he establishes the
position of the object in his mind, he then imagines that he is moving around the object to secure
the various views necessary to complete his understanding of what the object looks like. This is
called the "direct" or "change-of-position" method of drawing.

62
 In Fig. 1-5, in order to obtain a right side view of the block, the observer must imagine
that he has left the position in front of the block and is now looking at the block from the right
side position. His line of sight is perpendicular to the profile image plane and, as in the front
view, is still horizontal.
If the observer views the object from any position as he moves around the object and still
maintains a horizontal line of sight, he will be obtaining an elevation view since the elevation of
all points on the object will maintain their same relationship. The front, rear, left side, and right
side views are all elevation views. Likewise, any views in between these four positions which
have horizontal lines of sight are called auxiliary elevation views.
In Fig. 1-5 above, we have an object which lies behind the frontal plane, to the left of the
profile plane, and below the horizontal plane. This position in space is referred to as the third
angle projection, which forms the basis for practically all engineering drawing in the United
States. In the third-angle projection system, the image plane is imagined to be located between
the observer and the object. In third-angle projection, the block shown in Fig. 1-5 would have the
six basic views as shown in Fig. 1-6.

63
 In most foreign countries, as well as for some architectural and structural drawings in the
United States, the first-angle projection is employed. In the first-angle projection, the object is
imagined to be located between the observer and the image plane. Fig. 1-7 shows the six basic
views of our block as they would be drawn using the first-angle projection system.

Now, since most orthographic drawings of an object require three views, and since these views
are mutually perpendicular to each other, it becomes necessary to revolve two of the image
planes until they lie in the plane of the third image plane. These three image planes can now be
located in their relative positions on a one-plane sheet of drawing paper. The method commonly
practiced in a course of Engineering Drawing is that of maintaining the position of the frontal
plane and revolving the horizontal plane 90° about the H-F horizontal axis until it falls in line
with the frontal plane. The profile plane is then revolved 90° about the F-P vertical axis until it is
coincidental with the frontal image plane and the revolved position of the horizontal image
plane. This method shows the object in the position as shown in Fig. 1-8 with the plan view on
top, the front view in front, and the profile view projected from the front view. It is obvious that
the three-dimensional relationship of views is such that the front and top views show the length
64
of the object; the front and side views show the height of the object; and the top and side views

show the depth of the object.

In Fig. 1-8, it should be noted that the distance from the top of the block to the horizontal
image plane is the same in both the front and profile views. This would also be true for any
elevation view that is directly related to the plan view. The distance between the block and the
frontal image plane is the same in both the plan and profile views. These facts are very
important, and they form the basis for the transfer of distances from one view to another. The
distance from the block to the profile image plane is the same in both the plan and front views.
An alternate to the above method of revolving planes is that of maintaining the position
of the plan view and then revolving both the frontal and profile image planes until they lie in the
same plane as the horizontal image plane, or plan view. Fig. 1-9 below shows this alternate
method which locates the plan view on top, the front view in front, and the profile view is now
projected from the plan view. Both methods are correct and the student should feel free to use

65
either method to solve the problems unless the given data makes more practical the use of one
method in preference to the other.

66
 CHAPTER 4:
PICTORIAL PROJECTION (3-DIMENSIONAL PROJECTION)
OBLIQUE PROJECTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Pictorial sketches are a type of technical illustration that shows several faces of an object at
once. Such sketches are used by any industry that designs, sells, manufactures repairs, installs
or maintains a product.
• Axonometric
• Isometric
• Oblique
• Perspective
Axonometric projection is a parallel projection technique used to create pictorial drawings of
objects by rotating the object on an axis relative to a projection plane to create a pictorial
view.

Axonometric drawings are classified by the angles between the lines comprising the
axonometric axes:

• Trimetric-all three angles are unequal.

• Dimetric - two of the three angles are equal.
• Isometric-all three angles are equal.

67
68
2. OBLIQUE PROJECTION
A way of drawing which a three-dimensional object is represented by a drawing in which the
face, usually parallel to the picture plane, is represented in accurate or exact proportion, and all
other faces are shown at any convenient angle other than 90° typically 45, 30 or 60°.

The word “oblique” means “slanting” There are three axes-vertical, horizontal and oblique. The
oblique axis, called receding axis is drawn either at 30 o, 45o or 60°. Thus an oblique drawing can
be drawn directly without resorting to projection techniques.

In oblique projection the front face of the object is placed parallel to the plane of projection and
hence it is shown in its true size and shape. Therefore objects with curved shapes and circular
features can be conveniently shown in oblique projection. However it is only recommended for
objects that are not too large and whose contours are not overly complicated.

Fig: Isometric Drawing verses an Oblique Drawing

2.1 Types of oblique projection

2.1.1 Cavalier Projection:

69
When an oblique drawing is prepared to the exact dimensions of an object, it is called a Cavalier
Projection. In many instances, however, cavalier projections make object appear distorted.

In Cavalier Oblique Drawings, all lines (including receding lines) are made to their true length.
This means that if the object shown on the right is 40mm deep, you would draw it 40mm deep.

2.1.2 Cavalier Projection:

In Cabinet Oblique Drawings, receding lines are shortened by typically one-half their true
length to compensate for distortion and more closely represent what the human eye would see.
This means that if the object shown on the right is 40mm deep, you would draw it 2mm
deep. Cabinet oblique drawings are the most used form of oblique drawings.

2.2 Angles of Projections in Oblique

In oblique drawings, the three axes of projection are vertical, horizontal, and receding. The front
view (vertical & horizontal axis) is parallel to the frontal plane and the other two faces are
oblique (receding). The direction of projection can be top-left, top-right, bottom-left, or bottom-
right. The receding axis is typically drawn at 60, 45, or 30 degrees.

70
2.3 Object Orientation Guidelines (Basic Rules)
1. Place the object so that the view with the most detail is parallel to the picture plane.
Place complex features (arc, hole, irregular shape surface parallel to frontal plane.

2. The longest dimension of an object should be parallel to the frontal plane.

71
 3. In some cases the previous rules conflict, and when this is so, Rule 1 has preference as the
advantage gained by having the irregular face without distortion is greater than that gained
by observing Rule 2.

2.4
Time factor in positioning of view
Objects with contours formed by circular arcs or irregular curves are to be positioned parallel to
the projection plane. This can save drawing time because the circular curves can be drawn with a
pair of compasses and the irregular curves can be produced in their true size and shape as in the
orthographic view.

2.5 Basic drawing techniques

Similar to most pictorial projections, the general rules for constructing an oblique projection are:
 suitable only for relatively simple objects
 hidden lines are omitted, unless they are necessary
 center lines are omitted, unless required for dimensioning
72
It is advisable to follow the steps described below:
1. Draw a rectangle – overall width and height of the object
2. Extend parallel lines from each corner of the box back at an angle
3. Mark the extension lines at a point equal to the depth of the object.
4. Connect the depth of lines to form a box.
5. Add any details such as holes, notches, onto the front view (True size & True Shape).
6. Extend the details the depth of the object.
7. Complete sketch by darkening in the object

73
74
PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

Perspective allows an artist or draftsman to control the illusion of depth in an image with space
ranging from a few inches to many miles. Linear and atmospheric perspective must be used
together to make the illusion effectively. You will study each in turn then construct a
photomontage that exhibits your understanding of both.

Both systems of perspective describe how objects appear in relation to their distance from the
observer. This is not so much science as a means of describing, and by interpretation of
illustrating, objects in space.

A thorough understanding of the principles of perspective drawing is essential to creating an

accurate, and visually appealing piece of art. A lay-person with no technical understanding of the
principles of perspective drawing will nonetheless have an intuitive negative reaction to a piece
of art in which something is amiss. Using the perspective techniques shown in the preceding
tutorials, the mental impression they will make on a viewer will be so strong that once mastered,
the illusion of 3-dimensional depth will remain, even when the visual trickery involved in the
process has been revealed.

What is PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

• Perspective is a geometric method of representing on paper the way that objects appear in
real life i.e. they get smaller and closer together the further away they are from the eye of
an observer.
• It is the most realistic of all pictorial drawings
• It is is the way real three-dimensional objects are pictured in a photograph that has a two-
dimensional plane
• Perspective or central projection is used in creative art or technical sketching but seldom
in technical drawing

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
It seems obvious that the apparent size of an object decreases the farther you get away from it. It
is a surprise that this has not always been understood to be so. There is some indication from
looking at mosaics that the ancient Greeks knew how to use perspective but no documents from
that time have survived. The first written information about linear perspective appeared about
400 years ago. It was in Europe during the Renaissance that the concept of linear perspective was
finally formalized.

Linear perspective is a system for drawing objects that use lines and vanishing points to
determine how much an object's apparent size changes with space.

BASIC CONCEPTS
The horizon line is a theoretical line that represents the eye level of the observer. The horizon
line is the same as the horizon (the edge of the land against the sky) only on a large flat plane
like the ocean. Most of the time geographic features (hills) and other objects (trees and buildings)
make the horizon above the horizon line.

75
Indoors the horizon is often not visible but there is still a theoretical horizon line representing the
point of view of the observer.

Look at the three sketches below. The same telephone pole is in the same position in all of the
formats. The horizon (line) is different. Can you tell where you are in relationship to the poles?

PERSPECTIVE SYSTEM

• Observer’s eye is station point SP and the visual rays are the line of sights
• Picture plane is the plane of projection or the paper
• Visual ray at eye level marks horizon on picture plane

The first pole is seen from above,

the second from normal eye level
and the third appears to be
floating over your head. An
object's relationship with the
horizon line shows whether you
are looking up, down or straight
at the object.

Vanishing points are points (usually) on the

horizon line where receding lines (planes)

76
converge. The vanishing point (v.p.) is on the horizon line when an objects has horizontal planes
that are parallel to the ground. When the object's planes are inclined the vanishing points can be
above or below the horizon line.

The lines parallel

to each other but
not parallel to the
picture plane
converge towards
a single point on
the horizon -
VANISHING
POINT

Objects that are placed parallel to one another use the same vanishing points. Objects set at
different angles each have their own vanishing points.

One face of object is parallel to picture plane, one VP

There are two basic systems of linear perspective: one-point and two-point named after the
number of vanishing points used in each.

77
All parallel lines follow the same rules. If one goes to a vanishing point then all like lines go to
the same vanishing point. In most systems vertical lines are drawn vertical (not in three-point
perspective).

The station point represents the eye of the observer. It is the camera in a photograph.

The picture plane is the "window" that is represented by the picture.

The ground line is a line that is parallel to the picture plane at the base of the object being
depicted.

Orthogonals : In Linear Perspective drawing, the diagonal lines that can be drawn along
receding parallel lines (or rows of objects) to the vanishing point.

ONE-POINT PERSPECTIVE
One-point perspective is what you see when you look straight at the side of an object. It uses
only one vanishing point, hence its name.

The line of sight in one-point perspective is perpendicular (at a right angle to) the side of the
cube in these examples. That means you see the near side in plane view (actual shape undistorted
by perspective).

78
One point perspective is a system of spatial illusion (in our case, drawn on paper) where parallel
lines converge, or meet at one point somewhere in the distance. This point is called the vanishing
point. (vp)

There are only three kinds of lines used in one-point perspective:

Vertical edges are shown as vertical lines.

Horizontal edges (perpendicular to the line of sight and parallel to the ground) are shown as
horizontal lines.

Edges that recede (are parallel to the line of sight) are on lines that converge at the vanishing
point on the horizon line.

Note that these same three (and only these three) kinds of lines are used to draw the cubes
regardless to where they are in the picture.

Also note that the cube to the left, while technically correct, appears distorted. One-point
perspective only depicts objects near the vanishing point with accuracy.

79
In the following examples below, illustrates the different one point perspective viewing of
object. Fig. 8 is a normal view 1 point perspective, Fig. 9 is worm’s eye view 1 point
perspective, and Fig. 10 is a bird’s eye view 1 point perspective drawing.

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 CHAPTER 5:
DIMENSIONING

A drawing without dimensions is meaningless. Dimensions are necessary to show the exact size
of an object. Dimensioning refers to the act of giving dimensions, i.e., length, width, height,
diameter, etc., of the object. This information is provided by giving numeric values to various
features of the object on the drawing. A feature is an individual characteristic such as a flat or
cylindrical surface, a slot or a groove, a taper, a shoulder, a screw thread, etc.

Dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measurement and indicated

graphically on technical drawings with lines, symbols and notes. The important aspects of
dimensioning are as follows:
 Units of Measurement: on technical drawing we need to show lengths and angles. The
most convenient unit for length is millimetre. In civil
engineering and architectural drawing, inch or foot is often used
as a unit of length. Angles are shown in degrees.
 Symbols : Symbols are incorporated to indicate specific geometry whenever
necessary.
 Notes : Notes are provided to give specification of a particular feature or
to give specific information necessary during the manufacturing
of the object.

Elements of dimensioning

A line on the drawing whose length is to be shown is called and object line. The object line is
essentially an outline representing the feature(s) of the object. While showing an angle, the two
lines forming the angle will be the object lines.

Dimensioning is often done by a set of elements, which includes extension lines, dimension
lines, leader lines, arrowheads and dimensions.

 Extension line – is a short line drawn perpendicular to an object line. These line start
immediately or a few millimetres from the ends of object lines and extend a few
millimetres beyond a dimension line. Extension lines may be used to show an angle due to
space constraint. In such case, extension lines are drawn parallel to and at the ends of
object lines.
 Dimension line – is drawn between two extension lines parallel to the object line. As a
rule, there must be one and only one dimension line between any two extension lines. One
dimension line represents one dimension. While dimensioning an angle, a curved
dimension line is drawn by drawing a suitable are having its center at the vertex of the
angle.
 Leader line – is a line which connects a note or a dimension with the feature to which it
applies. Leaders are drawn at suitable angles, preferably 30º, 45º or 60º, and are never
drawn horizontal or vertical. One end of the leader carries an arrowhead which connects it
to the outline of the object. A dot is used instead of an arrowhead, if the leader ends inside
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 the object, figure 3.2(b). The other end of the leader is made horizontal. A note or
dimension is placed above the horizontal portion of the leader. Leaders are frequently used
to indicate the diameter or radius of a circular feature.

 Arrowheads – an arrowhead is drawn at each end of a dimension line. The tip of an

arrowhead touches the extension line. An arrowhead is also drawn at the end of a leader,
which points out the feature of an object. The various styles of drawing an arrowhead are
shown in the figure below. The arrowheads may be open, closed, or closed and filled. The
angle formed the barbs of the arrowhead usually varies from 15º to 90º. Sometimes, an
oblique stroke drawn at 45º to the extension line is used instead of an arrowhead

The closed and filled arrowhead is most commonly adopted. It is the form of an isosceles
triangle having a height three (3) times of its base. The space inside the triangle is uniformly
filled in. The size of an arrowhead should be proportionate to the length of the dimension line.
Too small or too large arrowheads should be avoided.

 Dimension – is a numeric value of length or angle expressed in a specified unit of

measurement. Dimensions are placed near the middle and above dimension lines or at the
center of dimension lines by breaking them. Since all dimensions of a drawing are
expressed in the same unit (i.e., mm cm or in), the unit is not written after the dimension
figure. Instead, a note “ALL DIMENSIONS IN MM” is written at a prominent place
(preferably on the left hand side of the title block) on the drawing sheet. The dimension
text should be same for all the dimensions on a drawing and should have a suitable size.

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Figure A

Figure B
Elements of dimensioning
For placing the dimensions on a drawing, of the two systems is adopted.
 Aligned system – dimensions are placed perpendicular to the dimension line so that they
may be read from the bottom or right-hand side of the drawing sheet. All horizontal and

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 inclined dimensions can be read from the bottom, whereas vertical dimensions can be read
from the right-hand side of the drawing sheet. Dimensions are place at the middle and on
top of the dimension lines.

 Unidirectional system – dimensions are placed in such a way that they can be read from
the bottom edge of the drawing sheet. All horizontal dimensions are placed at the middle
and on the top of the dimension lines while vertical and inclined dimensions are inserted
by breaking the dimension lines at the middle.

It should be noted that dimensioning leader for both system is the same.
Rules for dimensioning
The following rules for dimensioning must be adopted to achieve the good dimensioning
characteristics like clearness, completeness, readability and accuracy.
1. Between any two extension lines, there must be one and only one dimension line bearing
one dimension.
2. As far as possible, all dimensions should be placed outside the views. Inside dimensions
are preferred only if they are clearer and more easily readable.

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3. All dimensions on a drawing must be shown using either aligned system or
unidirectional system. In no case should, the two systems be mixed on the same
drawing.
4. The same unit of length should be used for all the dimensions on a drawing. The unit
should not be written after each dimension, but a note mentioning the unit should be
placed below the drawing.

5. Dimensions lines should not cross each other, Dimension lines should also not cross any
other lines of the object. However, extension lines may cross each other or outlines of the
object.

6. All dimensions must be given. As far as possible, there should not be need for
calculation, assumption or direct measurement for any dimension.
7. Each dimension should be given only once. No dimension should be redundant, i.e., no
dimension should be repeated directly or indirectly. If a particular dimension is
mentioned, directly or indirectly, in one view, it should not be repeated in other views.

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8. Do not use an outline or a centreline as a dimension line. A centreline may be extended
serve as an extension line
9. When it is necessary to place a dimension within a sectioned area, leave a blank space for
the dimension.

10. Avoid dimensioning hidden lines.

11. Keep dimensions 6 – 8 mm away from the object line and also from each other.
12. If the space between two extension lines is too narrow to mark arrowheads and the
dimension then one of the following ways, depending on space availability, should be
adopted.
(i) Draw arrowheads touching the outsides of the extension lines and pointing toward
each other. Place the dimension above the dimension line.
(ii) Draw arrowheads as in (i) above and place the dimension at one end of the
dimension line outside of the extension line.

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 (iii) Draw arrowheads as in (i) above and place the dimension at the end of the leader
which terminates on the dimension line.
(iv) For two consecutive dimensions, replace two intermediate arrowheads by a dot and
place the dimensions as in (i) or (iii) above, depending on the space availability.

13. For dimensions in series, adopt any one of the following ways :
(i) Chain dimensioning (continuous dimensioning) : All the dimensions are aligned in
such a way that an arrowhead of one dimension touches tip-to-tip the arrowhead of
the adjacent dimension. The overall dimension is placed outside the other smaller
dimensions.
(ii) Parallel dimensioning (progressive dimensioning) : All the dimensions are shown
form a common reference line. Obviously, all these dimensions share a common
extension line. This method is adopted when dimensions have to be established from
a particular datum surface.
(iii) Combined dimensioning: When both the methods, i.e., chain dimensioning and
parallel dimensioning are used on the same drawing, the method of dimensioning is
called combined dimensioning.

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 14. Smaller dimensions should always be placed nearer the view. The next dimension should
be placed next and so on The overall dimension should always be away from the view.
This will avoid crossing of the extension lines and dimension lines.
15. All notes should be written horizontally.

Below are samples figures on how to place dimensions in objects :

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 CHAPTER 6:
SECTION VIEWS
In an orthographic projection drawing, outlines and edges of an object are usually depicted with
continuous lines and internal details are normally illustrated by using hidden lines. When dealing
with complex objects, there may be many hidden lines and these hidden lines may become very
confusing. Thus, you can use sectioning technique to ‘cut sections’ across the object to show
internal details.

Sectioning
Using sectioning technique, the object is imagined to be cut by a plane and the portion nearer to
the observer is imagined to be removed. This way, the interior is exposed and is shown in
continuous lines. To specify the cutting, hatching is applied at the plane of cutting.

Hatching Techniques:

Hatching lines are thin lines and should preferably be inclining at 45 degrees. They should be
evenly spaced. If there are two or more adjacent sectioned parts, the hatching lines should either
be of different spacing or different direction. However, hatching pattern should be the same for
separate areas of a single object.
 Pay attention here:

 Typical cutting plane (knife edge) looks:

 The weight of the cutting plane is the same as that of a visible object line
 Letters can be placed at each end of the cutting plane to label the sectional view
The three standard positions of the cutting planes are:

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Types of Section

The various kinds of sectioning are:

 Full section,
 Half section,
 Offset section,
 Part section,
 Revolved section and
 Removed section.

Full Section

This is the normal way of cutting a section. The cutting plane lies on a single plane and passes
through the entire object. Half of the object is removed to show the internal detail.

Half Section

This technique is used to show the exterior and interior of a symmetrical object in a single
projection view. The cutting plane cuts halfway to the axis or center of the object. A quarter of
the object is imagined to be removed. The resulting drawing view is a half outside and half
section view.

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Offset Section

If the important internal features of an object are not lying on a single plane, a full section may
not be able to show all the details. Offset section is a technique whereby the cutting plane offsets
to pass through various features that would otherwise be missed by a full section. Thick lines
should be used at the change of direction of the cutting plane.

Part Section

Part section is a technique that is used to expose a small part of the interior of an object by
removing a small part of the object. The view is basically an outside view with a small portion
removed. The break line is illustrated with irregular thin continuous lines.

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Revolved Section

Revolved section shows only the features on the cut plane. It is used to depict the section of an
elongated object without the need to show the entire sectional view. Instead of projecting the
section onto an adjacent view, the resulting section obtained from the cutting is revolved 90° and
is placed on the same view.

Removed Section

Removed section is similar to revolved section in that only the cut plane is shown. However, the
section is placed elsewhere on the drawing.

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Parts not sectioned

To improve clarity, standard parts will not be section-lined even though the cutting plane passes
them. These standard parts are solid shafts, bolts and nuts, ribs and spokes of wheels, and
webs.

Conventional Revolutions
The strict rules of projection may sometimes be relaxed for the sake of better clarity. This
happens with odd numbers of holes on a plate or odd number of spokes on a wheel.

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Revolving and aligning the features on an outside view or sectional view will improve clarity.

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 CHAPTER 7:
WORKING DRAWING
Engineering drawing is any kind of drawing that communicates an idea, concept, or design.
There are many types of engineering drawings, and each type has its own set of rules, standards,
and conventions. The aim of this project is to create a set of learning modules to introduce
students from all engineering disciplines to the basic concepts and the use of engineering
drawings in the design, construction, manufacturing, and maintenance fields. In these modules,
students will learn the basic knowledge and skills in engineering drawings concepts, develop the
capability to read and interpret blue prints, and gain an understanding of 2D and 3D engineering
drawings.
An important engineering concept is that of modeling signals and systems in a manner that
enables their study, analysis, and control. We seek models that are relatively easy to compute or
estimate, yet at the same time provide insight into the salient characteristics of the signals or
systems under study.
Drawing standards and formats are the conventions and guidelines that define how engineering
drawings are created, presented, and interpreted. They cover aspects such as units, scales, views,
projections, sections, dimensions, tolerances, annotations, symbols, and codes. A fundamental
part of the language of engineering graphics the meaning conveyed by different types of lines.
The thickness and form of a line, as well as its relationship to other lines communicates
important information.
An engineering drawing is a subcategory of technical drawings. The purpose is to convey all the
information necessary for manufacturing a product or a part. Engineering drawings use
standardised language and symbols. This makes understanding the drawings simple with little to
no personal interpretation possibilities.
Line conventions
As in all engineering and technical drawings, multiview drawings and sketches require
adherence to the proper use of the alphabet of lines.

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Hidden line conventions
In engineering and technical drawing, it is important that hidden features be represented, so that
the reader of the drawing can clearly understand the object. Many conventions related to hidden
lines have been established over the years. The figure below shows the hidden line conventions
that must be followed when creating technical drawings.
 There should be no gap when a hidden line intersects a visible line.(A)
 Corners on hidden lines should be joined. (B)

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 There should be a gap when a hidden line intersects either a visible corner or visible arc.
(C)
 Three (hidden) intersecting corners, found in holes that are drilled and that end inside the
object (i.e., do not go all the way through the object), should be joined as shown in figure
below (D)
 At the bottom of the drilled hole, the lines indicating the tip (Created by the drill, which
has a pointed tip) are joined. (E)
 Hidden arcs are started on the center line or the point of tangency. (F)
 When a hidden line passes behind a visible line (i.e., does not intersect the visible line),
do not put a hidden-line dash on the visible line. (G)
 At the point where one hidden line crosses in front of another hidden line ( including two
hidden features, one closer to the visible view than the other), use a dash for the hidden
line in front; that is, if the front hidden line is horizontal, use a horizontal dash at the
point of crossing. (H)

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Precedence of lines
In a drawing, full lines, center lines and Hidden lines often coincide and a definite precedence
has to be fixed to avoid confusion. The order of precedence of lines is as follows:
1. A full line (Visible line), being most prominent, takes precedence over every other line.
2. Hidden line and Cutting plane line take precedence over center lines.
3. Center line does not have precedence.

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 Figure 1.99. Precedence of lines
Tangent Surfaces

Figure 1.100. Tangent Surfaces

Fillets and Rounds
A fillet is a rounded interior corner, normally found on cast, forged, or plastic parts. A round is a
rounded exterior corner, normally found on cast, forged, or plastic parts.
A fillet or Round can indicate that both intersecting surfaces are not machine finished.
A fillet or round is shown as a small arc. Fillets and Rounds eliminate sharp corners on objects.

A Chamfer is beveled corner used on the openings of holes and the ends of cylinderical parts, to
eliminate sharp corners at the end of cylinders and holes. Chamfers are represented as lines or

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circles to show the change of plane. Chamfers can be internal or external and specfified by a
linear and angular dimension.

Figure 1.101. Chamfer

Standards for Hidden Lines and center lines
In isometric drawings hidden lines are omitted unless absolutely necessary to completely
describe the object. Most isometric drawings will not have hidden lines. To avoid using hidden
lines, choose the most descriptive viewpoint. However if an isometric view point can not be
found that clearly depicts all the major features, hidden lines may be used.

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 Figure 1.102. Hidden Lines
In isometric drawings center lines are drawn only for showing symmetry or dimensioning.
Normally, center lines are not shown because many isometric drawings are used to communicate
to nontechnical people and not for engineering purposes.

Figure 1.103. Center lines

The basic objective of engineering drawing is to communicate product design and manufacturing
information in a reliable and unambiguous manner because engineering drawing needs to be
language-independent so that a designer in one country can specify a product that is made in
another country.
Engineering design principles encompass safety, functionality, good design, innovation, and
sustainability.
Fundamental Design Principles
 Accuracy – indicates how close a measured value is to the real quantity of what is being
measured.

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  Repeatability – describes how well a system can reproduce an unchanged outcome.
 Resolution – is the smallest variation the system can display.
Working drawing a set of drawing used during the work of making a product. Working
Drawing is grouped in to two:
1. Detail Drawing
2. Assembly Drawing
Working drawings are the complete set of standardized drawings specifying the manufacture and
assembly of a product based on its design.
Example of assembly drawing
The important features of assembly drawings include (i) they have a number of views to show
how parts fit together, (ii) they have normally section views to show how parts fit and to
eliminate hidden details, (iii) they typically have dimensions to indicate range of motions and / or
overall size of assembly for reference purposes, (iv) they have leader lines and balloons to
identify individual components, (v) they have parts list (bill of materials, BOM) which is related
to balloon numbers on drawing, and (vi) they can need multiple 3-D views (in different
orientations) on a separate page for very large assemblies. There are several types of assembly
drawings.
Special assembly drawing is prepared for the equipment catalogue. This drawing shows the
overall and principal dimensions and only those pertinent details and dimensions which are of
interest to the potential purchaser of the equipment. Figure 1.104 shows example of catalogue
drawing.

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 Figure 1.104. Shows example of catalogue drawing
The sixth is the assembly drawing for instruction manuals. These drawings in the form of
assembly drawings, are to be used when an equipment, shipped away in assembled condition, is
knocked down in order to check all the parts before reassembly and installation elsewhere. These
drawings have each component numbered on the job. Figure 1.105 shows example of assembly
drawing for instruction manuals.

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 Figure 1.105. Example of assembly drawing for instruction manuals
The seventh is the exploded assembly drawing. In some cases, exploded axonometric views are
supplied to meet instruction manual requirements. These drawings normally find a place in the
parts list section of the instruction manual for the equipment. Drawings of this type can be easily
understood even by those with lesser experience in the reading of drawings, since in these

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exploded views, the parts are positioned in the sequence of assembly, but separated from each
other.
Exploded views are typically used in assembly drawings in order to show the relationship or
order of assembly of the different parts. An exploded view shows the components of an object
slightly separated by distance, or suspended in surrounding space in the case of a three-
dimensional exploded diagram. In mechanical systems, normally the component closest to the
centre is assembled first, or is the main part in which the other parts get assembled. Exploded
views can also help to represent disassembly of parts, where the parts on the outside normally get
removed first. Figure 1.106 shows example of exploded assembly drawing.\

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 Figure 1.106. Exploded assembly drawing

Bill of Materials

One of the very important concepts of the working drawings is an Item (Part) List, or Bill of
materials. A complete set of working drawings must include a detailed parts list or bill of
material.

Parts lists or bill of materials (BOM) are complete lists of the items constituting an assembly (or
a subassembly) of detailed parts, presented on a technical drawing. Such item lists provide
necessary information for the production of the items.

The item list may be included on the drawing itself or be a separate document.

The BOM is divided vertically into columns by means of continuous thick or thin lines to allow
the information with regard to the different items to be written in under the following headings
(the sequence of these is optional):

 Item – the relevant item reference number as shown on the relevant drawing. Items can
be grouped by subassemblies or be placed in a sequential order;

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 Name of the part. The “name” column shows the designation of the item. Abbreviations
may be used if they do not decrease clarity. If the item describes a standard part (for
example, bolt, nut, stud, etc.), its standard designation should be used;
 A detail number for the part in the assembly;
 The part material, for example, cast iron or bronze. This column shows the type and
quality of the material to be used. If this is a standard material, its standard designation
shall be given, e.g., ASTM A325M;
 The “quantity” – total number of that particular part necessary for one complete
assembly;
 The company-assigned part number;
 The drawing number;
 Other information, such as weight, stock size, etc.;
 Information on standard parts, such as threaded fasteners, bearings, motors, includes the
part name and size or catalog number;
 The “reference” column with different references – particular specifications, related
Standards, etc.

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