ALL LECTURES

Lecture 1
Complex Numbers and operations on complex numbers
Imaginary Unit
2
Imaginary unit is a number i with the property that i =−1 .

All of the normal operations of mathematics – addition, subtraction, multiplication

and division – can be applied to the number i .

Addition: i +i=2 i , 2 i+i =3i , 5 i+ 3i=8i

Subtraction: i−i=0 ,10 i−i=9 i , 3 i−5 i=−2

2 2
Multiplication: i⋅i=i 2
=−1 ,
(3 i)⋅(5 i)=15i =−15 ,
(4 i)⋅(6 i)=24 i =−24

i 5i 2i 2
=1 =5 =
Division: i , i , 7 i 7

Powers of the Imaginary unit

i 0 =1 , i 1=i , i 2 =−1 ,i 3 =i 2⋅i=−i , i 4 =i 2⋅i2 =1 ,i 5 =i 4⋅i=i

i 4 n =1 , i 4 n±2=−1

Complex Numbers
Definition. A complex number is an expression of the form

z=x +iy (1)

where x and y are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit satisfying the equality
i 2 =−1 ; x is called the real part and y the imaginary part of the complex number z .

For the real and imaginary parts we use the notation x=Re z and y=Im z .
Definition. The complex conjugate of the complex number is the number with an
equal real part and an imaginary part equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.The
complex conjugate of the complex number z=x +iy is given by z̄=x −iy

For example:
5+3 i and 5−3i

4−2 i and 4 +2 i

−1−3 i and −1+3 i

Definition. Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal
and their imaginary parts are equal: if z 1=x 1 + iy 1 and z 2 =x2 +iy 2 then the equalities

{
x 1 =x 2
z 1=z 2 ⇔ y 1= y 2 are equivalent.

Example 1. Find y from the equality 2 x−i=6+ ( x + y ) i

Solution .2x=6 ⇒ x=3

−1=x + y ⇒ −1=3+ y ⇒ y=−4

Example 2.Find real solutions of equation

( 4 +2 i ) x + ( 5−3 i ) y=13+i
Solution. Select the real and imaginary parts

( 4 x+5 y ) +i ( 2 x−3 y )=13+i

Hence
{42xx−3
+5 y=13
y=1 Solving this system, we find x=2 , y=1

Complex numbers may be represented in a plane. To do this we take a Cartesian

coordinate system x , y which enables us to represent any number of the form
z=x +iy as a point.
Real numbers are a special case of complex numbers: if we put y=0 in formula (1)
we may regard a complex number x +i⋅0 as representing real number x ; real
numbers are represented as points lying on the real axis i.e. on the x -axis. Complex
numbers that not real are called imaginary. Thus, every complex number is either
real or imaginary. A complex number without a real part ( i.e. with the real part equal
to zero) is called pure imaginary; such numbers are represented by points of the y -
axis which is called imaginary axis .

It is often convenient to introduce polar coordinates in a complex plane. The polar

coordinates ρ and θ of the point, which represents the complex number z=x +iy are
denoted as ρ=|z| and θ=arg z . ρ is called the modulus or the absolute value of z
and θ is called the argument, or amplitude ,or phase, of z .

As is known, ρ=√ x 2 + y 2 , x=ρ cos θ , and y= ρsin θ .This implies, by (1) , that
z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ ) (2)

Hence, each complex number can be written in the so-called trigonometric form (2).

The modulus of a complex number is a certain uniquely defined non-negative real

number whereas the argument is defined within an integral multiple of 2 π . For
π
Argi= +2 kπ
instance, |i|=1 and 2 ( k=0 ,±1 ,±2 ,. .. ) . The sign Argz denotes the
totality of all the possible values of the argument of a complex number z .Thus, Argz
has infinitely many different values. There is, however, one and only one value of
, denoted as arg z ,which satisfies the inequality −π <arg z ≤π ; arg z is called
the principal value of the argument.

{
y
arctan ,if x >0
x
y
π + arctan ,if x <0 , y≥0
x
y
arg z = −π + arctan , if x <0 , y <0
x
π
,if x=0 , y >0
2
π
− ,if x=0 , y <0
2

Example 3.Let`s consider the complex number z=2+2 i .Find ρ and θ .

Solution. Let`s take the point ( x , y ) =( 2 ,2 )

ρ=|z|=√ 22 +2 2=√ 8
y 2 π
tanθ= = =1 θ=arctan 1=
x 2 ⇒ 4
Example 4

Represent the following complex number z=2−2i in trigonometric form

Solution.
 y −2 π
tanθ= = =−1 θ=arctan (−1 ) =−
√
ρ=|z|= 2 + (−2 ) = √8=2 √2 ,
2 2
x 2 , 4

z=2 √ 2[cos − ( ) π
4
π
+i sin − ]
4 ( )
Example 5

Represent the following complex number z=−1−i √ 3 in trigonometric

form

Solution.

tanθ= = √ = √3
y − 3
√
ρ=|z|= (−1 ) + (−√3 ) =2 ,
2
x −1
2
,

π −2 π
θ=−π +arctan √ 3=−π + =
3 3

z=2[ cos − ( ) 2π
3
+i sin −
2π
3( )
]

Operations on the complex numbers.

Let two complex numbers z 1=x 1 + iy 1 and z 2 =x2 +iy 2 be given.

1.Addition .Two complex numbers z 1 and z 2 are most easily added by separately
adding their real and imaginary parts of the summands. That is to say:
z 1 + z 2 =( x 1 +iy 1 ) + ( x2 +iy 2 ) =( x 1 + x 2 ) +i ( y 1 + y 2 )

2.Subtraction.Similarly, subtraction can be performed as

z 1−z 2 =( x 1 +iy 1 ) −( x 2 +iy 2 ) =( x 1−x 2 ) +i ( y 1− y 2 )

3.Multiplication. The product z 1 z 2 of complex numbers is called a complex number

z 1 z 2=( x1 x 2 − y 1 y 2 ) +i ( x 1 y 2 + x2 y 1 )
and
z z̄=x 2 + y 2

If we use the trigonometric form z 1= ρ1 ( cos θ 1 +i sinθ 1 ) , z 2 =ρ2 ( cos θ2 +i sin θ2 )

then the product z 1 z 2 can be written as

z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ )= ρ1 ( cos θ 1 +i sin θ1 ) ρ2 ( cos θ2 +i sin θ2 ) =
ρ1 ρ 2 ( cos θ1 cos θ2 +i cos θ1 sin θ 2 +i sinθ 1 cos θ2 −sin θ1 sin θ 2 ) =
ρ1 ρ 2 [ cos ( θ 1 +θ2 ) +i sin ( θ1 +θ 2 ) ]

|z z |=|z 1|⋅|z 2|,

Therefore, ρ=ρ1 ρ2 , θ=θ1 θ2 i.e. 1 2
Arg ( z 1 z 2 ) = Argz1 + Argz 2

Hence, when complex numbers are multiplied their moduli are multiplied and their
arguments are added.

4.Reciprocal and division. Using the conjugation, the reciprocal of a nonzero

complex number z=x +iy can always be broken down to

1 z̄ z̄ z̄ x y
= = 2 = 2 2 = 2 2 −i 2 2
z z z̄ |z| x + y x + y x +y
2 2
Since nonzero implies that x + y is greater than zero.

This can be used to express a division of an arbitrary complex number z 1=x 1 + iy 1 by

a nonzero complex number z 2 =x2 +iy 2 :
z1 z 1 z̄ 2 z 1 z̄ 2 z1 x 1 x 2 + y 1 y 2 x 2 y 1 −x 1 y 2
= = = +i
z2 z 2 z̄ 2 |z 2|2 or
z2 x 22 + y 22 x 22 + y 22

z1 ρ1
= [ cos ( θ1 −θ2 ) +i sin ( θ1 −θ2 ) ]
trigonometric form 2 ρ2
z

In

( )
z |z | z
| 1|= 1 Arg 1 = Argz 1 −Argz 2
i.e. z 2 |z 2| ,
z2
5. The real part Re z and the imaginary part Im z of the complex number z are
expressed through conjugate complex numbers as follows:

z̄ + z z̄ −z z− z̄
Re z= Im z=i =
2 , 2 2i

6. Each complex number can be written in the so-called exponential form

z=ρe iθ ,where ρ=|z|,θ= Argz

7.Euler`s formula states that for any real number x:

e ix=cos x+i sin x

where e is the base of natural logarithm. This can be proved through

induction by observing that

i 0 =1 , i 1=i , i 2 =−1 , i 3 =−i ,

i 4 =1 , i 5 =i , i 6 =−1 , i 7 =−i ,

ix
and so on, and by considering the Taylor series expansions of e ,cos x andsin x :

ix ( ix )2 ( ix )3 ( ix ) 4 (ix )5 (ix )6 (ix )7 ( ix )8

e =1+ix + + + + + + + +. ..
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!

x 2 ix 3 x 4 ix 5 x 6 ix 7 x 8
=1+ix− − + + − − + +. . .
2! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8!

( x2 x4 x6 x8
2 ! 4 ! 6 ! 8!
x 3 x 5 x7
= 1− + − + −.. . . +i x− + − +. ..
3! 5! 7! ) ( )
=cos x+ i sin x

The rearrangement of terms is justified because each series is absolutely convergent.

The rule of multiplication of complex numbers extends automatically to an arbitrary

number of factors. In particular, if we take equal factors then we have

[ ρ ( cos θ+i sin θ ) ] n =ρn ( cos nθ+i sin nθ ) ( n=2 ,3 , . .. )

,
 n
In case ρ=1 , we obtain the formula ( cos θ+ i sin θ ) =( cos nθ+i sin nθ )

Which was named De Moivre`s formula.

Example 6.Calculate (−1+i √3 )60 .

Solution. We represent complex number z=−1+i √3 in a trigonometric

form
−1+i √3=2 cos( 2π
3
+i sin
2π
3 . )
Using formula, we get
60
(−1+i √3 ) =260 cos 60⋅( 2π
3
+ isin 60⋅
2π
3)=

=2 60 ( cos 40 π +i sin 40 π )=260

Now we turn to extracting roots of complex numbers.

n
If z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ ) is given and √ z=w=r ( cos ψ +i sin ψ ) is to be found,
n n
then, by the definition of a root, z=w =r ( cos nψ +i sin nψ ) .Comparing
n
this with the original expression of z we conclude that r =ρ , nψ =θ+2 kπ .

θ+2 kπ
n ψ=
Since r and ρ are non-negative numbers, we have r =√ ρ and n .

Thus,
n n
(
√ z=√ ρ cos
θ+2 kπ
+i sin
n
θ+ 2 kπ
n ) ,where k=0,1,2,3,…,n-1
4
Example 7. Find all values of √ 1−i .
Solution. We represent complex number 1−i in a trigonometric form
1−i= √ 2 cos −
[ ( π4 )+i sin (− π4 )]

[ ( ) ( )]
π π
− +2 kπ − +2 kπ
4 8 4 4
√ 1−i= √2 cos + i sin
4 4
Hence,

Believing k=0,1,2,3 we find

( k =0 )
4 8
( π
√ 1−i= √2 cos −isin
π
16 16 )
( k =1 )
4 8
(
7π
√ 1−i= √2 cos +isin
7π
16 16 )
( k =2 )
4 8
(
√ 1−i= √2 cos
15 π
+isin
16
15 π
16 )
( k =3 )
4 8
√ 1−i= √2 cos(23 π
16
+ isin
23 π
16 )
Examples:

z2
Example 1. Given that z 1=3+4 i , z 2 =1−2 i ,calculate: z1

Solution.
z2 z 2 z̄ 1 z 2 z̄ 1
= =
z1 z 1 z̄ 1 |z 1|2

z2 1−2i ( 1−2 i )( 3−4 i ) 3−4 i−6 i+8 i 2 −5−10 i 1 2

= = = = =− − i
z1 3+ 4 i 9+16 25 25 5 5

Example 2.
Find modulus and the argument of z :

π π
z=−sin −icos
8 8
Solution. We have

π π
x=−sin < 0 y=−cos <0
8 8
,

In this case principal value of the argument is

y
arg z =−π +arctan
x
π
−cos
arg z =−π + arctan
−sin
8
π ( )
π
=−π +arctan cot =
8
8

[ ( )]
π π
=−π + arctan tan − =−π +arctan tan
2 8 (
3π
8
=−π + =
8 )
3 π −5 π
8

5π
Argz=− +2 kπ
Hence, 8 ( k=0,±1,±2,... )

Absolute value of z is

√ π π
ρ=|z|= sin2 + cos2 =1
8 8

Example 3.

Write complex numbers in trigonometric form:

a)-2 b) 2 i

Solution.
a) We have x=−2< 0 y=0
,

ρ=|z|=2
In this case principal value of the argument is

y
arg z =π + arctan =π
x

Hence, trigonometric form is z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ )=2 ( cos π +i sin π )

b) We have x=0 y=2>0

,

ρ=|z|=2
In this case principal value of the argument is

π
arg z =
2

Hence, trigonometric form is

π
z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ )=2 cos +i sin
2 (π
2 )
Example 4.

( )
40
1+i √ 3
Calculate: 1−i
Solution.

1+i √3
Let`s consider

ρ=|z|=2 In this case principal value of the argument is

,
 arg z=arctan =arctan √ =
y 3 π
x 1 3

Hence, trigonometric form is

π
(
z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ )=2 cos +i sin
3
π
3 )
40
(
( 1+ √ 3 ) =240 cos
40 π
3
+isin
3 )
40 π
=

[ ( ) ( )]
240 cos 14 π−
2π
3
+isin 14 π−
2π
3
=

[ ( ) ( )] (
¿ 240 cos −
2π
3
+isin −
2π
3
=249 − −i √
1
2 2
3

20
)
, Let`s consider ( 1−i ) =[ ( 1−i ) ] =( 1−2 i+ i ) =(−2 i ) =2
40 2 2 20 20 20

Now

240 (
−1−√ 3
)
( )
40
1+i √ 3 2
= 20
=−2 19
( 1+ √ 3 )
1−i 2
5.Represent complex number −1−i √ 3
Example
exponentially.
Solution. We have

√ 2
ρ=|z|= (−1 )2 + (−√3 ) =2 In this case principal value of the argument is
,

arg z =−π +arctan =−π +arctan √ =−π + =−

y 3 π 2π
x 1 3 3

So, exponential form is

−2 π
i
−1−i √ 3=2 e 3
 Test

1.Given that z 1=3+4 i , z 2 =1−2 i ,calculate:

z1 z2
z 1−z 2 b) 2 c)
|z 1| d) z1
a)

2.Perform the indicated operation and write the answers in standard

form: a) (−4+7 i ) + ( 5−10 i ) b) ( 4 +12 i )−( 3−15 i ) c) 5 i−(−9+i )

3.Multiplay each of the folowing and write the answers in standard form:

a) 7 i (−5+ 2i ) b) ( 1−5 i ) (−9+2 i ) c) ( 4 +i ) ( 2+ 3i ) d) ( 1−8i ) ( 1+8 i )

4.Find modulus and the argument of z :

π π
z=−sin −icos
a) 8 8 b) z=4+3 i c) z=−2+2 √ 3 i

5.Write complex numbers in trigonometric form:

a)-2 b) 2 i c) −√ 2+i √ 2

6. Write complex numbers in exponential form:

a) i b) −1−i √ 3 c) -2

7. Calculate:

( )
40
1+i √ 3
6
a) ( 2−2i )
7
b)
( √ 3−3 i ) c)
1−i

8. Find all values of root

b) √ i
3
c) √ −1+i
4
a) √ −1
9. Find real solutions of equation

( 3 x−i ) (2+i ) + ( x−iy )( 1+2 i )=5+6 i

10.Prove the following relations:

( )
z1 z
= 1
z 1 + z 2 =z 1 + z 2 z 1 z 2=z 1 z 2 z2 z2
a) b) c)

Lecture 2

Matrices

Definitions. A matrix is a rectangular array of real (or complex) numbers. We’ll only
deal with real number matrices. The individual values in the matrix are called entries.
The size of the array is written as m× n , where m− is number of rows, n is number
of columns.

A matrix can be put down in the general form as

( )
a11 a12 . .. a 1n
a a 22 . .. a 2n
A= 21
. . . . .. . .. ...
am 1 am 2 . .. amn

The numbers
a ij are called entries the i indexes the rows of matrix and the j

indexes the column of matrix. An n×1 matrix v=( v n1 )=( v n ) is called a column
vector, written

()
v1
v= v 2
vn

a 1×n matrix v=( v 1n )=( v n ) is called row vector, written v=( v 1 , v 2 . .. v n )

 ( )
a11 a12 .. . a1 n
A= a 21 a22 .. . a2 n
... .. . .. . .. .
an 1 a n2 .. . ann
If m= n the matrix is called square

In this case we have:

1) A matrix is said to be diagonal if

a ij=0 i≠ j

A diag ( d 1 , d 2 , . .. , d n )
2) A diagonal matrix may be denoted by where
a ii=d i , aij =0 j≠i

The diagonal matrix diag ( 1,1,...,1 ) is called identity matrix and is usually denoted by

( )
1 0 0 .. 0
0 1 0 .. 0
I n= 0 0 1 .. 0
.. .. .. .. ..
0 0 0 .. 1

A matrix whose all elements are equal to zero is called a zero matrix. In case of
square matrix we introduce the notions of principal and secondary diagonals.

Principal diagonal is diagonal a 11 , a22 , . .. a nn connecting the left uppermost element

with the right lowermost element.

The secondary diagonal is diagonal a n1 ,a n−1 ,2 ...a1n connecting the left lowermost
element with the right uppermost element.

Equality. Addition. Multiplication.

I.
a =b
Two matrices A and B are equal if they have the same size and ij ij for

all i , j
 II. If A and B are matrices of the same size then the sum A and B is defined

by C= A+ B , where
c ij =aij + bij for all i , j

( a11
a21
a12
a22
a13
a23 )(
b
+ 11
b 21
b12
b22
b13
b23 )(
a +b
= 11 11
a21+ b21
a 12+b 12
a 22+b 22
a13 +b13
a23 +b23 )
III. If A is any matrix and α- is a scalar (real number), then the scalar
b =αa ij for all i , j
multiplication B=αA is defined by ij

α
( a11 a12 a13
a 21 a22 a23
αa
)(
= 11
αa 12 αa 13
αa21 αa 22 αa 23 )
IV. We can also compute the difference D= A−B by summing A and (−1 ) B ;
D= A−B= A+ (−1 ) B matrix subtraction

The set of all m× n matrices is demoted by M m , n ( F ) , where F is the underlying

field (usually R or C ). In the case where m= n we write M n ( F ) to demote the

matrices of size n×n .

Properties. If A , B ,C ∈ M m , n ( F ) and α , β ∈ F then

(1) A+ B= B+ A commutativity

(2) A+ ( B+C )=( A+ B ) +C associativity

(3) α ( A +B )=αA + αB distributivity of a scholar

(4) If B=0 (a matrix of all zeros) then A+ B= A +0= A

(5) ( α + β ) A=αA + βA

(6) α ( βA )=αβ A

V. Multiplication of two matrices.

To multiply two matrices it is necessary that the number of columns of the first matrix
be equal to the number of the rows of the second one; if otherwise, the multiplication
is impossible.

Let A is matrix of size m× n and B is n×p .The product C= AB is the m× p

n 1≤i≤m
c ij =∑ aik bkj
matrix defined by k =1 1≤ j≤ p

so

( a11 a12
a21 a22 )( b11 b12 b 13
b21 b22 b 23 )(
a b +a b a b +a b a b +a b
= 11 11 12 21 11 12 12 22 11 13 12 23
a21 b11+a22 b 21 a21 b12+a22 b22 a21 b13 +a 22 b23 )
Properties of matrix multiplication

Assume A , B ,C are matrices for which all products below make sense. Then

(1) AB≠BA

(2) ( AB ) C= A ( BC )

(3) A ( B+C )=AB+ AC

A2 = A×A
3 2
(4) if A is square matrix then A = A × A
AI n = A
I A= A where I n − is identity matrix
(5) n
Examples

( ) ( )
A=
1 2
3 4
B=
−1 1
0 1 ,

AB=(
−3 7 ) (3 4 )
−1 3 2 2
BA=
, so AB≠BA .
 The Transpose of a matrix

Given an m× n matrix A , the transpose of A is the n×m matrix, denoted by

AT whose columns are formed from the corresponding rows of A .

Determinants

Every square matrix has associated with it scalar called its determinant. Given a

matrix A , we use |A| or det ( A ) to designate its determinant. The determinant of the

first order of square matrix A is the scalar defined by det ( A )=|a11|=a 11 .

The determinant of the second order of square matrix A is the scalar defined by

a a
det ( A )=| 11 12|=a11 a22−a 21 a12
a 21 a22

The determinant of 3×3 matrix is the scalar the defined by

a11 a12 a13

|a21 a22 a 23|=a11 a 22 a33 +a12 a 23 a 31+a21 a32 a 13−a31 a22 a13−a32 a23 a11−a12 a21 a33
a31 a32 a33

Properties of determinants

I. Interchanging two rows or two columns of a determinant is equivalent to

multiplying the determinant by −1

For example,

a11 a12 a13 a13 a12 a11

|a21 a22 a 23|=−|a23 a22 a21|
a31 a32 a33 a33 a32 a31
 (we have interchanged the third and the first columns)

II. A determinant having two identical rows or columns is equal to zero. For
example,

a11 a12 a13

|a11 a12 a13 |=0
a31 a32 a33

(here the second row coincides with the first one )

III. If the elements in any row (or column) have common factor λ , then the
determinant equals the determinant of the corresponding matrix in which λ=1 ,
multiplied by λ .

λa11 a12 a13 a 11 a 12 a13

|λa 21 a22 a23 |=λ|a21 a 22 a23|
λa 31 a32 a33 a31 a 32 a33

IV. A determinant having a row (or a column) consisting of zeros equal zero

V. When at least one row (or column) of a determinate is a linear combination of

the other rows (or columns) the determinant is zero

VI. The determinant of the transpose of a matrix is the same as that of original matrix

|A T|=|A|
Rows and columns can be interchanged without affecting the value of a
determinant

VII. If each element of a row or of a column can be represented in the form of a sum
of two terms the determinant itself can be represented as a sum of two
determinants according to the formula
 ' '' ' ''
a11 + a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
|a'21+ a'21' a22 a 23|=|a '21 a22 a23 |+|a '21' a22 a23 |
' '' ' ''
a31+ a31 a32 a 33 a 31 a32 a33 a 31 a32 a33

VIII. Adding arbitrary numbers proportional to the elements of row (a column) to the
corresponding element of another row (column) of a determinant we do not
change the value of the determinant.

For example

a11 + λa12 a12 a 13 a 11 a 12 a13 a 12 a12 a13

|a21+ λa22 a22 a 23|=|a21 a 22 a23|+λ|a 22 a22 a23 |=
a31+ λa32 a32 a 33 a31 a 32 a33 a 32 a32 a33

a11 a 12 a13
=|a21 a 22 a23|
a31 a 32 a33

Expanding a determinant in minors of its row or column

First we introduce the notion of a cofactor of an element of determinant.

Suppose we choose an element of a determinant and then delete the row and the
column to which the element belongs. Thus we get a determinant of lower order
which is called the minor of the element of a determinant.

For any row i and column j define the ( i , j ) - minor of A by

i th row removed
M ij=det A| th
j column removed
i+ j
( i , j ) cofactor of A is the number C ij given by C ij=(−1 ) M ij
 Property IX. A determinant is equal to the sum of the products of the elements
of any row or column of the determinant by their cofactors

det A=a11 C 11+a 12 C 12+ a13 C 13

This formula is called a cofactor expansion across the first row of A .

Theorem. The determinant of an n×n matrix A can be computed by a

cofactor expansion across any row and down any column.

The expansion across the i -th row using the cofactors is

det A=ai 1 Ci1 +ai 2 Ci 2 +.. .+a in Cin

The cofactors expansion down the j -th column is

det A=a1 j C 1 j +a2 j C 2 j +.. .+a nj C nj .

Property X . The sum of products of the elements of any row or column of the
determinant by cofactors of corresponding elements of other row or column equals
zero.

For example a 11C 21 +a12 C22 +a 13 C 23=0 .

TEST

Matrices and Determinants

1. Find the matrix 3 A if

A= (−12 50 )
( )
6 8
A) 2 3
(5 15
B) 3 0
) (
6 15
C) −3 0
) ( )
1 2
D) 2 3
( )
3 0
E) 0 3
 2
2. Find the matrix A if
A= ( )
1 4
3 2

(
1 16
A) 9 4
) (5 20
B) 15 10
) (
13 16
C) 12 9
) (13 12
D) 9 16
) E)

( )
2 8
6 4

4 5
| |
3. Calculate the determinant −1 2

A) -3 B) 11 C) -13 D) 3 E)13

4. Find A−B if
A= (−21 03 ) and
B= (−13 −12 )
(
0 −2
A) 1 2
) (
2 −2
B) 1 2
) (
0 2
) (
2 −2
C) −5 4 D) −5 4
) ( 2 2
E) 5 −4
)
5. The matrices A , B and C are square ones of the same order. Each of the
following must be true EXCEPT

A) A+ B= B+ A

B) C ( A+ B )=CA+CB

C) A ( BC )=( AB ) C

D) AB=BA

E) ( A+C ) + B= A+ ( B+C )

5 7
| |
6. Calculate the determinant 1 3
A) 1 B)-8 C) 22 D) -1 E) 8

7. Find the matrix 2 A +5 B if

A= ( 91 36 ) , B=(73 45 )
( 53 26
A) 17 37
) (
B) 18 24
27 10 ) ( 25 26
C) 10 37
) ( 53 26
D) 32 14
)
(
17 37
E) 26 53
)

8. Find the matrix 3 A−4 B if

(
A= 2 3 B= −1 7
−5 4 , 5 2 ) ( )
( 2 37
A) 5 20
) (
B) 10 −19
−35 4 ) ( 10 27
C) 35 20
) ( 6 1
D) 0 6
)
( 2 19
E) 5 4
)

9. Find the matrix A−B if

A= ( 5 −3
−4 6 ,
B= ) (
4 −3
−4 5 )
( 9 −6
A) −8 11
) ( )
B) 1 6
8 1 ( 1 0
C) 0 1
) ( 9 0
D) 8 1
)
( 1 −6
E) 0 1
)

()
4
B= 0
10. Find the matrix AB if A=( 1, 2, 3 ) , 7
 ()
4
0
A) 25 B) 21 C) ( 5 2 10 ) D) 17 E) ( 4 21 )

11. Find the product AB if

( ) (
A= 2 1 B= 1 −1
3 2 , 1 1 )
(
2 −1
A) 3 2
) B) ( )
3 0
4 3 (3 −1
C) 5 −1
) ( )
1 2
D) 2 1

( 3 1
E) 4 3
)

12.Find the product MN if

(
M= 3 5 N= 2 1
6 −1 , −3 2 ) ( )
( 6 5
A) 3 2
) ( )
B) 5 6
3 1 (−9 13
C) 12 −2
) ( 1 0
D) 2 3
)
(−9 13
E) 15 4
)
5 3 2
|−1 2 4 |
13. Calculate the determinant 7 3 6

A) 50 B) 68 C) 0 D) 72 E)1

2 5 1
|0 3 4 |
14. Calculate the determinant 3 4 1

A) 77 B) 24 C) 35 D) 2 E) 25
 1 1 1
|5 3 6 |
15. Calculate the determinant 7 4 2

A) 13 B) 14 C) 49 D) 50 E) 15

0 1 1
|1 0 1 |
16. Calculate the determinant 1 1 0

A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4

( ) ( )
1 3 1 2 1 0
A= 2 0 4 B= 1 −1 2
17. Find the product AB if 1 2 3 , 3 2 1

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
8 0 7 2 3 0 3 4 1 1 0 7
16 10 4 2 0 8 3 −1 6 10 1 4
A) 13 5 7 B) 1 4 3 C) 4 4 4 D) 2 3 7

( )
8 0 7
1 6 1
E) 1 3 5

3
18. Find A if
(31 24 )
A=

(
9 8
A) 1 64
) B) ( 47 78
39 86 ) (9 6
C) 3 13
) (41 18
D) 30 81
)
( 20 13
E) 17 16
)
2
19.Find f ( A ) if f ( x )=x −5 x+ 3 ,
A= 2 −1
−3 3 ( )
 (
−3 9
A) 3 3
) ( )
B) 1 1
2 2
5 8
C) 1 0
( ) ( )
3 0
D) 0 3

( 0 0
E) 0 0
)
n
20. Find A if
( )
A= 1 1
0 1

( 1 1
A) 0 1
) B) ( n0 1n ) ( 1 n
C) 0 1
) ( 2 1
D) 1 0
)
( 1 0
E) 1 n
)
Lecture 3

Inverse Matrix

Let A ∈ M n ( F ) . The matrix A is said to be invertible if there is a matrix

B∈ M n ( F ) such that AB=BA=I .

−1
In this case B is called the inverse of A and the notation for the inverse is A .

A matrix that is not invertible is sometimes called a singular matrix, and

invertible matrix is called a nonsingular matrix.

A matrix A is invertible if and only if det A≠0 . The inverse of 2×2 matrix

A= ( )
a b
c d is

A−1 = (
1 d −b
|A| −c a ) |A|=ad −bc≠0 .
 Let A be an invertible 3×3 matrix. Then

( )
C 11 C 21 C 31
−1 1
A = C C 22 C 32
det A 12
C 13 C 23 C 33 det A≠0

1
A−1 = adjA
or det .

The matrix of cofactors on the right side is called the adjugate.

For example:

( )
2 5 7
A= 6 3 4
5 −2 −3 Find A−1 .

First, we find the det ( A )

2 5 7
Δ=|6 3 4 |=−18+100−84−105+16+90=−1
5 −2 −3
The nine cofactors are

3 4
C 11=(−1 )1+1| |=−9+8=−1
−2 −3

6 4
C 12=(−1 )1+2| |=−(−18−20 )=38
5 −3

6 3
C 13=(−1 )1+3| |=−12−15=−27
5 −2

5 7
C 21=(−1 )2+1| |=− (−15+14 ) =1
−2 −3
 2 7
C 22=(−1 )2+2| |=−6−35=−41
5 −3

2 5
C 23=(−1 )2+3| |=−(−4−25 )=29
5 −2

5 7
C 31=(−1 )3+1| |=20−21=−1
3 4

2 7
C 32=(−1 )3+2| |=−( 8−42 )=34
6 4

2 5
C 33=(−1 )3+3| |=6−30=−24
6 3

Then

( ) (
−1 1 −1

)
−1 1 1 −1 1
A = 38 −41 34 −1
A = −38 41 −34
−1
−27 29 −24 or 27 −29 24

Using Linear Row Reduction to Find the Inverse Matrix

1.Adjoin the identity matrix to the original matrix. Write out the original matrix
M, draw a vertical line to the right of it, and then write the identity matrix to the right
of that. You should now have what appears to be a matrix with three rows of six
columns each.

2.Perform linear row reduction operations. Your objective is to create the identity
matrix on the left side of this newly augmented matrix. As you perform row reduction
steps on the left, you must consistently perform the same operations on the right,
which began as your identity matrix.
 Remember that row reductions are performed as a combination of scalar
multiplication and row addition or subtraction, in order to isolate individual
terms of the matrix.

3.Continue until you form the identity matrix. Keep repeating linear row reduction
operations until the left side of your augmented matrix displays the identity matrix
(diagonal of 1s, with other terms 0). When you have reached this point, the right side
of your vertical divider will be the inverse of your original matrix
4. Write out the inverse matrix. Copy the elements now appearing on the right side
of the vertical divider as the inverse matrix.

( )
3 0 2
A= 2 0 −2
−1
Example. Find inverse matrix A , if 0 1 1

( ) ( )
3 0 2 1 0 0 5 0 0 1 1 0
' '
2 0 −2 | 0 1 0 →R 1=R 1 +R2 → 2 0 −2 | 0 1 0 →R 1=R 1÷5 →
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1

( ) ( )
1 0 0 0. 2 0 . 2 0 1 0 0 0. 2 0 . 2 0
' '
2 0 −2 | 0 1 0 → R2 =R3 → 0 1 1 | 0 0 1 → R3 =R1⋅(−2 ) +R3 →
0 1 1 0 0 1 2 0 −2 0 1 0

( ) ( )
1 0 0 0.2 0.2 0 1 0 0 0 .2 0. 2 0
' '
0 1 1| 0 0 1 →R 3 =R3 ÷(−2 ) → 0 1 1 | 0 0 1 →R 2=R 3⋅(−1 )+R 2 →
0 0 −2 −0. 4 0 . 6 0 0 0 1 0 .2 −0 . 3 0

( )
1 0 0 0 .2 0. 2 0
'
0 1 1| 0 0 1 →R 2=R 3⋅(−1 )+R 2 →
0 0 1 0 .2 −0 . 3 0

( )
1 0 0 0.2 0.2 0
0 1 0 |−0.2 0.3 1
0 0 1 0.2 −0.3 0

( )
0.2 0.2 0
−1
A = −0.2 0.3 1
So, 0.2 −0.3 0

Rank of a Matrix

Given the rectangular matrix

 ( )
a11 a12 . .. a 1n
A= a21 a 22 . .. a 2n
. . . . .. . .. ...
am 1 am 2 . .. amn

Let us isolate k arbitrary rows and k arbitrary columns (k ≤m , k ≤n ) in this matrix.

A determinant of the k -th order composed from the elements of the matrix A
located at the intersection of the isolated rows and columns is known as minor of
the k -th order of the matrix A . A matrix can have many minors; some of them may
equal zero and some may be different from zero. The maximal order of the nonzero
minors is called the rank of the matrix.

Every nonzero minor of a matrix whose order is equal to the rank of that
matrix is called the base minor of that matrix. The rank of matrix A will be

designated as r ( A ) .

If r ( A )=r ( B ) , the matrices A and B are said to be equivalent A ~ B .

Computing the rank. Let A be an m× n matrix.

Start with the minors of maximal order k . If there is one that is non-zero, then
r ( A )=k . If all maximal minors are zero, then r ( A ) < k , and we continue with the

minors of order k −1 and so on, until we find a minor that is non-zero. If all minors of

order 1 (i.e. all entries in A ) are zero, then r ( A )=0 .

It is useful to bear in mind that the rank of a matrix does not change as result
of elementary transformations.

The following transformations are usually understood as elementary:

 1) replacement of rows by columns and columns by the respective rows
2) interchange of the rows of a matrix
3) deletion of the row whose all elements are zero
4) multiplication of some row by a nonzero number
5) addition to the elements of one row the respective elements of another row
Example №1

Determine the rank of the matrix

( )
2 4 3 5
4 8 6 10
6 12 9 15

Solution. All the second - and third-order minors of the given matrix are equal
to zero since the elements of the rows of these minors are proportional, while the
first order minors (the elements of the matrix themselves) are nonzero.

Consequently, the rank of the matrix is equal to unity: r ( A )=1 .

Example №2 Determine the rank of the matrix

( )
1 0 0 0 5
0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 11

Solution. Deleting the 2nd row and then 2nd, 3rd and 4th columns from the

(
1 5
)
matrix, we obtain the matrix 2 11 , equivalent to the given matrix.

1 5
| |=1≠0
Since 2 11 the rank of the given matrix is equal to 2.
 ( )
3 5 7
1 2 3
Example №3 Determine the rank of the matrix 1 3 5 .

Solution. Add up the elements of the 1st and the 3rd row respectively

( )( )
3 5 7 4 8 12
1 2 3 ~ 1 2 3
1 3 5 1 3 5

Then divide by the 4 the elements of the first row

( )( )
3 5 7 1 2 3
1 2 3 ~1 2 3
1 3 5 1 3 5

From elements of the 1st row subtract the corresponding elements of the 2nd row

( )( )(
1 5 7 0 0 0
1 2 3 ~1 2 3 ~
1 3 5 1 3 5
1 2 3
1 3 5 )
We deleted the first row.

1 2
| |≠0
The rank of the last matrix is equal to 2 since, for instance 1 3 .

Consequently, r ( A )=2 .

( )
4 3 2 2
0 2 1 1
Example №4 Determine the rank of the matrix 0 0 3 3 .
 Solution. Subtract the elements of the 3rd column from the elements of the
4th column

( )( )( )
4 3 2 2 4 3 2 0 4 3 2
0 2 1 1 ~ 0 2 1 0 ~ 0 2 1
0 0 3 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 3

4 3 2
|0 2 1|=24≠0
Since 0 0 3 the rank of the matrix is equal to 3 r ( A )=3 .

TEST

Inverse matrix and rank of matrix

1) Given the matrix

A= ( ) 1 2
2 5 . Find its inverse

( )
5 2
A) 2 1 B)
(0 1 )
1 0
( −5 2
C) 2 −1
) ( 5 −2
D) −2 1
)
( )
1 5
E) 2 2

( )
1 2 −3
A= 0 1 2
2) Given the matrix 0 0 1 . Find its inverse

( ) ( ) ( )
1 −2 7 1 0 0 1 0 3
0 1 −2 2 1 0 0 1 2
A) 0 0 1 B) −3 2 1 C) 2 0 1
 ( ) ( )
1 2 7 1 −2 7
0 1 2 2 1 −2
D) 0 0 1 E) 2 0 1

( )
3 2 2
A= 1 3 1
3) Given the matrix 5 3 4 . Find its inverse

( ) ( ) ( )
9 −2 −4 9 2 4 1 2 7
1 1 1
1 2 −1 1 2 1 0 1 2
5 5 4
A) −12 1 7 B) 12 1 7 C) 5 1 7

( ) ( )
9 −2 −4 0 0 1
1
1 4 −1 1 0 0
4
D) 15 1 7 E) 0 1 0

4) Solve the matrix equation

X ( = )( )
3 −2 −1 2
5 −4 −5 6

A)
(19 25 ) (35 −4
−2
B)
) C)
(12 −13 ) (00 05 ) (35 24 )
D) E)

( 1 2
5) Solve the matrix equation 3 4
) X=(
5 9)
3 5

( ) ( )
1 −1
(
−1 2
A) −5 6
) 3 4
B) 5 6 C) 2 3
( ) ( )
0 0
D) 0 0
1 3
E) 3 7

( )
1 2 3 4
2 4 6 8
6) Determine the rank of the matrix 3 6 9 12
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D)4 E) 0
 ( )
5 0 0 0 4
0 0 0 0 0
7) Determine the rank of the matrix 2 0 0 0 3
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D)3 E) 7

( )
1 0 2 1
0 2 4 2
8) Find the rank of the matrix 0 2 2 1
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D)4 E) 0

( )
1 2 1 −1
9 5 2 2
9) Find the rank of the matrix 7 1 0 4
A) 0 B) 1 C) 3 D)2 E) 5

( )
3 1 0
2 0 5
10) Find the rank of the matrix 1 2 1
A) 3 B) 0 C) 2 D)5 E) 4

Lecture 4

System of linear equations. General case.

A linear equation in the variables x 1 , .. .. . , x n is an equation that can be written

in the form

a 1 x 1 + a2 x 2 +. . .+ an x n =b , (1)

where b and the coefficients a 1 , a2 , .. . , an are real or complex numbers, usually

known in advance.
 A system of linear equations is a finite collection of linear equations involving

the same variables x 1 , .. . , x n .

For instance, a linear system of m equations in n variables x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n can be

written as

{
a11 x 1 + a12 x 2 +. . .+ a1 n x n=b1
a21 x 1 + a22 x 2 + .. .+a2 n x n =b2
⋮
am 1 x 1 + am 2 x 2 +. ..+ amn x n=bm
(2)

A solution of a linear system (2) is a tuple ( s1 , s 2 ,. .. , sn ) of numbers that makes

each equation a true statement when the values s1 , s2 , . .. , s n are substituted for
x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n , respectively.

The set of all solutions of a linear system is called the solution set of the
system.

Theorem 1. Any system of linear equations has one of the following exclusive
conclusions

(a) No solution
(b) Unique solution
(c) Infinitely many solutions
A linear system is said to be consistent (or compatible) if it has at least one
solution; and it said to be inconsistent (or incompatible) if it has no solution

Definition. The augmented matrix of the general linear system (2) is the table
 ( )
a11 a12 . .. a 1n b1
Ā= a21 a 22 . .. a 2n b2
. . . . .. . .. ... ...
am 1 am 2 . .. amn bn

( )
a11 a12 . .. a 1n
A= a21 a 22 . .. a 2n
. . . . .. . .. ...
am 1 am 2 . .. amn
and the coefficient matrix of (2) is .

Kronecker-Capelli Theorem. A system of linear equations (2) is consistent if

and only if the rank of the coefficient matrix A is equal to that of the augmented

matrix Ā , obtained from A by adding the column of free terms b i

rank ( A )=rank ( Ā ) .

For use this theorem, we compute first the rank of the matrix A , suppose
rank A=r . The non-zero minor which gives us the rank is called the principal minor.
Then we compute the characteristic minors.

A characteristic minor is a minor with r +1 rows and r +1 columns obtained

from principal minor adding like r +1 row the elements from one of the remaining
row and the r +1 column the column of constant terms

Rouche’s Theorem. A linear system is consistent if and only if all characteristic

minors are zero.

Let system (2) is consistent. We suppose that rank A=rank Ā=r and the
principal minor is of the form:
 a11 a12 . .. a1r
a a22 . .. a2r
| 21 |≠0
. .. . .. . .. . ..
ar 1 ar 2 . .. arr .

Let consider the system

{
a 11 x 1 +a12 x 2 +.. .+a1 n x n =b1
a21 x1 +a22 x2 +.. .+a 2n x n =b 2
.. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .
ar 1 x 1 +a r2 x 2 +.. .+arn x n=br
(3)

The matrix of the coefficients for the system (3) has a non-zero minor of order
r (formed by first r columns), then has rank equal with r , where r ≤n .

1) If r =n , system (3) has the same number of equations and unknowns

and its determinant is non-zero. In this case, this system has unique solution.

2) If r < n , supposing that the minor formed with the coefficients of first

r unknowns is principal, we called the unknowns x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x r principal unknowns

and the remaining unknowns are called secondary unknowns. We put in the right

side all terms which has secondary unknowns x r+1 , .. . , x n , we give then arbitrary

values λ r+1 , .. . , λ n and we find a system with r equations and r unknowns x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x r :

{
a11 x 1 +a12 x 2 +. . .+a1 r x r =b1 −a1r +1 λ r+1 −.. .−a1n λn
a21 x1 +a22 x2 +.. .+a 2n x n =b2 −a 2r +1 λr+1 −.. .−a2 n λn
.. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .
ar 1 x 1 +ar 2 x 2 +. ..+a rn x n =br −arr +1 λ r+1 −.. .−arn λ n
(4)
 It has unique solution λ 1 ,. . ., λ r . The numbers λ 1 ,. . ., λ r , λ r+1 ,. . . , λ n form a solution

for system (4) which is a solution for the system (2). Since the values λ r+1 , .. . , λ n for the

x , .. . , x n
secondary unknowns r+1 are arbitrary, we obtain in this way an infinity different
solutions for the system (4), which is the set of all solutions of the system (1).

System of linear homogeneous equations

A linear system is called homogeneous if in the right side all constant terms
are zero

{
a11 x 1 +a12 x 2 +...+a1 n x n=0
a21 x 1 +a22 x 2 +...+a2 n x n =0
........................................
a m1 x 1 +am2 x 2 +...+amn x n =0
(5)

we have the following properties for the homogeneous systems:

1) A homogeneous system is always consistent (we can see this if we

replace x 1 , .. . , x n with zero)

2) Supposing that rank A is r

i) if r =n , then the zero solution is the unique solution of
system (5)
ii) if r < n , then the system (5) has non-zero solutions.
A homogeneous system with the same number of equations and
unknowns has non-zero solutions if and only if its determinant is zero.

For a homogeneous system if the number of equations is smalls than

the number of unknowns then the system has non-zero solutions.
 Matrix Representation of a Linear System

Matrices are helpful in rewriting a linear system in a very simple form. The
algebraic properties of matrices may then be used to solve systems. First, consider
the linear system

{
a 11 x 1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3 =b 1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 +a23 x 3=b2
a31 x 1 + a32 x 2 + a33 x 3 =b 3
(1)

Set the matrices

( ) () ()
a11 a12 a 13 x1 b1
A= a21 a22 a 23 X = x2 B= b 2
a31 a32 a 33 x3 b3
, and

Using the matrix multiplications, we can rewrite the system (1) as the matrix
equation

A⋅X=B

−1
Now, if the above A has an inverse, then both sides can be left-multiplied by A , to
get

A−1 AX= A−1 B

I 3 X =A−1 B

X =A−1 B

For example
 { ( ) () ( )
x +2 y=10 1 2 0 x 10
3 x+2 y +z=23 A= 3 2 1 X= y B= 23
y+2 z=13 0 1 2 , z , 13

( )
c 11 c 21 c 31
−11
A = c 12 c 22 c 32
A
c 13 c 23 c 33
First, find inverse

1 2 0
Δ=|3 2 1 |=4−1−12=−9
0 1 2

2 1 2 0 2 0
c 11=| |=3 c 21=−| |=−4 c 31=| |=2
1 2 1 2 2 1

3 1 1 0 1 0
c 12=−| |=−6 c 22=| |=2 c 32=−| |=−1
0 2 0 2 3 1

3 2 1 2 1 2
c 13=| |=3 c 23=| |=−1 c 33=| |=2−6=−4
0 1 0 1 3 2

( )
1 4 2
− −
3 9 9

( )
3 −4 2
1 2 2 1
A−1 =− −6 2 −1 = − −
9 3 9 9
3 −1 −4
1 1 4
−
3 9 9

( )
1 4 2
− −
3 9 9

( )()
10 4
2 2 1
X=
3
−
9 9
23 = 3 x=4
13 5 y=3
1 1 4
−
, i.e. z=5
3 9 9

Lecture 5
 Cramer’s rule

Cramer’s rule is an explicit formula for the solution of a system of linear

equations with as many equations as unknowns, valid whenever the system
has a unique solution. It expresses the solution in terms of determinants of the
coefficient matrix and of matrices obtained from it by replacing one column by
the vector of right hand sides of the equations.

Now consider a system of 3 linear equations in 3 unknowns x , y , z

{
a 11 x + a12 y +a 13 z=b 1
a21 x+ a22 y + a23 z=b2
a31 x +a 32 y +a 33 z=b 3
(1)

a11 a12 a 13
Δ=|a21 a22 a 23|
a31 a32 a 33 is determinant of the coefficient matrix.

Let multiply the first of equations (1) by the cofactor C 11 of entry a 11 , the

second one by C 21 and the third equation by C 31 and them sum together the results.
Doing this we derive

( C 11 a11+ C21 a21 +C 31 a31 ) x + ( C 11 a12 +C21 a22 +C 31 a 32) y +

+ ( C 11 a 13+C 21 a23 +C31 a33 ) z=C 11 b1 +C 21 b2 +C 31 b 3

.

But the coefficient of x will become Δ , while the coefficients of all other
unknowns become zero by property 10 in lecture 1. The left hand side becomes
b1 a12 a13
|b 2 a22 a23|
simply Δ⋅x . The right hand side is C 11 b1 +C 21 b 2 +C 31 b 3 which is equal to b 3 a32 a33 .
 b1 a12 a13
Δ x =|b2 a22 a23 |
Thus
b 3 a32 a33 is determinant obtained by substituting the constant column for the

coefficient of x .

Δx
x=
So Δ⋅x=Δ x . Let suppose that Δ≠0 , we find Δ .

In the some way we find Δ⋅y= Δ y and Δ⋅z=Δ z , where

a11 b1 a13 a11 a 12 b 1

Δ y =|a21 b2 a23| Δ z =|a21 a 22 b 2 |
a31 b3 a33 , a31 a 32 b 3

The formulas

Δx Δy Δ
x= y= z= z
Δ , Δ , Δ are called Cramer’s rule.

For example

{
x − y+ z=5 1 −1 1
2 x + y +z=6 Δ=|2 1 1|=5≠0
x + y +2 z=4 1 1 2

5 −1 1 1 5 1
Δ x =|6 1 1 |=15 Δ y =|2 6 1 |=−5
4 1 2 1 4 2

1 −1 5
Δz =|2 1 6 |=5 15 −5 5
x= =3 y= =−1 z= =1
1 1 4 , so 5 , 5 , 5 .

Gauss’ method (the method of elimination)

Consider a linear system

 {
a 11 x 1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3 =b 1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 +a23 x 3=b2
a31 x 1 + a32 x 2 + a33 x 3 =b 3
(1)

We divide the first equation of the system by a 11≠0 which results in

{
a12 a13 b1
x 1+ x 2+ x 3=
a11 a 11 a11
a21 x1 + a22 x2 +a23 x 3=b2
a31 x 1 + a32 x 2 + a33 x 3 =b 3
(2)

Multiply the first equation of (2) by −a 21 (−a31 ) and add it to the second (third)

equation of system (2). This eliminates x 1 and yields the system

{
x 1 +a'12 x 2 +a'13 x 3=b'1
a'22 x 2 +a '23 x 3 =b'2
a'32 x2 +a'33 x 3=b'3
(3)

(the primes designate the new coefficients here)

Now we divide the second equation of (3) by a 22 , then multiply by (−a32 ) and
'

add with third equation. We get if the system is consistent the system

{
x 1 +b12 x2 +b13 x 3=B1
x 2 + b23 x 3=B2
x 3 =B3

We got a triangular form of system. Substituting x 3 into second equation, we

find x 2 , then substituting x 3 , x 2 into first equation we finally evaluate x 1 .

Example
 { {
2 x 1 + x 2 −x 3=1 x1 −x 2 +2 x 3 =5
3 x1 + 2 x 2 −2 x3 =1 2 x 1 + x 2 −x 3 =1
x 1 −x 2 +2 x 3 =5 ⇒ 3 x 2 +2 x 2 −2 x3 =1 ⇒

{ {
x −x +2 x =5
x1 −x 2 +2 x 3 =5 1 2 3
5
3 x 2−5 x 3 =−9 x 2 − x 3 =−3
3
⇒
5 x 2 −8 x 3 =−14 ⇒ 5 x 2 −8 x 3 =−14 ⇒

{
x1 −x 2 +2 x 3 =5
5 5
x 2 − x 3 =−3 x 2 − ⋅3=−3
3 3
1 x 2 =2
x 3 =1
⇒ 3 x
⇒ 3 =3 , 1=1
x

TEST

1. Solve the system of equations and find x  y

3 y  2 z 10

 x  y  5 z  5
3 x  2 y 13


A) 4 B) 5 C) 6 D) 7 E) 8

2. Solve the system of equations and find y  z

2 x  y  z 5

 x  2 y  3 z 20
3 x  y  2 z 17


A) 4 B) 5 C) 6 D) 7 E) 8

3. Solve the system of equations and find x  z

5 x  y  3 z 18

4 x  3 y  5 z  4
 x  y  z 6


A) 4 B) 5 C) 6 D) 7 E) 8

4. Solve the system of equations and find x  y  2 z

 x  y  z 2

2 x  y  z 7
 x  4 y  z 17


A) 7 B) 8 C) 9 D) 5 E) 10

5. Solve the system of equations and find x  y  z

4 x  3 y  2 z 9

2 x  5 y  3 z 4
5 x  6 y  2 z 18


A) 10 B) 11 C) 12 D) 13 E) 14

6. Solve the system of equations and find y  z

2 x  3 y  5 z 11

 x  y  3 z 7
3 x  2 y  7 z 18


A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5

7. Solve the system of equations and find x  z

2 x  3 y  z 0

 x  2 y  3 z 0
2 x  y  z  6


)0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4

8. Solve the system of equations and find x + y + z

{x−3y+z=−6¿{5x+y−2z=4¿ ¿
)5 B) 6 C) 7 D) 8 E) 9

9. Solve the system of equations and find x + y

{x+3y−z=4¿{2x−4y−z=−7¿ ¿
)5 B) 6 C) 7 D) 8 E) 9

10.Solve the system of equations and find x + y

{5x+y−3z=3¿{2x−3y+7z=19¿ ¿
 )4 B) 5 C) 6 D) 7 E) 8

Lecture 6 (LA)
Linear Spaces

Basic notions. Let us consider a set R of elements x , y , z, . .. such that the sum
x + y ∈ R is defined for any two elements x ∈ R and y ∈ R and the product λx ∈ R is
defined for any element x ∈ R and any real number λ .

If summation of the members of the set R and multiplication of a member of that set
by a real number satisfy the conditions:

1. x + y= y + x

2. ( x+ y )+ z=x + ( y + z )

3.there exists an element 0 ∈ R (null-element) such that x +0=x for any x ∈ R

4. there exists an element y ∈ R for every element x ∈ R such x + y=0 ( in what

follows we`ll write y=− x i.e. x + (−x )=0 )

5. 1⋅x=x

6. λ ( μx )=( λμ ) x

7. ( λ+ μ ) x= λx+ μx

8. λ ( x + y )= λx+ λy

then the set R is said to be linear(or vector) space, and the elements x , y , z, . .. of that
space are called vectors.

x and ⃗
The difference of two vectors ⃗ y of a linear space is a vector ⃗v of that space
such that ⃗
y +⃗v =⃗x . The difference of two vectors ⃗x and ⃗y is designated as ⃗x −⃗y ,i.e
⃗x −⃗y =⃗v
The following theorems hold true:

1. Every linear space contains only one null-element

2. Each element of linear space is associated with only one opposite element.
3. The equality 0⋅x=0 is satisfied for every element x ∈ R
4. The equality λ⋅0= 0 is satisfied for any real number λ and 0 ∈ R
5. The equality λx=0 yields one of the two equalities: λ=0 or x=0
6. The element (−1 )⋅x is the opposite of the element x

Assume that ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗u are some vectors of the linear space R. The vector specified by
the equality

⃗v =α ⃗x + β ⃗y +γ ⃗z +. . .+ λ ⃗u

where α , β , γ , . .. , λ are real numbers, also belongs to linear space R. This vector is
known as the linear combination of the vectors ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗u .

Suppose the linear combination of the vectors ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗u is a null-vector, that is

α ⃗x +β ⃗y +γ ⃗z +. ..+λ ⃗u =0 (1)

If equality (1) can be also satisfied in the case when not the numbers α , β , γ , . .. , λ are
equal to zero, the vectors ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗u are said to be linearly dependent.

The vectors ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗u are called linearly independent if equality (1) is satisfied only
for α=β=γ .. .= λ=0 . The vectors ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗u are linearly independent if and only if
one of them can be represented as a linear combination of the other vectors.

Dimensionality and the basis of a linear space. If there are n linearly independent
vectors in the linear space R but any n+1 vectors of that space are linearly dependent,
the space R is said to be n-dimensional. It is also customary to say that the
dimensionality of space R is equal to n and write d ( R )=n . The space containing
infinitely many linearly independent vectors is called infinite-dimensional. If R is
infinite-dimensional space, thend ( R )=∞ .

A collection of n linearly independent vectors of an n-dimensional linear space is

known as the basis. The following theorem hold true: every vector of a linear n-
dimensional space can be uniquely represented as a linear combination of the vectors
of the basis. Thus, if ⃗e 1 , ⃗e 2 ,.. .,⃗e n is the basis of an n-dimensional linear space R, then
any vector x ∈ R can be uniquely represented in the form
⃗x =ξ 1 ⃗e 1 + ξ2 ⃗e 2 +. . .+ ξ n ⃗e n

Thus, the vector ⃗ x in the basis ⃗e 1 , ⃗e 2 ,.. .,⃗e n can be uniquely defined with the aid of

numbers ξ 1 , ξ 2 ,. . . ,ξ n . These numbers are called the coordinates of the vector x in the
given basis.
⃗x =ξ 1 ⃗e 1 + ξ2 ⃗e 2 +. . .+ ξ n ⃗e n ⃗y =η1 ⃗e 1 +η2 ⃗e 2 +. . .+ ηn ⃗e n
If , , then
x + y=( ξ1 +η1 ) e1 +( ξ 2 +η 2 ) e 2 +. ..+( ξ n +η n ) e n

λx= λξ1 e 1 + λξ 2 e 2 +. ..+ λξ n en

To determine the dimensionality of a linear space, it is useful to bear in mind the

following theorem: If any vector of the linear space R can be represented as a linear
combination of the linearly independent vectors e 1 , e 2 ,. . ., e n , then d ( R )=n ( and ,

consequently, the vectors e 1 , e 2 ,. . ., e n form a basis in the space R)

Example 1.The elements of the linear space are the systems of the ordered real
numbers x i=( ξ 1i , ξ 2i , .. . , ξni ) ( i=1 , 2 ,3 , .. . ) . What condition must be fulfilled by the

numbers ξ ik ( i=1 , 2, 3 , .. . , n; k=1 , 2 ,. .. , n ) for the vectors x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n to be linearly

independent if the sum of vectors and the product of a vector by a number are
specified by the equalities x i + x k =( ξ 1i + ξ 1k ; ξ 2 i +ξ 2k ; . . .; ξ ni +ξ nk ) ,
λx i= ( λξ 1i ; λξ 2 i ; .. . ; λξ ni )
?

Solution. Let us consider the equationα 1 x 1 +α 2 x 2 +.. .+α n x n =0 . It is equivalent to

the system of equations

{
α 1 ξ11+ α 2 ξ 12+. . .+ α n ξ1 n = 0
α 1 ξ 21 + α 2 ξ 22+. . .+ α n ξ3 n = 0
.. . ... . .. .. .
α 1 ξ n1 + α 2 ξ n 2 +. ..+ α n ξ nn= 0
In the case the vectors x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n are linearly independent, the system must possess
the unique solution α 1=α 2 =. ..=α n=0 , that is

ξ 11 ξ 12 . .. ξ1 n
ξ ξ 22 . .. ξ2 n
| 21 |≠0
. .. . .. . .. . ..
ξn 1 ξn 2 . .. ξ nn

In particular , x 1=( ξ 11 ; ξ 21) , x 2 =( ξ 12 ; ξ 22 ) are linearly independent if and only if

ξ 11 ξ 22−ξ 12 ξ 21≠0

Example 2. Given a linear space of various pairs of the ordered real numbers
x 1=( ξ 11 ; ξ 21 ) x 2 =( ξ 12 ; ξ 22 ) x 3 =( ξ 13 ; ξ23 )
, , …,and addition of vectors and multiplication
of a vector by a real number are determined by the equalities
x i + x k =( ξ 1i + ξ 1k ; ξ 2 i +ξ 2k ) λx i= ( λξ 1i ; λξ 2 i )
:

Prove that the vectors e 1= ( 1; 2 ) and e 2 =( 3 ; 4 ) form the basis of the given linear space.
Find the coordinates of the vector x=( 7 ;10 ) in this basis.

Solution. The the vectors e 1= ( 1; 2 ) and e 2 =( 3 ; 4 ) are linearly independent(see

example 1).Consider an arbitrary vector y=( η1 ; η2 ) .Show that for any η1 andη2 there
are numbers λ and μ such that the equality y= λe1 + μe 2 or
( η1 ; η2 ) =( λ+ 3 μ ; 2 λ+ 4 μ ) is satisfied.

It is easy to see that there exists a unique pair of values ( λ , μ ) for which this equality
is satisfied. This follows from the fact that the system of equations

{ λ+ 3 μ=
2 λ+4 μ=
η1
η2

is determinate.

Thus, the vectors e 1 ande 2 form a basis. Determine the coordinates of the vector
x=( 7 ;10 ) in this basis. The problem reduces to determining λ and μ from the system
of equations
 { λ+3 μ= 7
2 λ+4 μ= 10

yields λ=1 , μ=2 i.e x=e 1 +2 e 2

This

Linear Transformations

Basic notions. A transformation A is said to be given in the linear space R if in

accordance with some rule each vector x ∈ R is put into correspondence with the
vector Ax ∈ R . A transformation A is called linear if the equalities

A ( x + y )= Ax+ Ay A ( λx )=λ Ax
,

are satisfied for any two vectors x and y and for any real number λ .

A linear transformation is called identity transformation if it maps any vector x into

itself. An identity linear transformation is denoted by I. Thus, Ix=x .

Zero linear transformation is A ( x )=0 for all x

Example 3. Show that transformation Ax=αx , where α is a real number, is linear.

Solution. We have

A ( x + y )=α ( x+ y )=αx+ αy= Ax+ Ay

A ( λx )=α ( λx )=λ ( αx )=λ Ax

Thus, two conditions defining a linear transformation are satisfied.

Matrix of a linear transformation

Suppose a linear transformation A is given in an n-dimensional linear space R whose

basis is ⃗e 1 , ⃗e 2 ,.. .,e n . Since Ae1 , Ae2 , .. . , Aen are vectors of the space R, each of them can

be uniquely resolved with respect to vectors of the basis

 Ae 1= a11 e 1 + a21 e2 +.. .+ an 1 e n
Ae 2 = a12 e 1 + a22 e2 +.. .+ an 2 e n
. .. .. . .. . .. .
Ae n= a1 n e 1 + a 2n e 2 +. . .+ a nn e n

The matrix

( )
a11 a12 .. . a1n
A= a 21 a22 .. . a 2 n
... .. . .. . .. .
an 1 a n2 .. . a nn

is said to be the matrix a linear transformation A in the basis e 1 , e 2 ,. . ., e n .The columns

of the matrix consist of the coefficients of the formulas for e 1 , e 2 ,. . ., e n of the base
vectors. Let us take an arbitrary vector x=x 1 e 1 + x 2 e 2 +. ..+ x n e n in the space R.

Since Ax ∈ R , the vector Ax can be also resolved with respect to the vectors of the
basis
¿ ' '
Ax=x1 e1 + x 2 e2 +. . .+ x n e n

The coordinates ( x1 ; x 2 ; . .. x n ) of the vector Ax can be expressed in terms of the

' ' '

coordinates ( x 1 ; x 2 ;.. . x n ) of the vector x by the formulas

'
x 1= a11 x 1 + a12 x2 +.. .+ a1 n x n
x '2 = a21 x 1 + a22 x2 +.. .+ a2 n x n
. .. .. . . .. .. .
'
x n = a n1 x 1 + a n2 x 2 +. . .+ ann x n

These n equalities can be called a linear transformation A in the basis e 1 , e 2 ,. . ., e n . The

coefficients in the formulas for this linear transformation are the elements of the rows
of the matrix A.

Properties of Linear transformations

1. A ( 0 ) =0
 2. A (−x )=− A ( x )
3. A ( y−x )= A ( y )− A ( x )
4. If x=α 1 x 1 +α 2 x 2 +. ..+α n x n then
A ( x )= A ( α 1 x 1 +α 2 x 2 +. ..+ α n x n )=α 1 A ( x 1 ) +α 2 A ( x 2 ) +. ..+ α n A ( x n )

Proof

To prove the first property, note that 0 x=0 . Then it follows that
A ( 0 ) =A ( 0 x ) =0 A ( x )=0 .

The second property follows from −x=(−1 ) x ,which implies that

A (−x )= A [ (−1 ) x ] =(−1 ) A ( x ) =−A ( x )

The third property follows from y−x = y+ (−x ) , which implies that

A ( y−x )= A [ y+ (−1 ) x ] = A ( y ) + (−1 ) A ( x )= A ( y )− A ( x )

A ( x + y )= Ax+ Ay A ( λx )=λ Ax
The fourth property follows from , ,

which implies that

A ( x )= A ( α 1 x 1 +α 2 x 2 +. ..+ α n x n )= A ( α 1 x 1 ) + A ( α 2 x 2 ) +. ..+ A ( α n x n ) =
α 1 A ( x 1 ) + α 2 A ( x 2 ) +.. .+α n A ( x n )

3 3
Example 4. Let A : R → R be a linear transformation such that

A ( 1 , 0 ,0 )=( 2 ,−1 , 4 ) , A ( 0 , 1 ,0 )=( 1 ,5 ,−2 ) , A ( 0 , 0 , 1 )=( 0 , 3 ,1 ) . Find A ( 2 ,3 ,−2 )

Solution. Because ( 2 , 3 ,−2 )=2 ( 1 , 0 , 0 ) +3 ( 0 ,1 , 0 ) −2 ( 0 ,0 , 1 ) , you can use Property 4to

write
A ( 2 ,3 ,−2 )=2 A ( 1 , 0 ,0 )+3 A ( 0 ,1 , 0 )−2 A ( 0 , 0 , 1 )=2 ( 2 ,−1 , 4 )+3 ( 1 , 5 ,−2 ) −2 ( 0 , 3 , 1 )=( 7 , 7 , 0 )

Operations on linear transformations

 The sum of the linear transformations A and B is transformation C 1 specified by

the equality C 1 x=Ax + Bx . The notation is C 1= A+ B
  The product of the linear transformation A by the number λ is transformation
C 2 specified by the equality C 2 x=λ Ax . The notation is C 2= λA
 The product of the linear transformation A by the linear transformation B is
transformation C 3 specified by the equality C 3 x= ABx . The notation is
C 3= AB
 If for the linear transformation A there can be found transformations B and C
−1
such that BA=I , AC=I , then B=C . In this case notation is B=C= A and
−1
linear transformation A is called an inverse linear transformation with
−1 −1
respect to the linear transformation A. Thus, A A= AA =I

Characteristic numbers and eigenvectors of a linear transformation

Suppose R is a given n-dimensional linear space. The nonzero vector x ∈ R is called

an eigenvector of the linear transformation A if there is a number λ such that the
equality Ax=λx .The number λ is called a characteristic number ( eigenvalue) of
the linear transformation A corresponding to the vector x .

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors can be found as follows. Since x=Ix we can rewrite
equation Ax=λx in the form ( A−λI )x =0 .

An eigenvalues of A is a scalar such that det ( A−λI ) x=0 .

The eigenvectors of A corresponding to λ are the nonzero solutions of ( A−λI )x =0

If the linear transformation A in the basis ⃗e 1 , e 2 ,. . ., ⃗e n has matrix

( )
a11 a12 .. . a1n
A= a 21 a22 .. . a 2 n
... .. . .. . .. .
an 1 a n2 .. . a nn

then the characteristic numbers of the linear transformation A are the real roots
λ 1 , λ2 , .. . , λn of the nth degree equation which can be written in the form
 a11− λ a 12 . .. a1 n
a a 22−λ . .. a2 n
| 21 |=0
. .. . .. . .. . . .
an 1 an 2 . .. ann−λ

It is known as characteristic equation and its left-hand side, as a characteristic

polynomial of the linear transformation A. The eigenvector⃗x k corresponding to
characteristic number λ k is any vector ξ 1 ⃗e 1 +ξ 2 ē 2 +. . .+ ξ n ⃗e n whose coordinates

satisfy the system of homogeneous equations

{
( a 11−λ k ) ξ1 + a12 ξ 2 +.. .+ a1 n ξ n = 0
a21 ξ1 + ( a 22−λk ) ξ 2 +. ..+ a2 n ξ n = 0
.. . .. . . .. ...
a n1 ξ 1 + a n2 ξ2 + .. .+ ( ann− λk ) ξ n= 0

If the matrix A of the linear transformation A is symmetrical, then all the roots
of the characteristic equation|A−λI|=0 are real numbers.

Example 5. Find characteristic numbers and eigenvectors of the linear transformation

' '
A specified by the equations x =5 x+ 4 y , y =8 x +9 y

Solution. The transformation matrix is written as follows:

A= ( )
5 4
8 9
The characteristic equation has the form

5−λ 4
| |=0
8 9−λ 2
or λ −14 λ+13=0

The characteristic numbers λ 1=1 , λ 2=13

To determine the coordinates of eigenvectors, we obtain two systems of linear

equations:
{( 5− λ1 ) ξ1 +
8 ξ1 +
4 ξ 2=0
( 9−λ1 ) ξ2 =0 { ( 5− λ2 ) ξ1 +
8 ξ1 +
4 ξ 2 =0
( 9−λ2 ) ξ 2=0

Since λ 1=1 , the first system can be written as follows:

{ 4 ξ1 +
8 ξ 1+
4 ξ2 =0
8 ξ 2 =0

Thus, the values of ξ 1 and ξ 2 must satisfy the equation ξ 1 +ξ 2 =0 or ξ 2 =−ξ 1

Consequently, the solution of system has the form ξ 1 =c 1 ,ξ 2 =−c 1 , where c 1 is an
arbitrary value. Thus, the characteristic number λ 1=1 is associated with a family of
eigenvectors ⃗u =c1 ⃗e 1 −c 1 ē 2 .

The value λ 2=13 leads to a system of equations

{−8 ξ 1 +
8 ξ1 −
4 ξ 2=0
4 ξ 2=0

i.e. ξ 2 =2 ξ1 .Putting ξ 1 =c 2 ,we obtain ξ 2 =2 c2 . Consequently, characteristic number

λ 2=13 is associated with a family of eigenvectors ⃗v =c2 e1 +2 c 2 ē2 .Thus, assigning to

the quantities c 1 , c 2 in the equations⃗u =c1 ⃗e 1 −c 1 ē 2 ,⃗v =c2 e1 +2 c 2 ē2 various numerical
values, we obtain the eigenvectors of linear transformation A.

Euclidean Space

The linear space is said to be Euclidean if there is rule which makes it possible to
x and ⃗
construct, for every two vectors ⃗ y belonging to R, a real number called a
x and ⃗
scalar product of the vectors⃗ y and designated as ⃗x⋅⃗y , the rule complying with

the following conditions:

 ⃗
x⋅⃗y =⃗y⋅⃗x
 x⋅( ⃗
 ⃗ y +⃗z )=⃗
x⋅⃗
y +⃗
x⋅⃗z
 ( λ ⃗x )⋅⃗y=λ ( ⃗x⋅⃗y ) for any real number λ
 ⃗
x⋅⃗ x >0 if ⃗x ≠0
It follows from these conditions that
(a) ( ⃗
y +⃗z )⋅⃗
x =⃗
y⋅⃗
x +⃗z⋅⃗
x
(b) ⃗x⋅( λ ⃗y )= λ(⃗x⋅⃗y )
(c) 0⋅⃗ x =0 for any vector ⃗
x

The scalar product of any vector⃗x ∈ R into itself is called a scalar square of the
vector ⃗
x .The length of the vector ⃗
x in be Euclidean space is a square root of scalar

square of that vector i.e. |⃗

x|= √⃗x⋅⃗x .If λ is arbitrary real number , and ⃗x is arbitrary
vector of Euclidean space, then |λ⃗x|=|λ||⃗x|.

A vector whose length is equal to unity is called unit vector. If ⃗x ∈ R is a non-zero

⃗x
vector, then, as it is easy to see, |⃗x| is a unit vector.

Properties

 |⃗x|=0 if and only if ⃗x =0

 |⃗x⋅⃗y|≤|⃗x|⋅|⃗y|( Cauchy-Bunyakovsky`s inequality)
 |⃗x +⃗y|≤|⃗x|+|⃗y| ( triangle inequality)
⃗x⋅⃗y
cos ϕ=
The angle ϕ specified by the equality |⃗x|⋅|⃗y| and belonging to the closed
interval [ 0 , π ] ,is said to be the angle between the vectors⃗ x and ⃗
y . If ⃗x and ⃗y are
π
ϕ=
non-zero vectors and 2 , then ⃗x⋅⃗y =0 . In this case the vectors⃗
x and ⃗
y are

said to be orthogonal and they are written as ⃗

x ⊥ ⃗y
Lecture 7(LA)

Quadratic Forms
 xx
Let the real variables x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n be given. Consider all possible paired products i j
and compose the sum

a 11 x21 +a12 x1 x 2 +. . .+a1 n x 1 x n +

+a21 x 2 x 1 +a 22 x 22 +. ..+a2n x 2 x n +
. .. .. . .. .. ..... ...... .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .+
+an1 x n x 1 +an 2 x n x2 +.. .+a nn x 2n
n n
¿ ∑ ∑ aij x i x j
i=1 j−1

a ij are some numbers, among which at least one is nonzero. This sum is called
where
quadratic form of the real variables x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n is denoted F ( x1 , x 2 , .. . , x n )
n n
F ( x 1 , x 2 , .. . , x n )=∑ ∑ a ij x i x j
Thus, i=1 j−1 (1)

The numbers
a ij are called the coefficients of quadratic form. The quadratic form can

be written in such a way that the coefficients at x i x j and x j x i are equal to each other.
Indeed, since
x i x j =x j x i , then

1 1
a ij x i x j +a ji x j x i=( aij + a ji ) x i x j= ( aij + a ji ) x i x j + ( aij +a ji ) x j xi
2 2
In what follows we will assume that in quadratic form (1)

a ij=a ji (2)

Definition. A quadratic form of the real variables x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n is a polynomial of the

second degree in these variables which does not contain a constant term and terms of
first degree.

If F ( x1 , x 2 , .. . , x n ) is a quadratic form of the real variables x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n and λ is some

real number, then F ( λx1 , λx 2 , . .. , λx n )=λ F ( x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n )

2
From the coefficients of quadratic form, we compose the matrix

( )
a11 a12 .. . a1n
A= a 21 a22 .. . a 2 n
... .. . .. . .. .
an 1 a n2 .. . a nn

By virtue of equality (2) the matrix A has equal elements located symmetrically to the
principal diagonal. Such matrix is called symmetric matrix. The symmetric matrix

( )
a11 a12 .. . a1n
A= a 12 a22 .. . a 2 n
. . . .. . .. . .. .
a1n a 2n .. . a nn

is called matrix of the quadratic form.

T
In order for the matrix to be symmetric, it is necessary and sufficient that A =A ,
T
where A is the transposed matrix .

Quadratic form

n n
∑ ∑ aij x i x j
i=1 j−1 is called canonical if a il=0 for i≠ j .Hence ,canonical quadratic form is
n
a 11 x 21 + a22 x22 +.. .+a nn x 2n = ∑ aii x 2i
i=1 and its matrix is diagonal.

If n=2 then quadratic form is

F ( x 1 , x 2 ) =a 11 x 21 + 2 a12 x 1 x 2 +a 22 x 22

If n=3 then quadratic form is

F ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) =a11 x 21 + a22 x 22 + a33 x 23 +2 a12 x 1 x 2 +2 a13 x 1 x 3 +2 a23 x 2 x 3 (3)

In what follows we present all necessary definitions and formulas for case of a
quadratic form of three variables.

The symmetric matrix is called matrix of the quadratic form

( )
a11 a12 a13
A= a12 a22 a23
a13 a23 a33

With the help of the matrix we can rewrite formula (3) as

F ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) =( a 11 x 1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3 ) x 1 + ( a12 x 1 +a 22 x 2 +a 23 x 3 ) x 2 + ( a13 x 1 +a 23 x 2 + a33 x 3 ) x 3 =

()
y1
¿ y 1 x 1 + y 2 x 2 + y 3 x 3 =( x 1 x2 x3 ) y2
y3

where

( )( )( )( ) ( )
y1 a11 x1 +a12 x2 +a13 x 3 a11 a 12 a13 x 1 x1
y 2 = a 12 x 1 +a 22 x 2 +a 23 x 3 = a12 a 22 a23 ⋅ x 2 =A x 2
y3 a13 x1 +a23 x 2 +a 33 x 3 a13 a 23 a33 x3 x3

()
x1
X = x2
x3
Thus, if we introduce the number vector we obtain

F = X T AX (4)

Conversely, if a form is represented as (4) and if the matrix A is symmetric then A is

the matrix of this quadratic form.

Let us now perform an arbitrary linear transformation of the variables of form

 ' ' '
x 1 = b11 x 1 + b12 x2 + b13 x 3
x 2 = b21 x'1 + b22 x'2 + b32 x'3
' ' '
x 3 = b31 x1 + b32 x2 + b33 x 3

'
This transformation can be put down in the matrix form as X =B X (5)
T T T
Then by formula ( AB ) =B A (6)
T ¿ T
, we have X = X B which implies

F=X ¿ BT AB { X ' = X ¿ ( BT AB ) X ' ¿

¿ ' ' ' T
That is F=X A X where A =B AB (7)
'
But the matrix A is symmetric because, by formula (6) ,we have
¿ '
A =(BT AB)T =BT AT BTT =BT AB= A
'
Hence, it is A that is the matrix of the quadratic form after the change

of variables is made.

Thus, substitution (5) yields transformation of the matrix of a quadratic form

according to formula (7).In particular, if B is an orthogonal matrix then, by formula
BT = B−1 ,we see that A =B−1 AB . We can always choose a matrix B such that there
'

should be A =diag ( λ1 , λ2 , λ 3 ) where the diagonal elements are the eigenvalues of the
'

' ' ' ¿ ¿ ¿

matrix A . We obtain the quadratic form F ( x1 , x 2 , . x 3 )= λ1 x 1 + λ 2 x2 + λ3 x 3 which
' ' ' ' ' '
does not contain terms with products x 1 x 2 , x 1 x 3 , x 2 x 3 .

It is customary to say that quadratic form F ( x1 , x 2 , . x 3 ) has been reduced to the

canonical form by means of the orthogonal transformation B. The argument was
carried out under the assumption that eigenvalues λ 1 , λ2 , λ3 were distinct

Example 1. Quadratic form F ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) =2 x 1 −3 x 2 + x 3 +8 x 1 x 2 +2 x 1 x 3 is given.

2 2 2

Write in matrix form.

 F ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) =( 2 x 1 +4 x 2 + x 3 ) x 1 + ( 4 x 1−3 x 2 + 0 ) x 2 + ( x 1 + 0+ x 3 ) x 3
Solution .

Matrix of this quadratic form is

( )
2 4 1
A= 4 −3 0
1 0 1

( )( )
2 4 1 x1
F ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) =( x 1 x2 x3 ) 4 −3 0 x 2
1 0 1 x3
,

Hence

. Quadratic form F ( x 1 , x 2 ) =2 x1 +4 x 1 x 2 −3 x2 is given

2 2

Example 2.

Find quadratic form obtained from given form by transforming

{ x1 =2 y 1 −3 y 2
x 2= y 1+ y 2

Solution .Matrix of given quadratic form is

A= ( 2 2
2 −3 )
and matrix of transformation is
B= ( 2 −3
1 1 )
Hense, matrix of the required quadratic form is

F=BT AB= ( )(
2 1 2 2 2 −3
−3 1 2 −3 1 1
=
13 −17
−17 3 )( )( )
 form have form F ( y 1 , y 2 )=13 y 21 −34 y1 y 2 +3 x 22
And quadratic

Definiteness of Quadratic Forms

2
A quadratic form of one variable is just a quadratic functionQ ( x )=ax

If a > 0 then Q(x) > 0 for each nonzero x.

If a < 0 then Q(x) < 0 for each nonzero x.

So the sign of the coefficient a determines the sign of one variable quadratic form.

Generic Examples
2 2
The quadratic formQ ( x , y )=x + y is positive for all nonzero (that is( x , y ) ≠( 0 , 0 ) )
arguments (x, y). Such forms are called positive definite.
2 2
The quadratic form Q ( x , y )=−x − y is negative for all nonzero arguments (x, y).
Such forms are called negative definite.
2
The quadratic formQ ( x , y )= ( x− y ) is nonnegative. This means that
Q ( x , y )= ( x− y )2 is either positive or zero for nonzero arguments. Such forms are
called positive semidefinite.
2
The quadratic form Q ( x , y )=− ( x − y ) is nonpositive. This means that
Q ( x , y )=− ( x − y )2 is either negative or zero for nonzero arguments. Such forms are
called negative semidefinite.
2 2
The quadratic formQ ( x , y )=x − y is called indefinite since it can take both positive
and negative values, for example Q(3, 1) = 9 − 1 = 8 > 0, Q(1, 3) = 1 − 9 = −8 < 0.

Definiteness
T
Definition. A quadratic form Q ( x )=x ⋅A⋅¿ x (equivalently a symmetric matrix A) is
n
(a) positive definite if Q(x) > 0 for all x≠0 ∈ R ;
n
(b) positive semidefinite if Q(x) ≥ 0 for x≠0 ∈ R ;
 n
(c) negative definite if Q(x) < 0 for all x≠0 ∈ R ;
n
(d) negative semidefinite if Q(x) ≤ 0 for all x≠0 ∈ R ;

(e) indefinite if Q(x) > 0 for some x and Q(x) < 0 for some other x.

Definiteness and Optimality

Determining the definiteness of quadratic form Q is equivalent to determining wether

x = 0 is max, min or neither. Particularly:

If Q is positive definite then x = 0 is global maximum;

If Q is negative definite then x = 0 is global minimum.

Definiteness of 2 Variable Quadratic Form

Let
( ab bc )⋅( xx )
Q ( x 1 , x2 )=ax 21 +2 bx 1 x2 +cx 22 =( x 1 , x 2 )⋅ 1

be a 2 variable quadratic form.

Here
A= ( )
a b
b c is the symmetric matrix of the quadratic form.

a b
A=| |=ac−b2
The determinant b c is called discriminant of Q.

Easy to see that

ax 12 +2 bx 1 x 2 + cx 22 =a ( x1+ x 2 +
a )
b 2 ac−b2 2
a
x2
.

Let us use the notation D 1 =a , D 2 =ac−b .Actually D1 , and D 2 are leading principal
2

minors of A. Note that there exists one more principal (non leading) minor
'
D =c
(of degree 1) 1 .

Then
 b 2 D2 2
(
Q ( x 1 , x2 )=D 1 x 1 + x2 +
a
x
D1 2)
From this expression we obtain:

1. If D 1 > 0 and D 2 > 0 then the form is of x + y type, so it is positive definite;

2 2

2. If D 1 < 0 and D 2 > 0 then the form is of −x − y type, so it is negative definite;

2 2

3. If D 1 > 0 and D 2 < 0 then the form is of x − y type, so it is indefinite;

2 2

If D 1 < 0 and D 2 < 0 then the form is of−x + y type, so it is also indefinite;
2 2

Thus if D 2 < 0 then the form is indefinite.

Definiteness of 3 Variable Quadratic Form

Let us start with the following Example.

Q ( x 1 , x2 , x 3 )=x 21 +2 x 22 −7 x23 −4 x 1 x 2 +8 x 1 x 3

( )
1 −2 4
A= −2 2 0
The symmetric matrix of this quadratic form is 4 0 −7

The leading principal minors of this matrix are

1 −2 4
1 −2 |D |=|−2 2 0 |=−18
|D2|=| |=−2 3
|D1|=|1|=1 , −2 2 4 0 −7
Now look:
 Q ( x 1 , x2 , x 3 )=x 21 +2 x 22 −7 x32−4 x 1 x 2 +8 x 1 x3 =
x 21 −4 x 1 x 2 +8 x 1 x 3 +2 x 22−7 x 23 =x 21 −4 x 1 ( x 2 −2 x 3 ) +2 x 22−7 x 23 =
[ x 21−4 x1 ( x 2−2 x 3) + 4 ( x 2−2 x 3)2−4 ( x 2−2 x 3 )2] + 2 x 22−723=
2
[ x 1 −2 x 2 + 4 x 3 ] −2 x 22 +16 x 2 x 3−23 x 23 =
[ x 1 −2 x 2 + 4 x 3 ]2−2 ( x 22 −8 x 2 x 3 )−23 x 23=
[ x 1 −2 x 2 + 4 x 3 ] −2 [ x 22 −8 x 2 x 3 +16 x 23−16 x 23 ]−23 x 23
2

[ x 1−2 x 2+ 4 x 3 ]2−2 [ x 2−4 x 3 ]2+32 x23−23 x 23

2 2
[ x 1−2 x 2+ 4 x 3 ] −2 [ x 2−4 x 3 ] +9 x 23=
2 |D 2| 2 |D 3| 2
|D1|l 1 + l + l
|D1| 2 |D 2| 3

Where

l 1 =x1 −2 x 2 +4 x3
l 2 =x 2 −4 x 3
l 3 =x 3

That is (l 1 , l 2 ,l 3 ) are linear combinations of ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) .More precisely

()( )( )
l1 1 −2 4 x1
l2 = 0 1 −4 ⋅ x2
l3 0 0 1 x3

( )
1 −2 4
P= 0 1 −4 ⋅¿ ¿
where 0 0 1

is a nonsingular matrix (changing variables).

Now turn to general 3 variable quadratic form

( )( )
a11 a 12 a13 x 1
Q ( x 1 , x2 , x 3 )=( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) a21 a 22 a23 ⋅ x 2
a31 a 32 a33 x 3
The following three determinants

a11 a 12 a13
a a 12 |D3|=|a21 a 22 a23|
|D2|=| 11 |
|D1|=|a1|, a21 a22 , a31 a 32 a33

are leading principal minors.

It is possible to show that, as in 2 variable case, if

|D1|≠0 ,|D2|≠0 then

2 |D 2| 2 |D 3| 2
Q ( x 1 , x2 , x 3 )=|D 1|l1 + l+ l
|D1| 2 |D2| 3

where (l 1 , l 2 ,l 3 ) are some linear combinations of ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) (this is called Lagrange’s

reduction).

This implies the following criteria:

1. The form is positive definite if and only if

|D1|>0 ,|D2|>0 ,|D3|>0 , that is all
principal minors are positive.

2. The form is negative definite if and only if 1 |D |<0 |D |>0 |D3|<0 ,that is
, 2 ,
principal minors alternate in sign starting with negative one.

Since A is a symmetric matrix, the roots λ 1 , λ2 , λ3 of the characteristic equation

a11− λ a 12 a13
| a 21 a 22−λ a23 |=0
a 31 a 32 a33−λ are real numbers.

Assume that
 '
e 1 = b 11 e1 + b 21 e 2 + b 31 e 3
e '2 = b12 e1 + b 22 e 2 + b 32 e 3
'
e 3 = b13 e 1 + b23 e 2 + b 33 e 3

are unit eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalues λ 1 , λ2 , λ3 in the orthonormal

basis e 1 , e 2 ,. e 3 . In their turn, the vectors e 1 , e 2 ,. e 3 .The matrix
' ' '

( )
b 11 b 12 b13
B= b21 a 22 a23
a31 a 32 a33

is the transition matrix from the basis e 1 , e 2 ,. e 3 to the basis e 1 , e 2 ,. e 3 .

' ' '

Example 2.Reduce the quadratic form

F ( x1 , x 2 )=27 x 21 −10 x 1 x 2 +3 x 22 to canonical form.

Solution . Here a 11=27 ,a 12=−5 ,a 22=3 . Derive a characteristic equation

27−λ ¿5
| |=0
−5 3−λ
0r λ 2−30 λ +56=0

That is, the eigenvalues λ 1=2 , λ 1=28 .

Determine the eigenvectors. If λ 1=2 , we obtain a system of equations

{25 ξ1 −5 ξ 2 =
−5 ξ 1 +ξ 2 =
0
0

Thus we have ξ 2 =5 ξ1 .Putting ξ 1 =c ,we obtain ξ 2 =5 c ,that is,

⃗ =c ( ⃗
u e 2)
e 1 +5 ⃗
.

If λ 1=28 ,we arrive at a system

{−ξ 1−5 ξ 2 = 0
−5 ξ 1−25 ξ 2 = 0

v =c (−5 ⃗
⃗ e2 )
e 1 +⃗
In this case we obtain an eigenvector

1 1
c= =
To normalize the vectors ⃗
u ,⃗v , we must assume √ 12 +52 √ 26 . Thus we have
' 1 ' 1
e 1= ( ⃗e 1 +5 ⃗e 2 ) e 2 = (−5 ⃗e 1 +⃗e 2 )
found the normalized eigenvectors √ 26 , √ 26 .

The transition matrix from the orthonormal basis e 1 , e 2 to the orthonormal basis e 1 , e 2
' '

has the form

( )
1 −5
B= √ √ 26
26
5 1
√26 √ 26

Hence the formulas for coordinate transformation:

1 ' 5 '
x 1= x 1− x2
√ 26 √26
5 ' 1 '
x 2= x 1+ x
√ 26 √ 26 2
It follows that
'

(√26 ) (√26 )(√26 )

2
1 ' 5 ' 1 ' 5 ' 5 ' 1 '
F ( x1 ,x 2 )=27 x 1− x 2 −10 x 1− x2 x1 + x2
√ 26 √26 √ 26 ¿ ¿¿

(√26 )
2
5 1
+3 x'1 + x'2 =2 x ' 2 +28 { x
√ 26 1
22

F=λ 1 x ' 2 + λ 2 x ' 2

This result could be obtained directly since 1 2

Lecture 8(LA)
 Coordinate systems

The rectangular coordinate system consists of two real number lines that intersect at a
right angle. The horizontal number line is called the x-axis, and the vertical number
line is called the y-axis. These two number lines define a flat surface called a plane,
and each point on this plane is associated with an ordered pair of real numbers (x, y).
The first number is called the x-coordinate, and the second number is called the y-
coordinate. The intersection of the two axes is known as the origin, which
corresponds to the point (0, 0).

An ordered pair (x, y) represents the position of a point relative to the origin. The x-
coordinate represents a position to the right of the origin if it is positive and to the left
of the origin if it is negative. The y-coordinate represents a position above the origin if
it is positive and below the origin if it is negative. Using this system, every position
(point) in the plane is uniquely identified. For example, the pair (2, 3) denotes the
position relative to the origin as shown:
This system is often called the Cartesian coordinate system, named after the French
mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650).

The x- and y-axes break the plane into four regions called quadrants, named using
roman numerals I, II, III, and IV, as pictured. In quadrant I, both coordinates are
positive. In quadrant II, the x-coordinate is negative and the y-coordinate is positive.
In quadrant III, both coordinates are negative. In quadrant IV, the x-coordinate is
positive and the y-coordinate is negative.

Some Simple Problems Concerning Cartesian Coordinates

 The distance between two given points.
Let the points M 1 ( x 1 , y 1 ) and M 2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) be given. It is required to
determine the distance d= M 1 M 2
 The formula for the distance is implied by Pythagoras` theorem applied
to the rectangular triangle.
√ 2
d= ( x2 −x 1 ) + ( y 2 − y 1 )
2

 Division of a line segment in a given ratio.

Let some points M 1 ( x 1 , y 1 ) and M 2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) be given. . It is required to find a
M1 M
point M ( x , y ) lying on the se.e gment M 1 M 2 such that ratio of division MM 2
should be equal to λ , where λ is a given number. The solution of the problem
follows from the similarity of the triangles M 1 PM and MQM 2 which implies

M1 P M 1 M x−x 1
= =λ =λ
MQ MM 2 i.e x2 −x and x−x 1 =λx 2− λx
M2.From the last relations
we deduce
x + λx 2 y + λy 2 M
x= 1 y= 1 Q
1+ λ , 1+ λ
M1
P

In particular, in case λ=1 , that is when the segment is halved, we have

x +x y + y2
x= 1 2 y= 1
2 , 2
 Transformation of coordinates without changing the scale.

1.Transformation of Coordinates Involving Pure Translation

{ {
' '
x= x + x 0 x =x−x 0
y= y ' + y 0 y ' = y− y 0
or

where (x, y) are old coordinates [i.e. coordinates relative to xy system], (x',y') are new
coordinates [relative to x'y' system] and (x0, y0) are the coordinates of the new
origin 0' relative to the old xy coordinate system.

2.Transformation of Coordinates Involving Rotation

{ {
' ' '
x=x cos α− y sin α x = x cos α + y sin α
y=x ' sin α + y ' cos α y ' = y cos α −x sin α
or

where the origins of the old [xy] and new [x'y'] coordinate systems are the same but
the x' axis makes an angle α with the positive x axis.

3.Transformation of Coordinates Involving Translation and Rotation

 { {
' ' '
x=x cos α− y sin α + x 0 x = ( x−x 0 ) cos α + ( y− y 0 ) sin α
'
y=x ' sin α + y ' cos α + y 0 y =( y− y 0 ) cos α −( x−x 0 ) sin α
or

where the new origin O' of x'y' coordinate system has coordinates (x0, y0) relative to
the old xy coordinate system and the x' axis makes an angle α with the positive x axis

 Area of a triangle

x y 1
1 1 1 1 x −x y − y
A=(± ) | x2 y 2 1 |=(± ) | 2 1 2 1 |
2 2 x 3 −x 1 y 3 − y 1
x3 y 3 1
where A ( x 1 , y 1 ) , B ( x 2 , y 2 ) and C ( x3 , y 3 ) are the vertices of the triangle
ABC, and the sign in the right side is chosen so that the area of the
triangle is nonnegative.
 Area of a quadrilateral
1
A=(± ) [ ( x 1 −x2 )( y 1 + y 2 ) + ( x 2 −x 3 )( y 2 + y 3 ) + ( x 3 −x 0 )( y 3 + y 0 ) + ( x 0 −x 1 )( y 0 + y 1 ) ]
2
where ( 1 1 ) , ( 2 2 ) , ( 3 3 ) , ( 0 0 ) are the vertices of
A x ,y B x ,y C x ,y D x ,y
the quadrilateral ABCD. The sign in the right side is chosen
so that the area of the quadrilateral is nonnegative.

Polar coordinates

In two dimensions, the Cartesian coordinates (x,y) specify the location of a point P in
the plane. Another two-dimensional coordinate system is polar coordinates. Instead of
using the signed distances along the two coordinate axes, polar coordinates specifies
the location of a point P in the plane by its distance r from the origin and the angle θ
made between the line segment from the origin to P and the positive x-axis. The polar
coordinates (r,θ)of a point PP are illustrated in the below figure.

As r ranges from 0 to infinity and θ ranges from 0 to 2π, the point P specified by the
polar coordinates (r,θ) covers every point in the plane. Adding 2π to θ brings us back
to the same point, so if we allowed θ to range over an interval larger than 2π, each
point would have multiple polar coordinates. Hence, we typically restrict θ to be in
the interval 0≤θ<2π. However, even with that restriction, there still is some non-
uniqueness of polar coordinates: when r=0, the point P is at the origin independent of
the value of θ

Conversion formulas
We can calculate the Cartesian coordinates of a point with polar coordinates (r,θ) by
forming the right triangle illustrated in the below figure. The hypotenuse is the line
segment from the origin to the point, and its length is r. The projection of this line
segment on the x-axis is the leg of the triangle adjacent to the angle θ, so x=rcosθ.
The y-component is determined by the other leg, so y=rsinθ .Our conversion formula
is
x=r cos θ , y=r sin θ (1)
.
To go the other direction, one can use the same right triangle. Since r is the distance
√ 2 2
from the origin to (x,y), it is the magnitude r = x + y . Alternatively, from the
equation (1), one can calculate directly that
x 2 + y 2 =r 2 cos 2 θ+r 2 sin2 θ=r 2 ( cos 2 θ+sin 2 θ )=r 2
Taking the ratio of y and x from equation (1), one can obtain a formula for θ
y r sin θ
= =tan θ
x r cos θ
,
One can also see this relations from the above right triangle. We can set
y
θ=arctan
x

but a problem is that arctan gives a value between −π/2and π/2. One might need to
add π or 2π to get the correct angle. With this caveat (and also mapping points
where x=0to θ=π/2 or −π/2), one obtains the following formula to convert from
Cartesian to polar coordinates
r =√ x 2 + y 2
(2)
y
θ=arctan
x

three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system

A
1. A three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is formed by a point called
the origin (denoted by O) and a basis consisting of three mutually perpendicular
vectors. These vectors define the three coordinate axes: the x−, y−, and z−axis.
They are also known as the abscissa, ordinate and applicate axis, respectively.
The coordinates of any point in space are determined by three real
numbers: x, y, z.
2. The distance between two points A ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) and B ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) in space is
,

determined by the formula √ 2 2

d= ( x2 −x 1 ) + ( y 2 − y 1 ) + ( z 2 −z 1 )
2
3.Dividing a line segment in the ratio λ
Suppose that the point C ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) divides the segment AB in the ratio λ. The
coordinates of the point C are given by the expressions
x + λx2 y + λy 2 z + λz 2 AC
x 0= 1 y 0= 1 z 0= 1 λ= , λ≠−1
1+ λ , 1+ λ , 1+ λ , where CB
where ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) are the coordinates of the point A, and ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) are the
coordinates of the point B.
 The coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment are obtained from the previous
4.
formulas at λ=1 and are written as
x +x y +y z +z AC
x 0= 1 2 y 0= 1 2 z 0= 1 2 λ= =1
2 , 2 , 2 , where CB
5.Area of a triangle
The area of a triangle with the vertices A ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) and B ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) C ( x3 , y 3 , z 3 ) is
, ,
found by the formula

√
y1 z1 1 2 z1 x1 1 2 x1 y1 1 2
1
A= | y 2 z 2 1 | +|z 2 x 2 1| +|x 2 y 2 1|
2
y3 z3 1 z3 x3 1 x3 y2 1

6. Volume of a pyramid
The volume of a pyramid whose vertices have the coordinates A ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) and ,
B ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) C ( x3 , y 3 , z 3 ) D ( x 4 , y 4 , z 4 )
, , is determined by the expression

x1 y1 z1 1
1 x y2 z2 1 x −x y 1− y 4 z 1−z 4
V =± | 2 | 1 1 4
6 x3 y3 z3 1 V =± |x 2 −x 4 y 2− y 4 z 2−z 4 |
6
x4 y4 z4 1 x 3 −x 4 y 3 − y 4 z 3−z 4
or
The sign in the right side of the formulas above is chosen so that to get a positive
value for the area or volume.

Lecture 9
 Vectors and operations on the vectors

A vector is a directed line segment drawn from a point P (called its initial
point) to a point Q (called its terminal point), with P and Q being distinct points.

⃗v The vector is denoted by ⃗

PQ or v⃗ . Its magnitude is the
Q
P
⃗
length of the line segment, denoted by |PQ|. The zero vector
is just a point, and it is denoted by 0 .

Two nonzero vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same
direction. Any vector with zero magnitude is equal to the zero vector.

Vector Arithmetic

A scalar is a quantity can be represented by single number

1) For a scalar k and a nonzero vector v⃗ , the scalar multiple of v⃗ by k denoted

by k ⃗v , is the vector whose magnitude is |k||⃗v|, points in the same direction as ⃗v

if k > 0 , points in the opposite direction as ⃗v if k < 0 .

⃗v
k ⃗v
( k > 0) ⃗v ⃗
w
k ⃗v
( k < 0)
2) The sum of vectors v⃗ and ⃗
w , denoted by ⃗v +⃗
w is obtained by translating ⃗
w so

that its initial point is at the terminal point of v ; the initial point of ⃗v +⃗
w is the

initial point of ⃗v and its terminal point is the new terminal point of ⃗
w

3) Since the scalar multiple −⃗v =−1⃗v is well-defined vector, we can define vector
w =⃗v + (−⃗
subtraction as follows: ⃗v −⃗ w)

⃗
w

⃗v

Vectors in Euclidean space

1) For a vector ⃗
PQ in R with initial point P ( x 1 , y 1 ) and terminal point Q ( x 2, y 2 ) ,
2

the magnitude of ⃗
PQ is
⃗
|PQ|= √ 2
( x2 −x 1 ) + ( y 2 − y 1 )
2

2) For a vector ⃗v ( a , b ) ,the magnitude of ⃗v is |⃗v|= a +b √ 2 2

3) The distance d between points P ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and Q ( x 2 , y 2 , z2 ) in R is

3

d= √( x −x ) +( y − y ) +( z −z )
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 1
2

4) For a vector ⃗v ( a , b , c ) in R the magnitude of ⃗v is |⃗v|= a +b +c

3 √ 2 2 2

Basic laws of vector algebra

(a) ⃗v + w
⃗ =⃗
w +⃗
v commutative law

(b) u⃗ + ( ⃗v + w
⃗ )=( ⃗u +⃗v ) +⃗w associative law
 (c) ⃗v +0=⃗v =0+⃗v additive identity

(d) ⃗v + (−⃗v )=0 additive inverse

(e) k ( l ⃗v )=( kl ) ⃗v associative law

(f) k ( ⃗v +⃗
w )=k ⃗v +k w
⃗ distributive law

A unit vector is a vector with magnitude 1.

⃗v
Notice that for any nonzero vector ⃗v , the vector |v| is a unit vector, which
1
>0
⃗
v
points in the same directions as , since |v| .

Dividing a nonzero vector ⃗v by |⃗v| is often called normalizing ⃗v .

There are specific unit vectors which we will often use, called the basis
⃗
vectors: ⃗i =( 1, 0, 0 ) , ⃗j=( 0 , 1, 0 ) , k=( 0, 0, 1 ) in R .
3

They are mutually perpendicular, since they lie on distinct coordinate axes

|⃗i |=|⃗j|=|⃗k|=1
Every vector can be written as a unique scalar combination of the basis
vectors:

v=( a , b )=a ⃗i +b ⃗j in R2

v=( a , b , c )=a ⃗i +b ⃗j+c ⃗k in R3

y z

⃗v ( a , b )
2 ⃗v ( a , b , c )
k̄

j̄ ī
j̄ y
1
ī x
1 x
 When a vector ⃗v =( a ,b , c ) is written as ⃗v =a ⃗i +b ⃗j+c ⃗k , we say that ⃗v is in

component form, and that a ,b ,c are ⃗i ; ⃗j ; ⃗k components, respectively of ⃗v .

Projection of vector on axis

AB and an axis l be given. The projection projl ⃗

Let a vector ⃗ AB of the vector

⃗
AB on the axis l is the length of the segment A' B' , connecting the feet of the
perpendiculars drawn from the points A and B to the axis l .

О А/ В/ u

{
' '
|A B | if the direction of the segment
projl ⃗
AB= ' '
A B coincides with positive direction of the axis
' '
−|A B | in the direction opposite to it

Properties of projections

⃗
1) projl AB=|AB|cos ϕ , ϕ is the angle between the vector and the axis
А
В
В
А 

О А/ В/ B/ A/
 2) A scalar factor may be taken outside the projection sign
projl ( λ ⃗v ) =λ proj l ⃗v

3) A projection of a sum is equal to sum of the projections:

projl ( ⃗v + w
⃗ )= projl ⃗v + projl w
⃗

Dot product (scalar product)

The dot product of two vectors ⃗v and w

⃗ is defined as

⃗v⋅⃗w =|v||w|cos θ ,

where θ is the angle between ⃗v and w

⃗.

Notice that the dot product of two vectors is a scalar, not a vector.

Properties of the dot product

(a) ⃗v⋅⃗
w=w
⃗⋅⃗v commutative law

(b) ( k ⃗v )⋅w
⃗ =⃗v ( k w
⃗ )=k ( ⃗v⋅⃗
w ) associative law

(c) ⃗u ( ⃗v + w
⃗ )=⃗u ⃗v +⃗u w
⃗ distributive law

(d) ⃗v⋅⃗w =|v|proj v ω=|w|proj w v

2
(e) ⃗v⋅⃗v =|v| , if ⃗v ≠0

(f) ⃗ w =0 if and only if v and w are perpendicular

v⋅⃗

Theorem 1. Let ⃗v ( v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ) and w⃗ ( w1 , w2 , w 3 ) be vectors in R . The dot product of

3

⃗ ⃗ is
v and w
 ⃗v⋅⃗
w =v 1 w1 +v 2 w2 +v 3 w 3 .

Corollary 1. Two nonzero vectors ⃗v and w

⃗ are perpendicular if and only if

v 1 w1 +v 2 w 2 +v 3 w 3=0 .

Corollary 2. Let ⃗v and w

⃗ be nonzero vectors and let θ be the angle between

them.

⃗v⋅⃗w
cosθ=
Then |v|⋅|w| or

v 1 w 1 + v 2 w2 +v 3 w3
cos θ=
√ v 21+ v 22+ v 23⋅√w 21+ w22+ w23 .

Cross product (vector product)

Definition 1. If you can point your thumb upwards in

z the positive z -axis direction
while using the remaining
four fingers to rotate the x-

y axis towards the y -axis then

x it is a right-handed system.

Doing the same thing the left hand is what defines a

left handed coordinate system.

⃗ and
Definition 2. The cross product of two vectors a
⃗
b is defined only in three-dimensional space and is denoted

by ⃗a ×⃗b .
 The cross product v×w is defined as a vector c̄ that is perpendicular to both
v and w with a direction given by the right-hand rule and a magnitude equal to the
area of the parallelogram that the vectors span.

3
If c̄
ϕ is the angle between nonzero vectors v̄ and w̄ in R ,
then |v̄×w̄|=|v||w|sin ϕ .

Properties.
ū , v̄ , w̄ in R3 , we have
ϕ w
(a) v̄×w̄=−w̄×v anticommutative law
v
(b) ū×( v̄ + w̄ )=ū×v̄ + ū×w̄ distributive law
(c) ( k v̄ )×w̄= v̄×( k w̄ )=k ( v̄× w̄ ) associative law
(d) v̄×v̄ =0
(e) v̄×w̄=0 if and only if v̄|| w̄
Theorem 2. (a) The area A of an triangle with adjacent sides v̄ and w̄ is
1
A= |v̄ ×w̄|
2

(b) The area A of a parallelogram with adjacent sides v̄ and w̄ is

A=|v̄×w̄|
Computing the cross product

Coordinate notation. The standard basis vectors ī , j̄ , k̄ satisfy the following

equalities in a right hand coordinate system:
ī= j̄×k̄
z

j̄= k̄× ī
k̄ k̄= ī× j̄
ī
j̄ y
which imply, by the anticommutativity of the cross
x
product, that
 k̄× j̄=− ī , ī× k̄=− j̄ , j̄× ī =−k̄

The definition of the cross product also implies ī× ī = j̄× j̄=k̄×k̄=0 .

These equalities are sufficient to determine the cross product of any two

vectors ū and v̄ . Let ū=u1 ī +u2 j̄+u3 k̄ , v̄=v 1 ī +v 2 j̄+v3 k̄ .

Their cross product w̄ × v̄ can be expanded using distributivity

ū×v̄=( u1 ī +u2 j̄+u 3 k̄ ) ×( v 1 ī +v 2 j̄+v 3 k̄ ) =

=u 1 v 1 ( ī× ī )+u1 v 2 ( ī × j̄ ) +u1 v 3 ( ī ×k̄ )+

+u2 v 1 ( j̄× ī )+u 2 v 2 ( j̄× j̄ ) +u2 v 3 ( j̄×k̄ )+

+u3 v 1 ( k̄ × ī ) +u3 v 2 ( k̄ × j̄ )+u3 v 3 ( k̄× k̄ )

ū×v̄=v 1 v 2 k̄−u1 v 3 j̄−u 2 v 1 k̄+u2 v 3 ī +

+u3 v 1 j̄−u 3 v 2 ī =( u2 v 3 −u3 v 2 ) ī + ( u3 v 1 −u1 v 3 ) j̄+

+ ( u 1 v 2 −u2 v 1 ) k̄

or

u u u u u u
ū×v̄=| 2 3 | ī−| 1 3 | j̄+| 1 2| k̄
v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2

it is cofactor expansion by first raw of determinant

i j k
ū×v̄=|u1 u2 u3 |
v1 v2 v3
 Scalar triple product (Mixed product)

The scalar triple product is defined as the dot product of one of the vectors
with the cross product of the other two

Geometrical interpretation. Let the vectors

w̄ × v̄
ū , v̄ , w̄ in R
3
represent adjacent sides of
ū parallelepiped P with ū , v̄ , w̄ forming a right-
h
θ handed system.
w̄
ϕ
Recall that volume V of a parallelepiped P
v̄

is the area of the base parallelogram times the

height h .

V = A⋅h

By theorem 2 A=|w̄× v̄|=|w̄||v̄|sin ϕ

h=|ū|cosθ

Therefore V =|w̄||v̄|sin ϕ|ū|cosθ=|ū|⋅|w̄×v̄|cos θ=ū ( v̄×w̄ )

Geometrically, the scalar triple product ū⋅( v̄× w̄ ) is the volume of the
parallelepiped defined by the three vectors given.

If u , v , w form a left-handed system u ( v ×w )=−V .

So taking the absolute value of scalar triple product for any order of the
adjacent sides will always give the volume.
 Theorem 3. If vectors ū , v̄ , w̄ in R represent any three adjacent sides of a
3

parallelepiped, then the volume of the parallelepiped is

V =|u⋅( v̄×w̄ )|.

Properties

(a) u ( v ×w )=v⋅( w×u )=w⋅( u×v )

(b) u ( v ×w )=( u×v )⋅w

(c) u ( v ×w )=−u ( w×v )

(d) if any two vectors in scalar triple product are equal, then its value is zero
u⋅(u×v )=u⋅( v×u ) =u⋅( v×v )=0

Computing the scalar triple product

Theorem. For any vectors ū ( u1 ,u2 ,u 3 ) , v̄ ( v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ) , w̄=( w1 , w 2 , w3 ) in R :

3

u 1 u2 u3
ū⋅( v̄× w̄ )=| v 1 v 2 v 3 |
w1 w 2 w 3

Example 1. Let ū ( 1,−5,−1 ) , v̄ ( 2,−3,3 ) . Find

ī j̄ k̄
−5 −1 1 −1 1 −5
ū×v̄=|1 −5 −1 |= ī| |− j̄| |+k̄| |=−18 { ī −5 j̄+7 k̄ ¿
−3 −3 2 3 2 −3
2 −3 3

Example 2. Find area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides ū=2 ī +3 j̄+5 k̄

and v= ī +2 j̄ + k̄

ī j̄ k̄
ū×v̄=|2 3 5 |= ī|3 5 |− j̄|2 5 |+ k̄|2 3|=−7 ī +3 j̄+ k̄
2 1 1 1 1 2
1 2 1
 A=|w̄× v̄|=√ 49+9+1=√ 59

Example 3. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides ū ( 2, 1, 3 ) ,

v̄ (−1, 3, 2 ) , w̄ (1, 1, −2 )

2 1 3
u⋅( v×w )=|−1 3 2 |=−28
1 1 −2 .

So V =|−28|=28 .

TEST

1) ā ( 3,−5, 8 ) and b̄ (−1, 1, −4 ) are given. Find |2 ā−b̄|

A) √ 570 B) 144 C) 242 D)√ 316 E) √ 480

2) At what value m , vectors ā ( m , −7 , −2 ) and b̄ (−3, −m , 2 ) are perpendicular?

A) 2 B) 1 C) -1 D) -2 E) 3

3) Find the angle between the vectors ā (−1 ,−2 ) and b̄ (−2,−4 )
A) 00 B) 600 C) 300 D) 450 E) 900

4) Simplify the expression ī× ( j̄+ ī )− j̄× ( ī + k̄ )

A) i B) 2 k̄− ī C)k̄ − ī D) ī + j̄ E) j̄

5) Let v̄=−3 ī −2 j̄− k̄ and w̄=6 ī +4 j̄+2 k̄ . Calculate v̄⋅w̄

A) -20 B) -28 C) -30 D) -2 E) -6

6) Let v̄=4 ī − j̄+3 k̄ and w̄= ī +2 k̄ . Calculate v×w

 A) −2 i−5 j+k B) −2 i+ k C) −2 i−6 j+k D) i E) 0

7) Calculate the area of the triangle ABC if A=( 2, 2 , 2 ) , B=( 4 , 0 , 3 ) , C ( 0, 1, 3 )

1 1 1 1 1
√6 √ 61 √ 65 √ 63
A) 2 B) 2 C) 2 D) 2 E) 2

8) Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides ū , v̄ , w̄

ū=( 1, 1, 3 ) , v̄=( 2 , 1, 4 ) , w̄=( 5 , 1 , −2 )

A) 4 B) 5 C) 7 D) 8 E) 9

9) Let ā 1=(−3 , −1 , 2 ) , ā 2=( 1 , 2 , −1 ) . Find the cross product ( 2 ā 1 + ā 2 )× ā2

A) −6 i−2 j−10 k B) −3 i++ 2 j+5 k C) −3 i+ 5 k D) −2 i E) 0

10) Find the mixed product of vectors ā ( 3, 4, −5 ) , b̄ ( 3, 7, −2 ) , c̄ ( 2, −2, 1 )

A) 56 B) 81 C) 72 D) 68 E) 48

Lecture 10

General (or standard) form for the equation of a line

Consider a line l on plane XOY . Suppose that we know a point M 1 ( x 1 , y 1 ) and

vector ⃗n =( A , B ) normal to the line. Let M ( x , y ) be any point on line. Vector
M 1 M=( x−x 1 ; y − y 1 ) that joins the two points and thus lies on the line is

n . Therefore scalar product ⃗

perpendicular to ⃗ n⋅M 1 M=0

That is

A( x  x1 )  B ( y  y1 ) 0 (1)
 Equation (1) is the straight line equation passing through the given point with

given vector n , normal to the line.

Changing, we get y
l

Ax  Ax1  By  By1 0
M n
Ax  By  ( Ax1  By1 ) 0 M
M1
Let’s designate
x
 Ax1  By1 C

We get the general form for a line

Ax  By  C 0 (2)

Intercept form

Changing the general form, we get

Ax  By  C Divide each side by  C

A B
x y 1
C C

x y
 1
C C (0,b)

or A B . Let’s designate b

(а,0)
C C
a, b а
A B

We get

x y
 1
a b (3)
 (3) is the intercept form for equation of a line. A straight line intersects x-axis
at ( a,0 ) and y-axis at ( 0, b )

The slope – intercept form

We can change the general form into slope intercept form.

Ax  By  C 0

By  Ax  C Divide each side by B

A C
y  x
B B

A C
m  b 
Designate B and B

y mx  b

The constant m determines the slope or у

y2 А2
gradient of that line, and the constant term b А1  у2-у1
y1
х2-х1
determines the point at which the line crosses b

the y-axis, otherwise known as the y-intercept.
x1 x2 х
Let
A1 ( x1 , y1 ) a tan   y 2  y1  ( mx2  b)  ( mx1  b)  m( x2  x1 ) m
x2  x1 x2  x1 ( x2  x1 )
nd A2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) be

two points on the line y mx  b

Point-Slope form of a straight line

 We use this form when we need to find the equation of a line passing through a

point ( x1 , y1 ) with slope m : y  y1 m( x  x1 ) .

Symmetric (Canonical) equation of a line

Consider a line l on plane XOY . Suppose that we know a point M 0 ( x0 , y 0 ) and

 
vector  (a, b) that is parallel to the line. This vector  is called direction vector of a
 
line. Note, in all likelihood,  will not be on the line itself. We only need  to be
parallel to the line. Finally, let M ( x, y ) be any point on the line. Since vector

M 0 M ( x  x 0 ; y  y 0 )
and  (a, b) are parallel, then their coordinates are proportional.
Therefore

x  x0 y  y 0 y

a b

This is called the symmetric (canonical) M

M0
equations of the line.



Line through two points

The line through two distinct points M 1 ( x1 , y1 ) and M 2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) is given by

x  x1 y  y1

x 2  x1 y 2  y1
 Normal form

Let length of perpendicular from origin to straight line is ‘P’ and let
this perpendicular make an angle with positive x- axis ‘α’, then equation of a line can
be

x y x cos  y sin 
 1  1
p sec  p cos ec  p p  x cos   y sin   p 0

(because a  p sec  and b  p cos ec )

The normal form of the equation of a straight line is x cos   y sin   p 0 .

Distance from a point to a line

The distance from a point M 0 ( x0 , y 0 ) to the line given by the equation

Ax0  By0  C
d
Ax  By  C 0 is A2  B 2 .

М0
d
p

 Angle between two lines

When two lines intersect, the angle between then is defined as the acute angle
 between lines L1 and L2 .
L2

φ L1
The equation of line L1 is y m1 x  b1

The equation of line L2 is y m2 x  b2 .

α2
α1

Referring to figure,  2  1      2   1 . Using the trigonometric identity

for the tangent of the difference between two angles, we obtain

tan 2 - tan 1
tan   tan( 2   1 ) 
1  tan 1 tan 2

Recalling that the tangent of the angle of inclination is the slope of the line, we

have tan  1 m1 , tan  2 m2 , such that m2  m1

Substituting these expressions in the tangent formula, we have

m  m1
tan   2
1  m1 m2

If and only if  1  2 , the lines are parallel. Then tan  1  tan  2  m1 m2 . The
slopes of parallel lines are the same.
 
 2  1 
If and only if  90 , the line are perpendicular. Then
0
2 and

  1
tan  2  tan    1   cot  1   m2 m1  1
2  tan  1 .

The product of the slopes of perpendicular lines is  1 .

Relation between two Lines

Let L1 and L2 be the two lines as
A1 x + B1 y +C1 =0
L1 :
A2 x + B2 y +C 2=0
L2 :
For Parallel lines
Two lines are said to be parallel if satisfy the below condition,
A 1 B1 C 1
= ≠
A 2 B 2 C2

For Intersection of lines



Two lines intersect a point if

A1 B1
≠
A2 B2

For Coincident Lines



Two lines are coincident if

A 1 B1 C 1
= =
A 2 B 2 C2

 For Perpendicular Lines

Two lines are perpendicular if

A1 A 2 +B1 B 2=0
Angle Bisector of Straight lines
An angle bisector has equal perpendicular distance from the two given lines. To find
the equation of the bisector of the angle between lines, we have

R(x, y)
If point lies on the bisector, then length of perpendicular from the point R to
both the lines should be equal.
|A 1 x +B1 y +C 1| |A2 x +B2 y +C 2|
=
√ A 2 +B 2
1 1 √
A 2 +B 2
2 2

Generalizing for any point (x, y), the equation of the angle bisector is obtained as

A 1 x+ B1 y+C 1 A2 x + B2 y +C 2
=±
√ A12+ B12 √ A 22 +B 22
This equation gives two bisectors: one-acute angle bisector and the other obtuse
bisector.
Example. Find the angle bisector of the angle between the straight lines
x+y-5=0 and 7x−y−19=0

Solution.

x+ y−5 7 x− y−19
=±
√12+1 2
√7 2+(−1 )2
x+ y−5 7 x− y−19
=±
√2 √50
 x+ y−5 7 x − y−19
=
The equation of one bisector is √2 5 √2

Or 5 ( x+ y−5 ) =7 x− y−19 ⇒ 2 x−6 y +6=0 ⇒ x−3 y +3=0

x+ y−5 7 x− y−19
=−
And equation of other one is √2 5 √2

5 ( x+ y−5 ) =−(7 x− y −19) ⇒ 12 x+4 y−44=0 ⇒ 3 x+ y−11=0

LECTURE 11

General equation of a plane

Suppose that we know a point that is on the plane, P0 ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) . Let’s also

suppose that we have a vector that is orthogonal (perpendicular) to the plane,

n ( A, B, C ) .

This vector is called the normal vector. Now, assume that P ( x, y, z ) is any
point the plane. z

Let’s consider the vector 

n
M 0 M {x  x0 ; y  y 0 ; z  z 0 }
.
 M0 M
Now, because n is perpendicular to
the plane, it also perpendicular to any
vector that lies in the p plane. y

The dot product of two

perpendicular vectors is equal to zero. So
 x
M 0 M n 0
 or

A( x  x0 )  B ( y  y 0 )  C ( z  z 0 ) 0
(1)

This is called the scalar equation of plane.

Often this will be written as

Ax  By  Cz  D 0 (2)

where

D  Ax0  By0  Cz 0

(2) is general equation of plane if A  B  C 0 .To reduce a general equation of

2 2 2

a plane to a normal form, all the terms of the equation must be multiplied by the
normalizing factor

1
 
A 2  B 2  C 2 where the sign before the radical is opposite to the sign of the

constant term D in general equation of a plane.

Special cases of the position of the plane specified by the general equation

Ax  By  Cz  D 0 :

1. A 0 ; parallel to the x-axis

2. B 0 ; parallel to the y-axis
3. C 0 ; parallel to the z-axis
4. D 0 ; passes though the origin

5. A B 0 ; perpendicular to the z-axis(parallel to the xOy plane)

6. A C 0 ; perpendicular to the y-axis(parallel to the xOz plane)
 7. B C 0 ; perpendicular to the x-axis(parallel to the yOz plane)
8. A D 0 ; passes though the x-axis
9. B D 0 ; passes though the y-axis
10. C D 0 ; passes though the z-axis

11. A B D 0 ; coincides with to the xOy plane (z=0)

12. A C D 0 ; coincides with to the xOz plane (y=0)

13. B C D 0 ; coincides with to the yOz plane (x=0)

Intercept form

If in the general equation of a plane the coefficient D 0 ,then, the division of all the
term by  D can reduce the equation to the form

A B C
 x y  z  1 0
D D D

D D D
 a  b  c
Let’s designate A , B , C

We get the intercept form for equation of a plane

x y z
  1
a b c

a,b.c are ,respectively , the abscissa, the ordinate and the z- coordinate of the point

of intersection of the plane with the Ox, Oy, Oz axes.

The equation of a plane in vector form

The equation of a plane in vector form is written as

  
r n  p ,

   
Here r  x i  y j  zk is the radius vector of the current point of the plane M ( x; y; z )
   
, n i cos   j cos   k cos  is a unit having the direction of the perpendicular

dropped on the plane from the origin;  ,  ,  are the angles formed by this

perpendicular with the Ox, Oy, Oz axes, and p is the length of perpendicular.

Upon passing to the coordinates, this equation assumes the form

x cos  y cos   z cos   p 0 (3)

(3)- normal form of equation of a plane.

Distance from a point to a plane

The distance from a point M 0 ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) to the plane given by equation

Ax  By  Cz  D 0

Is

Ax0  By0  Cz0  D

d
A2  B 2  C 2

Mutual position of two planes

Let two planes are given

A1 x  B1 y  C1 z  D1 0
A2 x  B2 y  C 2 z  D2 0

Their normal vectors are

 n1  A1i  B1 j  C1 k and n2  A2 i  B2 j  C 2 k

1) Two planes are parallel if and only if their normal vectors are parallel i.e. the
corresponding coordinates were proportional

A1 B1 C1
 
A2 B2 C 2 .

2) Two planes are perpendicular if and only if their normal vectors are

perpendicular i.e. n1 n2 0 or A1 A2  B1 B2  C1C 2 0

3) The angle between two planes is

A1 A2  B1 B2  C1C 2
cos  
A12  B12  C12  A22  B22  C 22

Other equations of a plane

I. Plane through 3 points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 )( x3 , y3 , z 3 ) :

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
x2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1 0
x3  x1 y3  y1 z 3  z1

 
II. Plane through ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and parallel to the vectors 1 (a1 , b1 , c1 ) and  2 (a 2 , b2 , c 2 )

x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
a1 b1 c1 0
a2 b2 c2
III. Plane through ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and parallel to the direction  (a, b, c) :

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1 0
a b c

Example 1. Reduce the equation of a plane 2 x  3 y  6 z  21 0 to normal form.

Solution. We find the normalizing factor ( whose sign s negative since D=21>0)

1 1
  
2 2  32  6 2 7

Thus, normal form of equation of the given plane is

2 3 6
 x  y  z  3 0
7 7 7

Example 2. Set up equation of a plane which passes through the point M (2,3,5) and

is perpendicular to the vector n 4i  3 j  2k

Solution. It suffices to use equation A( x  x0 )  B( y  y 0 )  C ( z  z 0 ) 0 of a plane which

passes though a given point and is perpendicular to a given vector

4( x  2)  3( y  3)  2( z  5) 0

i.e 4 x  3 y  2 z  27 0

TEST
1) Write down the equation of the plane, that passes through the two points

M 1 (1,2,0) and M 2 (2,1,1) and parallel the direction vectors a (3,0,1) .

A) x  2 y 0 B) x  2 y  3 z  3 0 C) x  5 y  5 z 0

D) x  y E) x  5 y  3 z  5 0

2) Find the distance from the point M 0 (5,1.  1) to the plane x  2 y  2 z  4 0

A) 5 B) 3 C) 2 D) 4 E) 1

3) The planes 3x  5 y  mz  3 0 and x  3 y  2 z  5 0 are perpendicular. Find m

A) 14 B) 4,8 C) -1,5 D) 4 E) 6

4) Find the angle between two planes 4 x  5 y  3z  1 0 and x  4 y  z  9 0

  3  E) arccos 0,7
arccos
A) 2 B) 6 C) 5 D) 4

5) The planes 2 x  ny  3z  5 0 and mx  6 y  6 z  2 0 are parallel. Find n  m

A) 4 B) -1 C) 2 D) 3 E) -2

LECTURE 12

Straight line equations in space

Let P ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) be point in R , let  (a, b, c) be a nonzero vector, and let L be

3

the line through P which is parallel to  . Finally, let P ( x, y, z ) be any point on the
line.
 
P0 P ( x  x0 , y  y 0 , z  z 0 )
Since vector and  (a, b) are parallel, then their
coordinates are proportional. Therefore

x  x0 y  y 0 z  z 0
 
a b c

This is called the symmetric equation of L . If we denote

x  x0 y  y 0 z  z 0 z
  t
a b c
P L
We get the parametric representation of L P0

with the parameter t : υ

 x  x0  at ; y

 y  y 0  bt ;
 z  z  ct
 0
x

If P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) are two distinct points in R3, then the

equation of line through two points is

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1

General equation of a straight line in space

A straight line can be specified by the equations by the equations of two planes
 A1 x  B1 y  C1 z  D1 0

 A2 x  B2 y  C 2 z  D2 0 intersecting at the given line.

A practical task often consists in reducing the equations of straight lines in

general form to the canonical form.
 For this you need to find an arbitrary point of the line and numbers (a, b, c)

In this case, the directing vector of the straight line can be found as the vector
product of the normal vectors to the given planes.
  
i j k
   B C1 A C1  A1 B1   
v n1 n2  A1 B1 C1 i 1  j 1 k i a  j b  k c
B2 C2 A2 C2 A2 B2
A2 B2 C2

Example 1.Reduce the equations of the straight lines 2 x  y  3 z  1 0 and

5 x  4 y  z  7 0 to the canonical form.

Solution. We find the vector  (a, b, c) ,which is parallel to the sought-for straight
   
line. Since it must be perpendicular to the normal vectors 1 n  2 i  j  3k and
   
n2 5i  4 j  k of the given planes, we can take as  the vector product of the
 
n
vectors and 2 .
1
n

  
i j k
     
v n1 n2  2  1 3  11i  17 j  13k
5 4 1

Thus, a  11, b 17, c 13

P ( x 0 , y 0 , z 0 )
We can take as the point , through which the desired line passes, its

point of intersection with any of the coordinate planes, say the yOz plane. Since in

this case x0 0 , we can find the coordinates y 0 and z 0 of that point from the system
x 0
of equations of the given planes if we put in them:
 y  3 z  1 0

 4 y  z  7 0

Solving this system, we find y 2, z 1

Thus, the desired straight line is determined by the equations

x y 2 z 1
 
 11 17 13

Mutual position of the lines

Let two lines are given in space

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y 2 z  z 2
   
a1 b1 c1 and a 2 b2 c2

 
1 (a1 , b1 , c1 ) and  2 (a 2 , b2 , c 2 ) are corresponding direction vectors.

1) Two lines are parallel if and only if their direction vectors are parallel and

a1 b1 c1
 
a 2 b2 c 2

2) Two lines are perpendicular if and only if 1 and  2 are perpendicular and
a1 a 2  b1b2  c1c 2 0

3) The angle between two lines is

a1 a 2  b1b2  c1c 2
cos  
a12  b12  c12 a 22  b22  c 22

Intersection of two lines in space

Two straight lines

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y 2 z  z 2
   
a1 b1 c1 and a 2 b2 c2

intersect if the following condition is satisfied:

x2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1
a1 b1 c1 0
a2 b2 c2

Mutual position of the line and plane

1. The straight line and plane given respectively by the equations

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
a b c and Ax  By  Cz  D 0
 
are parallel if n s 0 or Aa  Bb  Cc 0
 2. The straight line and plane given respectively by the
equations
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
a b c and Ax  By  Cz  D 0 are perpendicular if

A B C
   
n s 0 a b c
or

3. Angle between straight line and the plane

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
a b c and Ax  By  Cz  D 0 is determined by the formula

Aa  Bb  Cc
sin  
A2  B 2  C 2 a 2  b 2  c 2
 TEST

1) Find the angle between two lines

x  1 y  2 z 3 x  1 y z  10
   
2 3  1 and  3 4 6

0 0 0 0 0
A) 0 B) 45 C) 30 D) 90 E) 60

2) Write down the equation of the line that passes through the points (2, 1,3) and
(1,4, 3)

x  2 y 1 z  3 x  1 y  4 y 3 x y z 3
     
A) 1 5 6 B) 5 7 8 C) 5 7 6

x y 4 z 3
 
D) 1  5 8 E) x  y  5

LECTURE 13

Ellipses

Definition of an ellipse. Let P and Q be points in the plane and k a number

greater than the distance from P to Q . The ellipse with foci P and Q is the set of all
points X such that the sum of the distance from X to
P and the distance from X to Q is k written

algebraically with X representing a point x, y  on the

ellipse

XP  XQ k .
The midpoint of the segment PQ joining the foci is the center of the ellipse. The
points where the line through the foci intercept the ellipse are its vertices. The
segment connecting the vertices is the major axis and the segment through the
center of the ellipse perpendicular to the major axis is the minor axis.

k
If the point P and Q coincide, the ellipse generated is a circle with radius 2 .
Thus a circle is a special case of an ellipse.

Equation of an ellipse

The simples case is an ellipse centered at the origin with its foci on the x  or
y  axis. Suppose that the foci are on the x  axis at the points P c;0  and Qc,0 

k
a
where c  0 . Let 2 so that k 2a . Then x, y  is on the ellipse exactly when
XP  XQ 2a .

Written algebraically

x  c 2  y  02  x  c 2  y  02 2a

which can be rewritten as

x  c 2  y 2 2a  x  c 2  y 2 .

Square both sides and simplify the result

x  c 2  y 2 4a 2  4a x  c 2  y 2  x  c 2  y 2

or

x 2  2 xc  c 2  y 2 4a 2  4a x  c 2  y 2  x 2  2 xc  c 2  y 2
 a x  c 2  y 2 a 2  cx

Square both sides again and simplify

a 2 x  c   a 2 y 2 a 4  2a 2 cx  c 2 x 2
2

a 2 x 2  2a 2 xc  a 2 c 2  a 2 y 2 a 4  2a 2 cx  c 2 x 2

a 2
 c 2 x 2  a 2 y 2 a 2 a 2  c 2  (1)

2 2
To simplify the last equation, let b  a  c , so that b a  c .
2 2 2

Equation (1) then becomes

b 2 x 2  a 2 y 2 a 2 b 2 .

2 2
Dividing both sides by a b shows that the coordinates of every point on the ellipse
satisfy the equation

x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 standard form of an ellipse.

Characteristics of ellipses

1) x - intercepts: x a

y 2) y -intercepts: y b
dir dir
ect ect 3) major axis is on the x - axis
b
rix rix

a -a -c c a
x  a
e x
e
-b
 4) vertices  a, 0 and a, 0

x 5) foci  c, 0 and c, 0 , where

c  a 2  b 2 and the distance

between foci is 2c

c
e
6) The eccentricity of an ellipse is a , e 1

a a
x  x
7) The directrices of an ellipse are the line e, e , that perpendicular x -

axis

xx 0 yy 0
 2 1
in the point x0 , y 0
2
8) The tangent of ellipse a b

The standard form of the equation of an ellipse with center( 0 , 0 ) and major axis
x2 y 2
+ =1
parallel to the y-axis is b2 a2
where
 a>b
 the length of the major axis is 2a
 the coordinates of the vertices are (0,±a)(0,±a)
 the coordinates of the co-vertices are (±b,0)
2 2 2
 the coordinates of the foci are (0,±c), where c =a −b
 

Hyperbolas

Definition of a hyperbola

Let P and Q be points in the plane and k be a positive number.

The hyperbola with foci P and Q is the set of all points X such that the
absolute value of the difference of the distance from X to P and the distance from
X to Q is k.

, where X represents the point x, y  and k is called the

XP  XQ k
That is
distance difference.

The midpoint of segment joining

the foci, PQ is the center of the

P Q
 hyperbola and the line through P
and Q is called the focal axis.

The points where the focal axis

intercepts the hyperbola are its
vertices.

Equation of Hyperbola

The simplest case is a hyperbola centered at the origin with its foci on the x
and y - axis.

Suppose that the foci are on the x - axis at the points P c,0 and Qc,0 ,
where c  0 .

k
a
Let 2 , so that k 2a .

XP  XQ 2a
Then

Written algebraically

x  c 2  y 2  x  c 2  y 2 2a

Which can be rewritten as

x  c 2  y 2 2a  x  c 2  y 2

Square both sides

 x 2  2 xc  c 2  y 2 4a 2  4a x  c 2  y 2  x 2  2 xc  c 2  y 2

Simplify the result

cx  a 2 a x  c 2  y 2

Square both sides again and simplify

c 2 x 2  2 xca 2  a 4 a 2 x 2  2 xca 2  a 2 c 2  a 2 y

a 2
 c 2 x 2  a 2 y 2 a 2 a 2  c 2  (2)

2 2 2 2 2
Since 2a  2c , then a  c  0 , that why let b c  a .

So equation (2) then become

b 2 x 2  a 2 y 2 a 2 b 2 .

2 2
Dividing both sides by a b shows that the coordinates of every point on the
ellipse satisfy the equation

x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 standard from of an hyperbola.

Characteristics of Hyperbola

y b
y x M
a 1) x - intercepts: x a
b 2) y -intercepts: none
3) focal axis is on the axis x - axis
-с -a a с x

-b
b
y  x
a
4) vertices  a, 0 and a, 0

5) foci  c, 0 and c, 0 , where

c  a 2  b 2 and the distance

between foci is 2c

b b
y x y  x
6) asymptotes: a and a

c
e
7) The eccentricity of a hyperbola a , e 1

a a
x  x
8) The directrices of hyperbola are the lines e, e , that perpendicular x -

axis
xx 0 yy 0
 2 1
9) The tangent of hyperbola at the point x0 , y 0 
2
is a b

The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola with center ( 0 , 0 ) and transverse axis
y 2 x2
2
− 2 =1
on the y-axis is a b
where
 the length of the transverse axis is 2a
 the coordinates of the vertices are (0,±a)
 the length of the conjugate axis is 2b
 the coordinates of the co-vertices are (±b,0)
2 2 2
 the distance between the foci is 2c, where c =a +b
 the coordinates of the foci are (0,±c)
a
y=± x
 the equations of the asymptotes are b
 Parabolas

Definition of a parabola. Let L be a line in the plane and P be a point not on L . If

X is any point not on L , the distance from X to L is defined to be the length of the

perpendicular line segment from X to L . The parabola with focus P and directrix L
is the set of all points X such that distance from X to P = distance from X to L .

The line through P perpendicular to L is

y
X called the axis.
L

The intersection of the axis with the

parabola which is midpoint of the
P x
segment of the axis from P to L is the
vertex of the parabola.

Equation of a parabola
 p 
P ,0 
Suppose that the focus is on the x - axis at the point  2  , where P
p
x 
is a nonzero constant and that the directrix is line 2.

If M x, y  is any point on the parabola, then distance from M x, y  to

p
x 
the vertical line 2 is the length MN . By the definition of a parabola
MN MP

p
y MN MQ  QN x 
directri 2
x N Q
M x, y 

p p  x
 P  ,0 
2 2 

2
 p
MP   x    y 2
 2

So,

2
p  p
x  x  y
2

2  2 .

Square both sides of the equation and simplify

 2 2
 p  p
 x    x    y
2

 2  2

p2 p2
x  xp 
2
x  xp 
2
 y2
4 4

y 2 2 xp standard form of parabola

Characteristics of parabola

p 
 ,0 
1) focus on the -axis at  2 
x

p
x 
2) directrix 2
3) axis of symmetry is the x -axis
 p
 0, 
If focus is at  2  y
on the axis then x 2
2 py

4) The tangent of parabola at the point x0 , y 0 

yy 0  px  x0 .

TEST

1. Find the sum of semi-axes a  b  of the ellipse 4 x  9 y 36

2 2

A) 36 B) 5 C)13 D) 8 E) 9

2. find the standart form of the ellipse if b 4 and distance between foci
2c 6
 x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
 1  1  1  1
A) 16 9 B) 16 4 C) 25 16 D) 9 4 E)
x2 y2
 1
25 9

x2 y2
 1
3. Find the distance between foci 2c  of the ellipse 25 16
A) 9 B) 3 C)8 D) 10 E) 6
x2 y2
 1
4. Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse 18 8 at the point
M 0 3,2 
x2 y2
 1
5. Find the eccentricity of ellipse 25 9

3 3 4 2 9
A) 5 B) 4 C) 5 D) 3 E) 25

x2
 y 2 1
6. Find the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola 8 at the point
M 0 4,1

A) 2 x  y  1 0 B) x  2 y  1 0 C) x  2 y  1 0

D) x  2 y  2 0 E) 4 x  5 y  1 0

7. Find the distance between the foci 2c  of the hyperbola x 2  8 y 2 8

A) 6 B) 8 C) 2 D) 9 E) 3

x2 y2
 1
8. Find the eccentricity of the hyperbola 16 9

3 4 5 4 3
A) 4 B) 5 C) 4 D) 3 E) 2
 9. Find the standard form of parabola if the point 3,3 is on the parabola
y 2 2 px

A) y 2
3 x B) y 2
9 x C) y 2
6 x D) y 2
12 x

E) y 4 x
2

10. Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola y 4 x at the point
2

M 0 4,4 

A) x  2 y  4 0 B) x  2 y  4 0 C) 4 x  4 y  1 0

D) 2 x  y  4 0 E) 2 x  y  4 0

Lecture 14(LA)

General Equation of a Curve of the Second Order

Let us put down the general form of an equation of an algebraic curve of the second
order

Ax 2  2 Bxy  Cy 2  Dx  Ey  F 0 (1)

Now our aim is to transform the Cartesian coordinates in such a way that equation (1)
should take the simplest form; this will enable us to find out what curve is determined
by the equation.

The canonical equation containing no terms with the product of the coordinates ,we
first of all try to turn the coordinate axes in such a manner that this product should be
eliminated. According to formulas

 x xcos  y sin 

 y xsin   y cos

angle  ,the equation in new coordinates will

After the axes are turned through an
have the form
Axcos  y sin    2 Bxcos  y sin  xsin   y cos  
2

C xsin   y cos   Dxcos  y sin    E xsin   y cos   F 0

2

(2)

Removing the parentheses

Axcos ) 2  2 Axy sin  cos  A( y sin    2 Bx2 cos sin   2 Bxy cos 2 
2

 2 Bxy sin 2   2 By 2 sin  cos  C xsin    2Cxy sin  cos  C y cos  

2 2

 Dxcos  Dy sin   Exsin   Ey cos  F 0

Or

A cos   2 B cos sin   C sin 2  x2 

2

 (2 B cos 2   2 A cos sin   2 B sin 2   2C sin  cos ) xy  

 A sin 2   2 B sin  cos  C cos 2  y 2 
 ( D cos  E sin  ) x  ( D sin   E cos ) y   F 0

and collecting the terms containing the product xy  we see that the coefficient in
xy  is equal to

 2 A cos sin   2 B cos 2   2 B sin 2   2C sin  cos 

2 B cos 2  C  Asin 2

Thus, we must have

2B
tan 2 
2 B cos 2  C  Asin 2 0 i.e A C (3)

Now we find the angle  from equation (3) and thus determine through what angle
the coordinate axes should be turned.

After the axes are turned through the angle  the equation takes the form
Ax2  C y 2  Dx  E y   F 0
(4)

Where A, C , D and E  are some coefficients which can be found by collecting
similar terms in (2):

A  A cos 2   B sin 2  C sin 2 

C   A sin 2   B sin 2  C cos 2 

D D cos  E sin 

E   D sin   E cos

But a rotation of the coordinate axes does not change the quantity AC  B although
2

the coefficients A, B, C in terms of the second degree may vary , that is the expression
is an invariant. There is no term with xy  in equation (4) and therefore, since B 0 ,
we obtain AC   B  AC   AC  B
2 2

Consequently, if the expression AC  B written for original equation (1) is positive

2

then the coefficients A, C  in equation (4) have the same signs since their product is
positive. Such a case is called elliptic.

If AC  B  0 then A, C  are of opposite signs(this is a hyperbolic case ).

2

Finally, if AC  B 0 then one of the coefficients AorC is equal to zero( the so-
2

called parabolic case)

Let us turn to the elliptic case. Completing the square in equation (4) we arrive at
equation of the form

Ax  a   C y   b   F  0
2 2

Let us now translate the axes x and y  and pass to the new coordinates

x x  a and y   y   b . Then the equation turns into

 Ax2  C y 2  F 

x2 y 2
 1
F F
 
A C
That is

For the sake of definiteness let us suppose that both A and C  are positive. Then if
F   0 we obtain the canonical equation of ellipse. Consequently, the original curve
is an ellipse but displaced and turned with respect to the axes x and y .

If F   0 or F  0 we obtain either an imaginary curve or a single point.

Example 1.

3 x 2  4 xy  2 y 2  5 x  4 y  1 0
A 3, B  2, C 2

AC  B 2 6  4  0 (ellips)
Example 2.

2 x 2  6 xy  y 2  4 x  y  3 0
A 2, B  3, C 1

AC  B 2 2  9  7  0 (hiperbola)
Example 3.

4 x 2  12 y  9 y 2  5 x  4 y  6 0
A 4, B  6, C 9

AC  B 2 36  36 0 (parabola)

Example 4. Which line the equation 4 x  9 y  8 x  36 y  4 0 defines?

2 2
Solution. We transform this equation as follows:

4x 2  2 x   9y 2  4 y   4

4x 2  2 x  1  1 9y 2  4 y  4  4   4

4x  1  9y  2  4  4  36
2 2

4x  1  9y  2  36

2 2

We carry out a parallel translation of the coordinate axes, taking the point O1,2  as
the new origin of coordinates and pass to the new coordinates x x  1 and
y   y  2 . Then the equation turns into

x2 y 2
 1
4 x2  9 y 2 36 or 9 4

Thus, we obtain the canonical equation of ellipse.

Example 5. Which line the equation x  9 y  2 x  36 y  44 0 defines?

2 2

Solution. We transform this equation as follows:

x 2  2 x  1  1  9y 2  4 y  4  4 44

x  12
 9y  2  44  1  36
2

x  12
 9y  2  9
2

We carry out a parallel translation of the coordinate axes, taking the point O 1,2  as
the new origin of coordinates and pass to the new coordinates x x  1 and
y   y  2 . Then the equation turns into

x2
 y 2 1
x2  9 y 2 9 or 9

Thus, we obtain the canonical equation of hyperbola.

Example 6. Canonize the equation xy  1 0

 Solution. According to formulas

 x xcos  y sin 

 y xsin   y cos
( xcos  y sin  )( xsin   y cos )  1 0
x2 cos sin   y 2 cos sin   xy (cos 2   sin 2  )  1 0
 
cos 2   sin 2  0  cos 2 0  2   
2 4
1 2 1 2
x  y   1 0
2 2
x2 y 2
 1
2 2 .

Lecture 15(LA)

A Quadratic surfaces

In this lecture we will study several families of so-called quadratic surfaces, namely
surfaces z = f(x, y) which are defined by equations of the type

Ax 2  By 2  Cz 2  Dxy  Exz  Fyz  Hx  Iy  Jz  K 0 (1)

with A, B, C, D, E, F, H, I, J and K being fixed real constants and x, y, z being

variables. These surfaces are said to be quadratic because all possible products of
two of the variables x, y, z appear in (1).

In fact, by suitable translations and rotations of the x, y and z coordinate axes it is

possible to simplify the equation (1) and hence classify all the possible surfaces into
the following ten types:

1. Spheres

2. Ellipsoids

3. Hyperboloids of one sheet

4. Hyperboloids of two sheets

5. Cones

6. Elliptic paraboloids

7. Hyperbolic paraboloids

8. Parabolic cylinders

9. Elliptic cylinders

10. Hyperbolic cylinders

You should be able to recognize, classify and sketch at least some of these surfaces
The best way to do that is to look for identifying signs which tell you what kind of
surface you are dealing with. Those signs are:

• The intercepts: the points at which the surface intersects the x, y and z axes

. • The traces: the intersections with the coordinate planes (xy-, yz- and xz-plane).

• The sections: the intersections with general planes.

• The centre: (some have it, some not).

• If they are bounded or not.

• If they are symmetric about any axes or plane

Spheres

A sphere is a quadratic surface defined by the equation:

x  x0   y  y 0   z  z 0  r 2
2 2 2
(2)

the point x0 , y 0 , z 0 in the space is the centre of the sphere. The points (x, y, z) in the
sphere are all points whose distance to the centre is given by r. Therefore:

(a) The intercepts of the sphere with the x, y, z-axes are the points x0 r ,0,0 ,
0, y0 r ,0 and 0,0, z0 r 
(b) The traces of the sphere are circles or radius r.
(c) The sections of the sphere are circles of radius r   r .

(d) The sphere is bounded.

(e) Spheres are symmetric about all coordinate planes.

Rule: If we expand the square terms in equation (2) we obtain the following equation:

x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x0 x  2 y 0 y  2 z 0 z  x02  y 02  z 02  r 2 0 (3)

Comparing this equation with the general formula (1) we see it has the form

x 2  y 2  z 2  Hx  Iy  Jz  K 0 , (4)

with H, I, J and K being some real constants. Therefore, the rule to recognize a sphere
2 2
is the following: any quadratic equation such that the coefficients of the x , y and
z 2 terms are equal and that no other quadratic terms exist corresponds to a sphere.

The sphere is a perfect example of a surface of revolution. A surface of revolution is

a surface which can be generated by rotating a particular curve about a particular
coordinate axis. For example, one way to generate the sphere of the picture above is
to take the circle x  y 1 and rotate it about the z-axis
2 2

Ellipsoids

Ellipsoids are quadratic surfaces parameterized by the equation

x2 y2 z2
  1
a2 b2 c2 (5)
You can see that for a = b = c = 1 we recover the equation of a sphere centered at the
origin. Therefore an ellipsoid is a “deformation” of the sphere such that the sphere
gets either stretched or squeezed (depending on the values of a, b, c) in the x, y, z-
directions.

(a) The intercepts of the ellipsoid with the x, y, z-axes are the points
(±a, 0, 0), (0, ±b, 0) and (0, 0, ±c).
(b) The traces of the ellipsoid are ellipses which satisfy the equations:
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 for z = 0 (xy-plane) (6)
x2 z2
 1
a2 c2 for y = 0 (xz-plane), (7)
y2 z2
 1
b2 c2 for x = 0 (yz-plane). (8)

(c) The sections of the ellipsoid are also ellipses.

(d) The ellipsoid is bounded (all points (x, y, z) in the ellipsoid correspond to finite
values of x, y and z.

(e) The centre of the ellipsoid in the picture is the origin of coordinates. It can be
changed by shifting x, y, z by constant amounts.

(f) The ellipsoid is symmetric about all coordinate planes.

2 2
Rule: A quadratic equation such that the coefficients of the x , y 2
and z terms are
different from each other and all positive and such that no other quadratic terms exist
corresponds to an ellipsoid.

Hyperboloids of one sheet

A hyperboloid of one sheet is parameterized by the equation

 x2 y2 z2
  1
a2 b2 c2 (9)

(a) The intercepts of the hyperboloid of one sheet with the x, y, z-axes are the points
(±a, 0, 0), (0, ±b, 0). Notice that there is no intersection with the z-axis. The reason is
that if we set x = y = 0 in the equation (9) we obtain the condition z  c which
2 2

admits no real solution for real c.

(b) The traces of the hyperboloid of one sheet are ellipses in the xy-plane

x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 for z = 0 (xy-plane), (10)

and hyperbolas in the xz- and yz-planes:

x2 z2
 1
a2 c2 for y = 0 (xz-plane), (11)

y2 z2
 1
b2 c2 for x = 0 (yz-plane). (12)

(c) The sections of the hyperboloid of one sheet are ellipses for planes parallel to the
xy plane and hyperbolas for planes parallel to the yz- and xz-planes.

(d) The hyperboloid of one sheet is not bounded.

(e) The centre of the hyperboloid of one sheet in the picture is the origin of
coordinates. It can be changed by shifting x, y, z by constant amounts.

(f) The hyperboloid of one sheet is symmetric about all coordinate planes

Hyperboloid of two sheets

A hyperboloid of two sheets is a surface generated by the points satisfying the
equation

x2 y2 z2
   1
a2 b2 c2 (13)

(a) The intercepts of the hyperboloid of two sheets with the x, y, z-axes are the points
(0, 0, ±c). There are no intersections with the x, y-axes. The reason is that if we set
z = x = 0 in the equation (9) we obtain the condition y  b which can not be
2 2

fulfilled for any real values of y and b. Analogously if we set z = y = 0 we obtain

x 2  a 2 which also has no real solutions.
(b) In this case we have two sheets, in contrast to all examples we have seen so far.
The reason is that the equation (13) implies
x2 y2 z2
  1
a2 b2 c2 (14)
z2
2
 1 0 z c
This equation can only be solved if c which implies that

(c) The traces of the hyperboloid of two sheets are hyperbolas in the xz- and yz-
planes:
x2 z2
  1
a2 c2 for y = 0 (xz-plane), (15)
y2 z2
  1
b2 c2 for x = 0 (yz-plane). (16)
(d) The sections of the hyperboloid of two sheets are hyperbolas for any planes
parallel to the xz- or yz-planes and ellipses for planes parallel to the xy-plane with
z c
.
(e) The hyperboloid of two sheets is also not bounded.
(f) The centre of the hyperboloid of two sheets in the picture is the origin of
coordinates. It can be changed by shifting x, y, z by constant amounts.
(g) The hyperboloid of two sheets is again symmetric about all coordinate planes.
2 2
General rule: Any quadratic surface such that: the coefficients of x , y and z
2

are different, one of the coefficients is negative and two of the coefficients are
positive, and no other quadratic terms appear describes a hyperboloid. In addition,
if the constant term has negative sign the hyperboloid has two sheets whereas if
the constant term has positive sign the hyperboloid has only one sheet.

Cones
A cone is a quadratic surface whose points fulfil the equation
x2 y2
2
 2  z 2 0
a b (17)
Comparing (17) with the equations for the hyperboloids of one and two sheet we
see that the cone is some kind of limiting case when instead of having a negative
or a positive number on the l.h.s. of the quadratic equation we have exactly 0.
(a) The only intercept of the cone with the x, y, z-axes is the origin of
coordinates (0, 0, 0).
(b) The traces of the cone are lines in the xz- and yz-planes
x
z 
a for y = 0 (xz-plane), (18)
y
z 
b for x = 0 (yz-plane), (19)
and the origin (0, 0) in the xy-plane:
x2 y2
 0
a2 b2 for z = 0 (xy-plane). (20)
(c) The sections of the cone are lines for any planes parallel to the xz- or yz-planes
and ellipses (or circles if a = b) for planes parallel to the xy-plane.
(d) The cone is not bounded.
(e) The centre of the cone in the picture is the origin of coordinates. It can be
changed by shifting x, y, z by constant amounts.
(f) The cone is symmetric about all coordinate planes.
 2 2
Rule:Any quadratic surface such that: the coefficients of x , y and z are
2

different, one of the coefficients is negative and two of the coefficients are
positive, no other quadratic terms appear and no constant term appears describes a
cone.
Elliptic paraboloids
A quadratic surface is said to be an elliptic paraboloid is it satisfies the equation
x2 y2
 z
a2 b2 (21)
(a) The only intercept of the elliptic paraboloid with the x, y, z-axes is the origin
of coordinates (0, 0, 0).
(b) The traces of the paraboloid are parabolas in the xz- and yz-planes
x2
z 2
a for y = 0 (xz-plane), (22)
y2
z 2
b for x = 0 (yz-plane), (23)
and the origin (0, 0) in the xy-plane corresponding to the equation:
x2 y2
 0
a2 b2 for z = 0 (xy-plane), (24)
(c) The sections of the elliptic paraboloid with any planes parallel to the xz- or yz-
planes are parabolas. The sections with planes parallel to the xy-plane are ellipses
(or circles if a = b).
d) The paraboloid is not bounded from above.
(e) The centre of the paraboloid in the picture is the origin of coordinates. It can
be changed by shifting x, y, z by constant amounts.
(f) The elliptic paraboloid is symmetric about the xz- and yz-planes.
Rule: Any quadratic surface which contains: only linear terms in one of the
variables (in our example z), quadratic terms in the other two variables with
coefficients of the same sign and no constant term is an elliptic paraboloid.

Hyperbolic paraboloids
A hyperbolic paraboloid is defined by the equation
x2 y2
 z
a2 b2 (25)
(a) The only intercept of the hyperbolic paraboloid with the x, y, z-axes is the
origin of coordinates (0, 0, 0).
(b) The traces of the paraboloid are parabolas in the xz- and yz-planes
x2
z 2
a for y = 0 (xz-plane), (26)
y2
z  2
b for x = 0 (yz-plane), (27)
and two lines in the xy-plane corresponding to the equation:
x2 y2
 0
a2 b2 for z = 0 (xy-plane), (28)
(c) The sections of the hyperbolic paraboloid with planes parallel to the xz- or yz-
planes are parabolas. The sections with planes parallel to the xy-plane are
hyperbolas.
(d) The paraboloid is not bounded.
(e) The centre of the paraboloid in the picture is the origin of coordinates which
in this case is called a saddle point. It can be changed by shifting x, y, z by
constant amounts.
(f) The hyperbolic paraboloid is symmetric about the xz- and yz-planes.
Rule: A hyperbolic paraboloid has the same features as the elliptic paraboloid
2 2
with the only difference that the coefficients of the quadratic terms ( x , y in our
example) have opposite signs.

Parabolic cylinders

A parabolic cylinder is a quadratic surface whose points satisfy the equation

x 2 4cy (29)
This kind of surface is very simple, since the equation above does not depend on
z. Since (29) describes a parabola in the xy-plane, the surface we are describing
here is generated by the translation of the parabola (29) along the z-direction.
Rule: This kind of surface is easy to recognize, since its equation does not depend
explicitly on one of the variables and is the equation of a parabola in the other two
variables.

Elliptic cylinders

An elliptic cylinder is a quadratic surface described by the equation

x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 (30)
As in the previous case, this surface does not depend explicitly on the coordinate
z. Equation (30) describes an ellipse in the xy-plane (or a circle if a = b).
Therefore an elliptic cylinder is the surface generated by the translation of the
ellipse (30) along the z direction.
Rule: Again we have here a surface easy to recognize, since its equation does not
depend explicitly on one of the variables and is the equation of an ellipse in the
other two variables.

Hyperbolic cylinders

A hyperbolic cylinder is a quadratic surface parameterized by the equation

x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 (31)
The equation above describes a hyperbola in the xy-plane. Therefore this surface
is simply generated by the translation of the hyperbola (31) along the z-direction.
Rule: The rule to recognize this kind of surface will be the same as in the
previous case, with the difference that instead of an ellipse we have now a
hyperbola.