Meaning and Definations of Learning Unit-III

Learning, in psychology, the process by which a relatively lasting change in potential behaviour occurs
because of practice or experience. Learning is also a process of acquiring modifications in existing
knowledge, skills, habits, or tendencies through experience, practice, or exercise.
Henry, P smith “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or strengthening or weakening of old
behaviour as a result of experience”.
Crow and Crow “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways of
doing things, and it operates in an individual’s attempt to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new
situations.
” Skinner “Learning is the process of progressive behaviour adaptation.
Characteristics of Learning Yoakum & Simpson have stated the following general characteristics of learning:
Learning is growth, adjustment, organisation of experience, purposeful, both individual and social, product
of the environment.
According to W.R Mc law learning has the following characteristics.
1. Learning is a continuous modification of behaviour continues throughout life
2. Learning is pervasive. It reaches into all aspects of human life.
3. Learning involves the whole person, socially, emotionally & intellectually.
4. Learning is often a change in the organisation of behaviour.
5. Learning is developmental. Time is one of its dimensions.
6. Learning is responsive to incentives. In most cases positive incentives such as rewards are most effective
than negative incentives such as punishments.
7. Learning is always concerned with goals. These goals can be expressed in terms of observable
behaviour.
8. Interest & learning are positively related. The individual learns bet those things, which he is interested in
learning. Most bys find learning to play football easier than learning to add fractions.
9. Learning depends on maturation and motivation.

Types of Learning
Learning has been classified in many ways.
I. Informal, formal and non-formal learning: Depending on the way of acquiring it learning may be
informal, formal or non-formal.
• Informal learning is incidental. It takes place throughout life. It is not planned.
• Formal learning is intentional and organized. It takes place in formal educational institution.
• Non-formal is also intentional & organized. It is flexible.
II. Individual or Group learning: Learning is called either individual or group learning depending upon the
number of individuals involved in the learning process.
III. Another classification involves the types of activity involved
(a) Motor learning: - when learning involves primarily the use of muscles it is called as motor learning. e.g.:
learning to walk, to operate a typewriter
(b) Discrimination learning: - Learning which involves the act of discrimination is called discrimination
learning. e.g. infant discriminates between mother and aunt, milk and water.
(c) Verbal learning: - when learning involves the use of words it is called as verbal learning.
(d) Concept learning: - when learning involves the formation of concept it is called as concept learning.
(e) Sensory learning: - when learning is concerned with perception and sense it is sensory learning.
NATURE OF LEARNING
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 Meaning and Definations of Learning Unit-III

a. Learning is adaptation or adjustment: we all continuously interact with our environment. We often
make adjustment and adapt to our social environment. Through a process of continuous learning, the
individual prepares himself for 45 necessary adjustment or adaptation. That is why learning is also
described as a process of progressive adjustment to ever changing conditions, which one encounters.
b. Learning is improvement: Learning is often considered as a process of improvement with practice or
training. We learn many things, which help us to improve our performance.
c. Learning is organizing experience: Learning is not mere addition of knowledge. It is the reorganization of
experience.
d. Learning brings behavioural changes: Whatever the direction of the changes may be, learning brings
progressive changes in the behaviour of an individual. That is why he is able to adjust to changing
situations.
e. Learning is active: Learning does not take place without a purpose and self-activity. In any teaching
learning process, the activity of the learner counts more than the activity of a teacher.
f. Learning is goal directed: when the aim and purpose of learning is clear, an individual learns
immediately. It is the purpose or goal, which determines what, the learner sees in the learning situations
and how he acts. If there is no purpose or goal learning can hardly be seen.
g. Learning is universal and continuous: All living creatures learn. Every moment the individual engages
himself to learn more and more. Right from the birth of a child till the death learning continues.
PROCESS OF LEARNING
Learning is a process. It is carried out through steps.
Learning process involves –
(a) A motive or a drive.
(b) An attractive goal.
(c) A block to the attainment of the goal.
(a) A motive or a drive: Motive is the dynamic force that energizes behaviour and compels an individual to
act. We do any activity because of our motives or our needs. When our need is strong, enough we are
compelled to strive for its satisfaction. Learning takes place because of response to some stimulation. As
long as our present behaviour, knowledge, skill and performance areadequate to satisfy all our needs, use
do not feel any necessity to change our behaviour or acquire new knowledge and skills. It is this
requirement, which initiates a learner to learn something
(b) Goal: Every individual has to set a definite goal for achievement. We should always have a definite goal
for achieving anything. If a definite goal is set then learning becomes purposeful and interesting.
(c) Obstacle /block /barrier: The obstacle or block or the barrier is equally important in the process of
learning. The obstacle or the barriers keep us away from attaining the goal.
Now, you will think how the obstacle can be important in the process of learning. So let me tell you, if you
face no difficulty of any kind in attaining the goal, you will not bring any change in your present behaviour
or stock of knowledge or skills. Thus, the block or the barrier is an essential step in the learning process.
Let us clear the above views by taking an example. Suppose you wish to be included in your college hockey
team. You want to have the esteem of your colleagues, your teachers. You are also motivated try the
interesting experiences that you many enjoy. But you are blocked by your lack of skill in dodging, tackling
and handling the ball. The obstacles in the path of goal achievement will set you make up your deficiency
and acquire essential skill through sufficient practice and coaching.

FACTORS AFFECTING TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS

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There are three things which are involved in teaching-learning process i.e. Teacher, Student and Learning
Environment.
1. Intellectual Factors: those who are excellent in academic performance have no difficulty in mastering
school work. However, some students are unable to do it due to intellectual disabilities.
2. Learning Factors: having mastery over the subject is one of the major factors which affects learning
factors. It affects the student’s learning power and performance.
3. If a teacher has good mastery over subject the student will understand and perform good. If he/she
doesn’t it will negatively affect the student’s performance.
4. Physical Factors: the visuals, health issues and physical defects and development affects the teaching
learning process excessively. For example Malnutrition.
5. Attitude Factors: Attitude determines the general behavior of the student. It shows the ability and
willingness of the student to learn and grasp the knowledge which affects the learning process.
Attitudes like openness, loyalty, affection, joy, willingness can always modify the learning behavior.
6. Environmental Factors: it plays as an important factor in the teacher student learning process. It gets
affected by classrooms, textbooks, equipment, fellow mates and other instructional materials etc.
7. Teacher’s Personality: it is one of the most crucial factors that affects the teacher learning process. The
vital areas like leading, inspiring, guiding and adapting influence the process. Therefore, it plays an
important part in success or failure of the learner.

A) E.L Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning:

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was the first American psychologist who put forward the Trial and
Error Theory of learning. According to Thorndike, all learning takes place because of formation of bond or
connection between stimulus and response. He further says that learning takes place through a process of
approximation and correction. A person makes a number of trials, some responses do not give satisfaction
to the individual but he goes on making further trials until he gets satisfactory responses. Thorndike
conducted a number of experiments on animals to explain the process of learning. His most widely quoted
experiment is with a cat placed in a puzzle box.
Thorndike put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. The box had one door, which could be opened by manipulating
a latch of the door. A fish was placed outside the box. The cat being hungry had the motivation of eating
fish outside the box. However, the obstacle was the latch on the door. The cat made random movements
inside the box indicating trial and error type of behaviour biting at the box, scratching the box, walking
around, pulling and jumping etc. to come out to get the food. Now in the course of her movements, the
latch was manipulated accidently and the cat came out to get the food. Over a series of successive trials,
the cat took shorter and shorter time, committed less number of errors, and was in a position to
manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box and learnt the art of opening the door.
Thorndike concluded that it was only after many random trials that the cat was able to hit upon the
solutions. He named it as trial and Error Learning. An analysis of the learning behaviour of the cat in the
box shows that besides trial and error the principles of goal, motivation, explanation and reinforcement
are involved in the process of learning by Trial and Error.
 Laws of Learning
Based on Trial and Error Learning Theory, Thorndike gave certain laws of Learning. We shall discuss three
fundamental Laws of Learning in this section. These laws are:
1. Law of Readiness
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This law refers to the fact that learning takes place only when the learner is prepared to learn. No amount
of efforts can make the child learn if the child is not ready to learn. The dictum that ‘you can lead a horse
to the pond but you can’t make it drink water unless it feels thirsty’ goes very well with this law. In other
words, if the child is ready to learn, he/she learns more quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction
than if he/she is not ready to learn. In the words of Thorndike the three stages of this Law of Readiness
are :
• For a conduction unit ready to conduct, to conduct is satisfying.
• For a conduction unit ready to conduct, not to conduct is annoying.
• For a conduction unit not ready to conduct, to conduct is annoying.
Thus, the Law of Readiness means mental preparation for action. It is not to force the child to learn if he is
not ready. Learning failures are the result of forcing the learner to learn when he is not ready to learn
something.
Educational Implications of Law of Readiness: The law draws the attention of teacher to the motivation of
the child. The teacher must consider the psycho-biological readiness of the students to ensure successful
learning experiences. Curriculum / Learning experiences should be according to the mental level of
maturity of the child. If this is not so, there will be poor comprehension and readiness may vanish.
2. Law of Exercise
This law explains the role of practice in learning. According to this law, learning becomes efficient through
practice or exercise. The dictum ‘Practice makes a man perfect’ goes very well with this law. This law is
further split into two parts — Law of use and Law of disuse. The law of use means that a connection
between a stimulus and response is strengthened by its occurrence, its exercise or its use. In other words,
the use of any response strengthens it, and makes it more prompt, easy and certain. Regarding the law of
disuse, it is said that when a modifiable connection is not made between a stimulus and a response over a
length of time, the strength of that connection is decreased. This means that any act that is not practised
for some time gradually decays. Anything that is not used exercised or practised for a certain period tends
to be forgotten or becomes weak in strength, efficiency and promptness.
Educational Implications
Exercise occupies an important place in learning. Teacher must repeat, give sufficient drill in some subjects
like mathematics, drawing, music or vocabulary for fixing material in the minds of the students. Thorndike
later revised this law of exercise and accordingly it is accepted that practice does bring improvement in
learning but it in itself is not sufficient.
Always practice must be followed by some reward or satisfaction to the learner. The learner must be
motivated to learn.
3. Law of Effect
This is most important of Thorndike’s laws, which state that when a connection between stimulus and
response is accompanied by satisfying state, its strength is increased. On the other hand, when a
connection is accompanied by an annoying state of affairs, its strength is reduced or weakened. The saying
‘nothing succeeds like success’ goes very well with this law. In other words, the responses that produce
satisfaction or comfort for the learner are strengthened and responses that produce annoyance or
discomfort for the learner are weakened. Thorndike revised this law in 1930 and according to this revision,
he stated that reward strengthened the response but punishment did not always weaken the response.
Then he placed more emphasis on the reward aspect than on the punishment aspect of Law of Effect.
Educational Implications

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This law signifies the use of reinforcement or feedback in learning. This implies that learning trials must be
associated with satisfying consequences. The teacher can use rewards to strengthen certain responses and
punishment to weaken others. However, the use of reward is more desirable than the use of punishment
in school learning. The teacher for motivating the students for learning situations can exploit the use of
reward.
• Pavlov- Classical Conditioning (1849-1936)
Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning which has been acquired through experience. One
of the best-known examples of classical conditioning can be found with the Russian psychologist Ivan
Pavlov and his experiments on dogs.
In these experiments, Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate when they heard a bell ring. In order to do this he
first showed them food, the sight of which caused them to salivate.
Later Pavlov would ring a bell every time he would bring the food out, until eventually, he could get the
dogs to salivate just by ringing the bell and without giving the dogs any food.
In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed how a reflex (salivation, a natural bodily response)
could become conditioned (modified) to an external stimulus (the bell) thereby creating a conditioned
reflex/response.
Components Involved In Classical Conditioning We can gain a better understanding of classical conditioning
by looking at the various components involved in his experiment;
 The unconditioned stimulus.(UCS)
 The conditioned stimulus.(CS)
 The unconditioned reflex/response.(UCR)
 The conditioned reflex/response. (CR)
So let’s look at each of these classical conditioning components
in more detail now.
Note: In its strictest definition classical conditioning is described
as a previously neutral stimulus which causes a reflex (stimulus
means something which causes a physical response).
The Unconditioned Stimulus (food): (UCS) An unconditioned
stimulus is anything, which can evoke a response without prior
learning or conditioning.
For example, when a dog eats some food it causes his mouth to
salivate. Therefore the food is an unconditioned stimulus,
because it causes a reflex response (salivation) automatically and
without the dog having to learn how to salivate.
Unconditioned Stimulus – This causes an automatic reflex
response.
Conditioned Stimulus (bell): (CS) The conditioned stimulus is
created by learning, and therefore does not create a response without prior conditioning.
For example, when Pavlov rang a bell and caused the dogs to salivate, this was a conditioned stimulus
because the dogs learnt to associate the bell with food. If they had not learnt to associate the bell with
food, they would not have salivated when the bell was rung.
Conditioned Stimulus – You need to learn first before it creates a response. It is an acquired power to
change something.

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Unconditioned Reflex/Response (salivation): (UCR) An unconditioned reflex is anything that happens

automatically without you having to think about it, such as your mouth salivating when you eat.
Unconditioned Reflex – Reflex that happens automatically and you did not have to learn how to do it.
Conditioned Reflex (salivation in response to bell): (CR) A conditioned reflex is a response which you have
learnt to associate with something.
For example, the dogs salivated when Pavlov rang a bell, when previously (without conditioning) the bell
would not cause the dogs to salivate.
Conditioned Reflex – A reflex that can be evoked in response to a conditioned stimulus (a previously
neutral stimulus).
• Basic concepts in classical conditioning: There are several principles that are associated with classical
conditioning, some of these are:
• Extinction: a conditioned response will disappear over time when the conditioned stimulus is no longer
presented. • Spontaneous recovery: sometimes there is the weak appearance of a previously extinguished
response.
• Stimulus generalization: this is when individuals respond in this same way to experience stimuli. For
example, all fuzzy animals scaring a young child instead of just a fuzzy cat.
• Stimulus discrimination: organisms can learn to discriminate between various stimuli.
• Higher order conditioning: this is when a neutral stimulus can cause the conditioned response sense if it
had been associated with the conditioned stimulus.
Types of classical conditioning
Forward conditioning: Learning is fastest in forward conditioning. During forward conditioning the onset of
the conditioned stimulus (CS) precedes the onset of the unconditioned stimulus (US). Two common forms
of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.
Delay conditioning: In delay, conditioning the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented and is overlapped by
the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (US).
Trace conditioning: During trace conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) and US do not overlap.
Instead, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented, a period is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli
are presented, and then the unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented. The stimulus-free period is called
the trace interval. It may also be called the conditioning interval
Simultaneous conditioning: During simultaneous conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) and
unconditioned stimulus (US) are presented and terminated at the same time.
Backward conditioning: Backward conditioning occurs when a conditional stimulus (CS) immediately
follows an unconditional stimulus (US). Unlike traditional conditioning models, in which the conditional
stimulus (CS) precedes the unconditional stimulus (US), the conditional response (CR) tends to be
inhibitory. This is because the conditional stimulus (CS) serves as a signal that the unconditional stimulus
(US) has ended, rather than a reliable method of predicting the future occurrence of the unconditional
stimulus (US).
Temporal conditioning: The unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR
acquisition is dependent upon correct timing of the interval between unconditioned stimulus (US)
presentations. The background, or context, can serve as the conditioned stimulus (CS) in this example.
Unpaired conditioning: The conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are not presented
together. Usually they are presented as independent trials that are separated by a variable, or pseudo-
random, interval. This procedure is used to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as
sensitization.
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CS-alone extinction: The conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented in the absence of the unconditioned
stimulus (US). This procedure is usually done after the conditional response (CR) has been acquired
through “forward conditioning” training. Eventually, the conditional response (CR) frequency is reduced to
pre-training levels. Essentially, the stimulus is presented until habituation occurs.
Implications of Pavlov’s Theory to Classroom Situations
1. The theory believed that one must be able to practice and master a task effectively before embarking on
another one. This means that a student needs to be able to respond to a particular stimulus (information)
before he/she can be associated with a new one.
2. Teachers should know how to motivate their students to learn. They should be versatile with various
strategies that can enhance effective participation of the students in the teachinglearning activities.
3. Most of the emotional responses can be learned through classical conditioning. A negative or positive
response comes through the stimulus being paired with. For example, providing the necessary school
material for primary school pupils will develop good feelings about school and learning in them, while,
punishment will discourage them from attending the school.
Insight Theory of Learning(Gestalt theory)
It is also known as Gestalt theory. ‘Gestalt’ is a German word that means a whole or a total composition.
Wertheimer is regarded as the father of Gestalt theory, and it was further refined and developed by Kurt
koftka and Wolfgang Kohler.
According to this theory, an individual learns an object as a whole, a single entity, not in parts or bits. For
doing every activity we have used our insight. When we are not able to solve a problem easily then we
solve it with the help of insight. When we get a sudden solution to the problem then it is called the insight
method or theory.
Thus, gestalt, or the patterning of the whole is a potent factor in a learning situation because it gives rise to
insight. In other world, ‘Insight’ is the process of perceiving the relationship among various things given in a
situation, point, or solution of the problem.
Max Wertheimer is generally considered to be Gestalt psychology’s founding father. The other pioneers in
this field are Kohler, Koffka, and Wolfgang. ‘Gestalt’ is a German word whose equivalents in English are
‘form’ or ‘pattern’ or ‘configuration’, Max Wertheimer has explained the term ‘Gestalt’ as, that the whole
is greater than the parts. For example, a flower is just not a total of sepals, petals, calyx, corolla, color,
honey, and fragrance but something more than that. The total of the parts is not equal to the whole. This is
known as the Gestalt viewpoint. (BEd 2nd Year Describe Gestalt’s insight theory of learning Study Notes)
According to this view, “learning is the organization and re-organization of behavior which arises from the
interaction of the maturing organism and its environment. It is bringing about through this interaction of
new forms of perception, imagination, motor coordination, and other organic behavior.” The sudden
appearance of the solution is an essential characteristic of insight learning. A sudden coherent pattern of
solution appears at once.
The Individual does not perform random activities, but he perceives the situation as a whole, and
intuitionally reaches the goal through awakened insight by continuous, definite, and seemingly purposive
reactions. Insight is the perception of the relationship between at least three factors, an agent, a goal, and
intervening conditions or obstacles. Insight is often called the ‘Aha, experience, the flash of understanding
which comes to us all of a sudden.
Insight, when it occurs, is characteristically accompanied by an ‘I have got it Exclamation the eyes light up,
knit brows unravel, fingers snap, main feature of learning by insight is an estimate of the whole situation
and arrange the means in such a way so as to reach the desired goal. The individual discusses within
himself all ins and outs of it before acting upon it.
The Gestaltians tend to place more emphasis on the intrinsic organizing capacity in the brain of the
individual, and they emphasize the dynamic interactions of the elements in the entire, perceptual field.
Gestalt theory of learning essentially consists of problem-solving by understanding the relative position of

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 Meaning and Definations of Learning Unit-III

the elements in the entire perspective or situation. When a problem arises, it tends to disturb the
equilibrium of the organism that seeks a balance and so does the organism.
Actually, Gestalt psychology began with the work of German Psychologists who were studying the nature
of perception. We are all now well aware that the moving picture’ is not a moving picture at all but, is a
series of still pictures. The reality of still pictures flashed on the “move screen” becomes our perception of
moving pictures. The focal point of this theory is the fact that when two optical stimuli are perceived by the
human eye in quick succession, the reaction is one of simultaneous pattering.
Wertheimer called this the ‘phi- phenomenon. Out of these observations of perception, there emerged
certain principles that have implications for the general nature of learning. One principle is that have
implications for the general nature of learning. One principle is that the human mind gives an organization
or pattern to the environmental world revelated to the organism through sense perception. (BEd 2nd Year
Describe Gestalt’s insight theory of learning Study Notes)
Educational Implication of Insight Theory
Insight theory has a very important role in education as:
1. In this theory, students are provided such an environment that they themselves are inspired to learn
something
2. The theory is very useful for inventions and discoveries.
3. The teacher should try to motivate the students properly for insight learning.
4. The teacher should give complete knowledge to students about the activity he is trying to learn.
Because partial knowledge of anything is faithful. (BEd 2nd Year Describe Gestalt’s insight theory of
learning Study Notes)
5. Before using this method the teacher should make sure that be De given enough knowledge to the
student about that activity because it aspects insight. (BEd 2nd Year Describe Gestalt’s insight theory of
learning Study Notes)
6. It develops motivation in students.
7. This theory is based on from whole to part and from simple to concrete.
8. This method neither emphasizes mugging up nor considers the student as a machine or instrument.
9. It can be very useful for research on a student.
10. It increases students’ level of aspiration.

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