Chapter 2 Complex integrals

2.1 Some preparation and set-up

2.1.1 Analytic vs differentiable functions

We now make precise the idea of differentiability and analycity, where analycity was
briefly mentioned in Definition 1.2.3 in Chapter 1. As discussed in the previous chapter,
a function f (z) is differentiable at z0 if the derivative

f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )

f 0 (z0 ) = lim (2.1)
∆z→0 ∆z

exists and is unique. This refers to whether a function is differentiable at a specific point
z0 .

We now turn to the idea of analytic functions. A function is analytic at z0 if it is

differentiable at z0 , and additionally is differentiable in a small neighbourhood around
z0 . (That means, not just differentiable at exactly one point.)

For instance, the function f (z) = |z|2 was shown in Ex. 1.2.7 to be differentiable at only
exactly z = 0. Therefore this function is not analytic. (f 0 (0) exists. But f 0 (0.000001)
does not exist.) On the other hand, g(z) = z 2 is analytic at z = 1. (g 0 (1), as well as
g 0 (1.000001), g 0 (1.000001 + 0.00001i), etc. exists.) In fact, g(z) = z 2 is analytic at any
other values of z as well.

Example 2.1.1:
1
Given a function f (z) = , where z0 is some constant. Find the points where
z − z0
f (z) is analytic, and the points where f (z) is singular.

Ex. 2.1.1 solution:

We begin by calculating

f (z + ∆z) − f (z) 1 1 ∆z
= − =−
∆z z + ∆z − z0 z − z0 (z − z0 + ∆z)(z − z0 )
 
f (z + ∆z) − f (z) ∆z
lim = lim − .
∆z→0 ∆z ∆z→0 (z − z0 + ∆z)(z − z0 )

1
 • If z 6= z0 , the limit exists and is
 
0 ∆z 1
f (z) = lim − =− (2.2)
∆z→0 (z − z0 + ∆z)(z − z0 ) (z − z0 )2

for any z 6= z0 . Therefore the function is analytic at any z 6= z0 .

• If z = z0 , then f (z) is undefined therefore the derivative doesn’t exist there. The
function is singular at z = z0 .

2.1.2 Review of line integrals for real numbers

Let us review the idea of line integrals from COM201 Engineering Mathematics III. Sup-
pose we have a two-variable function f (x, y). Additionally, on the xy-plane, a line C is
defined by C : {x(t), y(t), a ≤ t ≤ b}. This can be written in vector form as

~r = x ı̂ + y ̂, (2.3)
f (x, y) = f (~r), (2.4)
C : ~r(t) = x(t) ı̂ + y(t) ̂. (2.5)

A line integral is something of the form

Z Z b
f (x, y)ds = f (~r(t)) |~r0 (t)| dt. (2.6)
C a

Example 2.1.2:
R
Evaluate the line integral C xy ds, where C is the upper-right quarter of the circle
x2 + y 2 = 16.

Ex. 2.1.2 solution:

C is the right half of the circle x2 + y 2 = 16. We can parametrise C by

π
x = 4 cos t, y = 4 sin t, 0≤t≤ .
2

2
Then, we have the following:

~r(t) = 4 cos t ı̂ + 4 sin t ̂,

p
~r0 (t) = −4 sin t ı̂ + 4 cos t ̂, |~r0 (t)| dt = 4 sin2 t + cos2 tdt = 4dt,
xy = (4 cos t) (4 sin t) = 16 sin t cos t = 8 sin 2t.

Therefore,
Z Z b Z π/2 Z π/2
0
xy ds = f (~r) |~r (t)| dt = (8 sin 2t) (4 dt) = 32 sin 2t dt
C a 0 0
 π/2
1
= 32 − cos 2t = 32.
2 0

2.2 Parametric curves on the complex plane

A parametrised curve is a function z(t) which maps a closed interval [a, b] ⊂ R to C.

For instance, the equation
p
|z| = x2 + y 2 = 1, (2.7)

if drawn on the complex plane, gives all the points at distance 1 from the origin, and
therefore gives a circle of radius 1 centred at the origin.
p
Note that x2 + y 2 = 1 can be satisfied if

x(t) = cos t, y(t) = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. (2.8)

Every point on the circle is labelled by a particular value of t, so specific points can be
obtained by substituting specific values of t to obtain the specific positions x and y. (See
Fig. 2.1

Furthermore, if x and y are given by (2.8), then

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) = cos t + i sin t = ρ (cos t + i sin t)

= eit → (Circle of radius 1 centred at the origin). (2.9)

3
Generally,

Definition 2.2.1 (Parametric curve). a parametric curve on a complex plane

can be given by

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), t ∈ [a, b] ⊂ R, (2.10)

where x(t) and y(t) are regarded as functions of a real number t. The point z(a) is
called the initial point and the point z(b) is called the terminal point.

Example 2.2.1:
Show that the parametric equation of a circle of radius ρ centred at z0 is given by

z(t) = z0 + ρeit , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. (2.11)

Ex. 2.2.1 solution:

Let the centre be z0 = x0 + iy0 . Therefore the equation of the circle satisfies

(x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = ρ2 .

Parametrise:

x − x0 = ρ cos t, y − y0 = ρ sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
x(t) = x0 + ρ cos t, y(t) = y0 + ρ sin t.

y
3π
t= 4 i t=0

−1 1 x

−i

Figure 2.1: Parametric curve of a circle represented by Eq. (2.8). Specific points of t = 0
and t = 3π/4 are shown explicitly.

4
The complex number is

z = x + iy
z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) = x0 + ρ cos t + i (y0 + ρ sin t)
= x0 + iy0 + ρ (cos t + i sin t) = z0 + ρeit . (2.12)

Example 2.2.2:
Give the parametric equations of a circle of radius 3, centred at the point z0 = 1+2i.

Ex. 2.2.2 solution:

The centre is at z = 1 + 2i, which means x0 = 1 and y0 = 2. The radius is 3. Therefore
all the points satisfies the equation

(x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = 9 = 32 . (2.13)

This condition is satisfied if

x − 1 = 3 cos t, y − 2 = 3 sin t, 0 ≤ t < 2π. (2.14)

The parametric equation is then given by

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t)

= 1 + 3 cos t + i (2 + 3 sin t)
1 + 2i + 3 (cos t + i sin t)
= 1 + 3i + 3eit . (2.15)

Example 2.2.3:
Give the parametric equations of straight line that starts at z = 2i and ends at
z = 4.

Ex. 2.2.3 solution:

5
The equation of a straight line joining (0, 2) and (0, 4) is

y − y0 = m(x − x0 )
1 1
y − 2 = − (x − 0) → y = − x + 2. (2.16)
2 2

2i

Figure 2.2

We can parametrise this equation by choosing

1
x = t, y = − t + 2. (2.17)
2

The parametric equation is therefore

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t)

 
1
=t+i − t+2 . (2.18)
2

Check that it satisfies the conditions, namely that it starts at z = 2i. That means at
t = 0,

z(0) = 0 + i(0 + 2) = 2i. (2.19)

which is correct. We also wish the line to end at z = 4. This occurs when t = 4. Therefore
the range of t is 0 ≤ t ≤ 4. The parametric equation fully described is
 
1
z(t) = t + i − t + 2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 4. (2.20)
2

6
 Example 2.2.4:
Give the parametric equations of straight line that starts at z = 4 and ends at
z = 2i.

Ex. 2.2.4 solution:

Notice that this is almost the same as the previous example. But the starting and ending
points are now opposite. The equation satisfied by x and y are still the same,

1
y = − x + 2. (2.21)
2

But if we were to parametrise x = t, the starting point t = 0 will be wrong. We want

t = 0 to give x = 4, and the final t gives x = 0. This can be satisfied if we choose

1
x = 4 − t, y = − (4 − t) + 2. (2.22)
2

The parametric equations are

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t)

 
1
=4−t+i t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 4. (2.23)
2

We can check that z(0) = 4 and z(4) = 2i, as required. #

2.3 Contour integrals

The line integral of complex function is called a contour integral, where the contour
refers to the curve γ in the complex plane. We shall extend the concept of real line
integrals to calculate the integral of a complex function. This time, instead of ~r for a
point on R2 , a point on the complex plane is just the complex number z = x + iy. Also,
a curve C is now a called γ, which we will represent by z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) for some range
a ≤ t ≤ b.

7
 Definition 2.3.1 (Integral of a complex function). The integral of a complex func-
tion f over γ is
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (z(t))z 0 (t) dt. (2.24)
γ a

We can calculate z 0 (t) according by differentiating its real and imaginary parts with
respect to t:

z 0 (t) = x0 (t) + iy 0 (t). (2.25)

Example 2.3.1:
A curve γ is given as a upper half of the unit circle.

(a) Write down the equation z(t) that represents γ.

(b) Find z 0 (t).

Ex. 2.3.1 solution:

(a) A unit circle satisfies x2 + y 2 = 1. Therefore a choice that satisfies this condition is

x(t) = cos t, y(t) = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π. (2.26)

The equation is

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t)

= cos t + i sin t. (2.27)

(b) The derivative is

z 0 (t) = x0 (t) + iy 0 (t) = − sin t + i cos t = −(sin t − i cos t). (2.28)

Using i2 = ii = −1,

z 0 (t) = ii (sin t − i cos t) = i i sin t − i2 cos t

= i(i sin t + cos t) = ieit .

8
 #

Example 2.3.2:
Evaluate γ z ∗ dz over γ : z(t) = eit for 0 ≤ t ≤ π.
R

Ex. 2.3.2 solution:

Note that the equation z(t) = eit , 0 ≤ t ≤ π, when drawn on the complex plane, is the
upper half of the unit circle, oriented counter-clockwise from initial point x = 1, y = 0 to
final point x = −1, y = 0. The function to be integrated is f (z) = z ∗ . On the curve,

∗
f (z(t)) = z(t)∗ = eit = e−it . (2.29)

Also, using the results of the previous example,

d it
z 0 (t) = e = ieit . (2.30)
dt

Substituting these into the integral,

Z Z π Z π
∗ −it it



z dz = e ie dt = i dt = πi. (2.31)
γ 0 0

Example 2.3.3:
R
Evaluate γ z 2 dz over the curve γ : z(t) = t + it, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Ex. 2.3.3 solution:

The function to be integrated is f (z) = z 2 . On the curve,

f (z(t)) = (t + it)2 = t2 (1 + i)2 . (2.32)

Also,

d
z 0 (t) = (t + it) = 1 + i. (2.33)
dt

9
Substituting this into the integral,
Z Z 1 Z 1
2
2
t (1 + i)2 (1 + i) dt = (1 + i)3 t2 dt

z dz =
γ 0 0
1 2
= (1 + i)3 = − (1 − i).
3 3

Example Z2.3.4:
Evaluate zRe(z) dz over the curve γ: z(t) = t − it2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.
γ

Ex. 2.3.4 solution:

The curve is

z(t) = t − it2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2,
z 0 (t) = 1 − 2it.

Therefore the integral is

Z Z 2
zRe(z) dz = (t − it2 )Re(t − it2 ) (1 − 2it) dt
γ 0
Z 2 Z 2
2 152
t2 − 3it2 − 2t4 dt = −


= (t − it )t(1 − 2it) dt = − 12i.
0 0 15

Complex integrals have the following properties:

R R R
1. γ
(f (z) + g(z)) dz = γ
f (z) dz + γ
g(z) dz.

R R
2. If c is a number, then γ
cf (z) dz = c γ
f (z) dz.

3. Opposite orientations: Reversing the orientation (direction) of the curve changes

the sign of the integral. For example, consider a curve γ shown on the left side of
Fig. 2.3, and another curve ϕ, which is the same curve, but the initial and final
points are the opposite of γ.

10
 γ ϕ = −γ

Figure 2.3

If a function f (z) is integrated, we have

Z Z
f (z) dz = − f (z) dz. (2.34)
−γ γ

4. Independence of path: Complex integrals also satisfy a property very similar

to the Fundamental Theorem of calculus. Suppose we have a function f (z), and
another function F (z) where F 0 (z) = f (z). If f (z) is integrated along a curve
γ : z(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, then
Z
f (z) dz = F (z(b)) − F (z(a)). (2.35)
γ

One implication of this is that if we integrated along a different path but with the
same endpoints, the result would be the same. In other words, integrals in the
complex plane is independent of the path taken.

2.4 Cauchy’s Theorem

Cauchy’s theorem is of fundamental importance in the integration of complex functions.

To understand this theorem, we first need a few additional concepts.

Theorem 2.4.1. Jordan Curve Theorem

If γ is a continuous, simple closed curve in the complex plane, then γ separates the
plane into three parts, which are

1. the curve γ itself.

2. a bounded open set called the interior of γ, and
3. an unbounded open set called the exterior of the curve.

11
 Exterior
γ
γ

Interior

Figure 2.4

A set S of complex numbers is connected if every two points of S are endpoints of a

path in S. In other words, we can move from any chosen point inside S to another point
of S continuously, without ever leaving S.

An open, connected set is called a domain. Furthermore, a connected set S is simply

connected if every closed path in S can be contracted into a single point in S without
any part of the path leaving S. An example of a simply and non-simply connected set is
shown in Fig. 2.6.
H
If a curve γ is closed, then integrations along this path uses the symbol to remind us
that the path is closed;
I
f (z) dz means γ is a closed path. (2.36)
γ

S = S1 ∪ S2

S S1 S2

(a) A connected set S. (b) S = S1 ∪ S2 , not connected.

Figure 2.5: Connected vs non-connected sets.

12
 S S

γ
γ1

γ2

(a) Simply connected set S. (b) Non-simply connected set S.

Figure 2.6: Simply connected vs non-simply connected sets.

Theorem 2.4.2. Cauchy’s theorem Let f be differentiable on a simply con-

nected domain S. Then
I
f (z) dz = 0 (2.37)
γ

for every closed path γ in S.

Proof.
I Z
f (z) dz = f (z)z 0 dt
C C

Using f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) and z 0 (t) = x0 (t) + iy 0 (t),

I Z
f (z) dz = (u + iv) (x0 + iy 0 ) dt
C ZC Z
0 0
= (ux dt − vy dt) + i (vx0 dt + uy 0 dt)
C C

Using the chain rule,

I Z Z
f (z) dz = (u dx − v dy) + i (v dx + u dy)
C C C

Applying Green’s theorem,

I ZZ   ZZ  
∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v
f (z) dz = − − dxdy + i − dxdy,
C R ∂x ∂y R ∂x ∂y

where the double integral is for the region R enclosed by C. Since f is differentiable,
u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann relations. Therefore the terms inside the brackets

13
 γ2 ψ = −γ2
B B

γ γ1 γ1
A A

Figure 2.7

above cancel each other. Therefore

I
f (z)dz = 0.
C

The important qualifier for Cauchy’s theorem stated above is that f must be differentiable.
For applications in science and engineering, we will often encounter situations where f is
not differential at certain points. We shall learn in later chapters how to deal with those
situations.

We can use Cauchy’s theorem to show that complex integrals are independent of path.
Consider an integral of some differentiable function f (z) along a closed path γ as shown
H
in the left of Fig. 2.7. By Cauchy’s theorem, this integral is zero, γ f (z) dz = 0 as long
as f is differentiable in the region. Now let us split the curve γ into two parts, γ1 and γ2 .
Then,
I Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz = 0. (2.38)
γ γ1 γ1

If we then change the direction of γ2 and call this new curve ψ = −γ2 , then
Z Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz = − f (z) dz. (2.39)
ψ −γ2 γ2

Note that both γ1 and ψ share the same starting and ending points. Substituting
Eq. (2.39) into (2.38),
Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz. (2.40)
γ1 ψ

Therefore, if the starting and ending points are the same (points A and B in Fig. 2.7), the
integral of a differentiable function is the same, even if we had integrated along a different

14
 Γ

Figure 2.8: Deformation of path γ into a new path Γ.

path.

A similar idea occurs for closed paths. In the domain where f is differentiable, another
integral evaluated on a different curve that is deformed from the original one yields the
same result.

Theorem 2.4.3. Deformation theorem

Let Γ and γ be closed paths in the plane. Suppose f is differentiable on an open
set containing both paths and all points between them. Then
I I
f (z) dz = f (z) dz. (2.41)
Γ γ

A typical scenario is shown in Fig. 2.8. This theorem is valid as long as f is differentiable
at all points between the curves.

Example 2.4.1:
Evaluate
I
1
dz (2.42)
Γ z−1

where Γ is a square of sides with vertices at z = i, z = −i, z = 3 − i, z = 3 + i.

Ex. 2.4.1 solution:

Calculating the integral along Γ is quite complicated. However, if we instead calculated
I
1
dz, (2.43)
γ z−1

where γ is a circle centered at z = 1 of radius 1,

γ : z(t) = 1 + eit , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. (2.44)

15
Then z 0 (t) = ieit . The integral is then
I Z 2π Z 2π
1 1 it 1
i eit dt


dz = ie dt =
γ z−1 0 1 + eit − 1 0
it
e
Z 2π
=i dt = 2πi. (2.45)
0

Since the square Γ can be deformed into the circle γ without passing any points of indiffer-
1
entiability of f (z) = z−1 ,by the Deformation Theorem, the integrals are equal. Therefore
I I
dz dz
= = 2πi. (2.46)
Γ z−1 γ z−1

2.5 Cauchy’s integral formula

Theorem 2.5.1. Cauchy’s integral formula

Let f be differentiable on an open set G, and γ be a closed path in G enclosing
only points of G. Then, for each z0 ∈ G enclosed by γ,
I
1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz. (2.47)
2πi γ z − z0

f (z)
Proof. While f is differentiable in G, the combination z−z 0
is also differentiable except at
z = z0 . In that case, let us purposely draw a closed contour C in G that avoids enclosing
z0 , by leaving a horizontal ‘corridor’ of width , as shown in Fig. 2.9.

16
 C = γ() + ψ1 + Γ() + ψ2
G

ψ2
z0 
Γ() ψ1

γ()

Figure 2.9: A contour C enclosing the shaded region. Note that z0 is not enclosed by C.

Hence, by Cauchy’s theorem,

I
f (z)
dz = 0. (2.48)
C z − z0

We see that the contour C is piecewise-smooth, and consists of four smooth parts:

• The outer arc γ().

• The side of the ‘corridor’ going in, ψ1 .
• The inner circular arc Γ().
• The side of the ‘corridor’ going out, ψ2 .

Therefore we can expand Eq. (2.48) by writing out the details

Z Z Z Z
f (z) f (z) f (z) f (z)
dz + dz + dz + dz = 0. (2.49)
γ() z − z0 Γ() z − z0 ψ1 z − z0 ψ2 z − z0

By the deformation theorem, we can deform the contour by making the corridor smaller
by decreasing , and Eq. (2.49) still holds. In particular, we can take the limit
Z Z Z Z 
f (z) f (z) f (z) f (z)
lim dz + dz + dz + dz = 0. (2.50)
→0 γ() z − z0 Γ() z − z0 ψ1 z − z0 ψ2 z − z0

Note that the two sides of the ‘corridor’, ψ1 and ψ2 are very close to each other and going
in opposite directions. They will cancel each other if  approaches zero,
Z Z 
f (z) f (z)
lim dz + dz = 0. (2.51)
→0 ψ1 z − z0 ψ2 z − z0

17
Also, the Γ() integral is
 
f (z) − f (z0 ) + f (z0 )
Z Z
f (z)
dz = dz
Γ() z − z0 Γ() z − z0
f (z) − f (z0 )
Z Z
f (z0 )
= dz + dz. (2.52)
Γ() z − z0 Γ() z − z0

As  approaches zero, the inner circular arc Γ() becomes a closed clock-wise circle Γ:

f (z) − f (z0 )
Z Z Z
f (z) f (z0 )
lim dz = lim dz + lim dz. (2.53)
→0 Γ() z − z0 →0 Γ() z − z0 →0 Γ() z − z0
| {z }
=0

The first term on the right-hand side of (2.53) vanishes because f is holomorphic, and
therefore f (z)−f
z−z0
(z0 )
is finite for all the z inside the shrinking circle Γ. For the second term,
it is the integral on an arc of a circle Γ(): z(t) = z0 + re−it ,  ≤ 0 ≤ 2π, where r is the
radius of the circle. Therefore
Z 2π Z 2π
−i re−it
Z
f (z) 1
lim dz = 0 + lim f (z0 ) dz = lim f (z0 ) dt
→0 Γ() z − z0 →0  z − z0 →0  re−it
= −2πif (z0 ). (2.54)

Combining all the facts discussed, Eq. (2.50) becomes

Z
f (z)
lim dz + 0 − 2πif (z0 ) = 0. (2.55)
→0 γ() z − z0

Lastly, as  goes to zero, the arc γ() becomes a closed curve γ,

Z I
f (z) f (z)
lim dz = dz = 2πif (z0 ).
→0 γ() z − z0 γ z − z0
I
1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz. (2.56)
2πi γ z − z0

Example I2.5.1:
1
Evaluate dz, where γ is a circle centred at the origin with radius 1, using
γ z
Cauchy’s integral formula.

Ex. 2.5.1 solution:

18
 I
1 1
The integral dz corresponds to Eq. (2.47) for f (z) = 1, z−z0
= z1 , (means z0 = 0).
γ z
Therefore f (0) = 1. The Cauchy’s integral formula states
I
1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz
2πi γ z − z0
I
1 1
1= dz
2πi γ z
I
1
dz = 2πi.
γ z

Example 2.5.2:
2
ez
I
Evaluate dz for all closed paths γ that do not pass through the point z = i.
γ z −i

Ex. 2.5.2 solution:

2
First, we note that ez is differentiable for all z. There are two cases:

• If γ does not enclose z = i, then by Cauchy’s theorem,

2
ez
I
dz = 0.
γ 1−i

• If γ encloses i, then by Cauchy’s Integral Formula

2
ez
I
2 2πi
dz = 2πe(i) = 2πie−1 = .
γ z−i e

Example I2.5.3:
e2z sin (z 2 )
Evaluate dz over any closed path that does not pass through the point
γ z−2
z = 2.

Ex. 2.5.3 solution:

First, we note that f (z) = e2z sin (z 2 ) is differentiable for all z. There are two cases:

19
 • If γ does not enclose z = 2, then by Cauchy’s theorem,

e2z sin (z 2 )
I
dz = 0.
γ z−2

• If γ encloses z = 2, then by Cauchy’s Integral Formula

e2z sin (z 2 )
I
2
dz = 2πe(i) = 2πie2(2) sin(22 ) = 2πie4 sin(4).
γ z−2

Example 2.5.4: I  
1
Evaluate the integral 1+ dz, where γ is a circle of radius 1 centred at the
γ z
origin.

Ex. 2.5.4 solution:

This function 1 + z1 is not differentiable at z = 0. Since γ is a circle centred at the origin,
it encloses the point where f (z) is not differentiable. We rewrite

1 z+1 z+1
1+ = = .
z z z+0

Therefore we can use Cauchy’s Integral formula with z0 = 0 and f (z) = z + 1,

I
z+1
dz = 2πif (0) = 2πi (0 + 1) = 2πi.
γ z

Theorem 2.5.2. Cauchy’s Integral Formula for higher derivatives

I
(n) n! f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz (2.57)
2πi γ (z − z0 )n+1

20
 Example 2.5.5:
2
ez
I
Evaluate 2
dz for any curve γ which does not pass through z = i.
γ (z − i)

Ex. 2.5.5 solution:

• If γ does not enclose z = i, the integral is zero by Cauchy’s theorem.

• If γ encloses z = i, then apply Cauchy’s Integral Formula for higher derivatives,
with n = 1:
2
ez
I
0 1
f (z0 ) = dz (2.58)
2πi γ (z − i)2
2 1 1
Here, f (z) = ez , and (z−z0 )n+1
= (z−i)2
, (means z0 = i)

2
ez
I
i21
2ie = dz
2πi γ (z − i)2
I z2
e 4π
dz = − .
γ (z − i)2 e

Theorem 2.5.3. Extended Deformation Theorem

Let Γ be a closed path, and let γ1 , . . . , γn be n other closed paths, all of them are
completely enclosed by Γ. Assume that none of the paths intersect anywhere. Let
f be differentiable on an open set containing Γ, and γi . Then,
I I I
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + . . . + f (z) dz, (2.59)
Γ γ1 γn

provided that all curves are at the same orientation.

A typical situation is shown in Fig. 2.10. We have a function f (z), that can be integrated
along Γ, γ1 , or γ2 . Observe that Γ completely encloses the two smaller curves. Then we
have
I I I
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz. (2.60)
Γ γ1 γ2

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Note that this is true when all curves must be sharing the same orientation. For instance,
all the curves must be integrated along the anti-clockwise direction.

Γ
γ1
γ2

Figure 2.10

It is also worth noting that for the case of n = 1 (only one curve enclosed by Γ), is the
same as the Deformation Theorem.

Example I2.5.6:
z
Evaluate dz where Γ is a closed path enclosing both −2 and 4i.
Γ (z + 2)(z − 4i)

Ex. 2.5.6 solution:

By the Extended Deformation Theorem, this integral is the same as
I I I
z z z
dz = dz + dz, (2.61)
Γ (z + 2)(z − 4i) γ1 (z + 2)(z − 4i) γ2 (z + 2)(z − 4i)

where γ1 is a closed curve that encloses −2 and γ2 is a closed curve that encloses 4i. Also,
using

z 1 − 2i 1 4 + 2i 1
= + , (2.62)
(z + 2)(z − 4i) 5 z+2 5 z − 4i

the integral can be written as

I  
1 − 2i 1
I
z 4 + 2i 1
dz = + dz
Γ (z + 2)(z − 4i) γ1 5 z+2 5 z − 4i
I  
1 − 2i 1 4 + 2i 1
+ dz
γ2 5 z+2 5 z − 4i
1 − 2i
I I
dz 4 + 2i dz
= +
5 γ1 z + 2 5 γ2 z − 4i
1 − 2i 4 + 2i
= (2πi) + (2πi)
5 5
= 2πi. (2.63)

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