BLOOD

Finals
BSMT – 2B GIESSAN MAE LABRADO
▪ destroy foreign substances
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD (antibodies and complement),
o Fibrinogen
1. Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste ▪ A clotting factor that
products. constitutes 4% of plasma
2. Transport of processed molecules. proteins.
3. Transport of processed molecules. ▪ a threadlike protein that
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis. forms blood clots
5. Maintenance of body temperature. o Serum - a plasma without the clotting
6. Protection against foreign substances. factors.
7. Clot formation. • Other components
o Water - Acts as a solvent and
Blood suspending medium for blood
components
• Blood makes up about 8% of total body
o Proteins - Maintain osmotic pressure
weight.
o Ions - Involved in osmotic pressure
• A type of connective tissue that consists of a
(Na+ and Cl-), membrane potentials
liquid matrix containing cells and cell
(Na+ and K+), and acid-base balance
fragments.
(hydrogen, hydroxide, and
• The liquid matrix is the plasma (55%), and
bicarbonate ions)
the cells and cell fragments are the formed
o Nutrients - Source of energy and
elements (45%)
“building blocks” of more complex
• The total blood volume is about 4–5 liters (L) molecules (glucose, amino acids,
in average adult female and 5–6 L in the triglycerides)
average adult male. o Gases - Involved in aerobic
respiration (oxygen and carbon
PLASMA dioxide)
o Waste products - Breakdown
products of protein metabolism (urea
A pale yellow fluid that and ammonia salts) and RBC
consists of about 91% (bilirubin)
water, 7% proteins, and
2% of ions, nutrients, FORMED ELEMENTS
gases, waste products,
➢ Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
and regulatory substances
A biconcave disk, no nucleus
and contains hemoglobin

• It contains dissolved proteins. Transport oxygen and carbon

o Albumin makes up 58% of the dioxide
plasma proteins. It functions as o The most abundant of the formed elements
transport molecules. o RBC constitute nearly 95% of all the formed
o Globulins elements.
▪ account for 38% of the plasma
proteins. ➢ White blood cells (leukocytes)
▪ Some are part of the immune o 5% of the volume of the formed
System elements.
▪ Some function as o WBC are 17 times more numerous
transport molecules. than platelets
▪ some globulins are clotting
factors
 BLOOD
Finals
BSMT – 2B GIESSAN MAE LABRADO

FIVE TYPES OF WBC o Produces antibodies and chemicals to

destroy microorganisms
Neutrophils
o B lymphocytes (B cells): Produce
With a multi-lobed antibodies that target specific
nucleus (typically antigens.
3-5 lobes) and pale o T lymphocytes (T cells): Include
pink cytoplasm helper T cells (regulate immune
with fine granules responses) and cytotoxic T cells
(directly kill infected or cancerous
cells).
o It phagocytizes microorganism and other
o Contributes to allergic reaction
substances
o Crucial for adaptive immunity.
o most numerous types of WBC in circulation
o Second most numerous types of WBC
o number of lobes varying (2 – 4)
Agranulocytes
o remain in the blood for a short time (10–12
hours), Monocyte
o Dead neutrophils accumulate as pus at sites
of infections. The largest type of WBC, with a
o Granulocytes characteristic kidney-bean or
horseshoe-shaped nucleus and
Basophils
abundant pale blue-gray
With bilobed or S-shaped cytoplasm, contains many vacuoles
nucleus that is often
obscured by large, dark blue
or purple granules in the
• Phagocytic cell in the blood. It phagocytizes
cytoplasm bacteria, dead cells, cell fragments and other
It releases 2 substances debris.
• Agranulocytes
o Histamine – promotes inflammation
o Heparin – prevents clot formation
o Granulocytes
➢ Platelets (thrombocytes)
Eosinophil
Small, colorless cell
With a bilobed nucleus and
fragments in the blood. It
cytoplasm filled with large,
is surrounded by a cell
distinct granules that stain
membrane and contain
bright red or pink with
granules
eosin dye

o Participate in inflammatory response of

• It is crucial for hemostasis (stopping bleeding)
allergies and asthma
by forming blood clots at sites of injury.
o It attacks certain parasites
o Granulocytes
Lymphocytes
Have a large, dark-staining,
round or oval nucleus that
occupies most of the cell, with a
small amount of pale cytoplasm.
BLOOD
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BSMT – 2B GIESSAN MAE LABRADO
• When RBCs become old, abnormal, or
PRODUCTION OF FORMED ELEMENTS damaged, they are removed (phagocytosis)
from the blood by macrophages located in the
Hematopoiesis spleen and liver.
•
• the process that produces formed elements.
• hematopoiesis is confined primarily to red bone Hemoglobin
marrow
• Each consist of four protein chains (globin)
and four heme groups.
Hematopoietic stem cells (hemocytoblasts) -
o Heme
renewing cells in bone marrow that can differentiate
▪ a red-pigmented molecule.
into all the formed elements of blood. They are
▪ Each contains one iron atom,
crucial for lifelong blood cell production.
which is necessary for the
normal function of hemoglobin.
Two types of intermediate stem cells ▪ The iron atom in a heme
Myeloid stem cells molecule can reversibly bind to
an oxygen molecule.
• Were most are formed elements are derived • It picks up O2 in the lungs and releases O2 in
others tissues
Lymphoid stem cells
• Hemoglobin that is bound to O2 is bright red,
• a type of white blood cell that give rise to whereas hemoglobin without bound O2 is a
lymphocytes darker red.
• 2/3 of the body’s iron is found in hemoglobin.
RED BLOOD CELLS

Carbon dioxide
• The biconcave shape of RBC increases the
cell’s surface area allowing gases to move • 70% of the CO2 in blood is transported in the
into and out of the RBC more rapidly. It also form of bicarbonate ions.
improves blood flow in larger vessels. • Carbonic anhydrase - catalyzes a reaction
• Gases enter and leave red blood cells most that converts carbon dioxide and water (H2O)
often in small blood vessels called capillaries into a hydrogen ion (H+) and a bicarbonate
• As red blood cells move through capillaries, ion.
they change shape. • 30% of CO2 is transported two ways,
• RBCs lose their nuclei and most of their o bound to proteins
organelles during their development o dissolved in the plasma
• Consequently, they are unable to divide. o
• Can live for about 120 days in males and 110 • CO2 binds reversibly to the globin part of the
days in females. hemoglobin.
• 1/3 of RBCs volume is the pigmented protein
hemoglobin (for cell red color) WHITE BLOOD CELLS
• Proerythroblasts - give rise to the red blood
cell
• are spherical cells that lack hemoglobin
• Cell division requires B vitamins folate and
• WBC as well as platelets make up the buffy
B12
coat
• Erythropoietin - stimulates red bone marrow
• larger than red blood cells, and each has a
to produce more red blood cells. O2 levels in
nucleus
the blood decrease, erythropoietin increases,
• WBC can leave the blood and travel by
ameboid movement
BLOOD
Finals
BSMT – 2B GIESSAN MAE LABRADO

• Two functions of WBC ii. Thrombin production

o Protect the body against invading iii. Fibrin production
microorganisms and other pathogens • Clotting factors are manufactured in
o Remove dead cells and debris from the liver
the tissues by phagocytosis. • As the damaged tissue is repaired,
clots are dissolved by a process called
PLATELETS fibrinolysis

• Produced in the red bone marrow from large

cells called megakaryocytes
• Small fragments break off from the
megakaryocytes and enter the blood as
platelets.
• Play an important role in preventing blood
loss.
• Contain the contractile proteins actin and
myosin, which operate in a fashion similar to
that of the actin and myosin in muscle
Control of Clot Formation
Blood loss is minimized by three processes
• Antithrombin and Heparin - inactivate
➢ Vascular spasm thrombin.
• The rapid and intense constriction of • Warfarin – prevents clot formation by
blood vessels, primarily arterioles, in suppressing the liver’s production of vitamin
response to injury K–dependent clotting factors.
• constriction can close small blood • Streptokinase (bacterial enzyme), and t-PA,
vessels completely and stop the flow produced through genetic engineering, have
of blood been used successfully to dissolve clots.
• ex. Thromboxanes and Endothelin,
both can stimulate vascular spasm BLOOD GROUPING
➢ Platelet Plug Formation
• known as primary hemostasis
• It rapidly creates a temporary seal at • Blood groups are determined by antigens on
the site of vascular injury to minimize the surface of red blood cells.
blood loss. • In transfusion reactions, antibodies can bind
• The activated platelets adhere to to red blood cell antigens, resulting in
exposed collagen and von agglutination or hemolysis of red blood cells.
Willebrand factor, then activate and
Transfusion - the transfer of blood or blood
aggregate, forming a temporary plug
components from one individual to another.
to reduce blood loss.
• Activated platelets release ADP and ➢ Donor is the person who gives blood
thromboxane, which activates more ➢ Recipient is the person who receives blood
platelets.
➢ Blood Clotting Infusion - the introduction of a fluid other than blood,
• A clot is a network of threadlike such as a saline or glucose solution, into the blood.
protein fibers, called fibrin, that traps Transfusion reactions - characterized by clumping
blood cells, platelets, and fluid. or rupture of blood cells and clotting within blood
• Stages of clot formation.
i. Prothrombinase production
BLOOD
Finals
BSMT – 2B GIESSAN MAE LABRADO

vessels. It is caused by interactions between DIAGNOSTIC BLOOD TESTS

antigens and antibodies
Type and Crossmatch
ABO blood group system - is used to categorize
human blood. ➢ Blood typing determines the ABO and Rh
blood groups of a blood sample.
➢ A crossmatch tests for agglutination reactions
between donor and recipient blood.
Complete Blood Count
➢ The complete blood count consists of the red
blood count (million/μL), th hemoglobin
measurement (grams of hemoglobin per 100
mL of blood), the hematocrit measurement
(percent volume of red blood cells), and the
➢ Antibodies – This are Y-shaped proteins white blood count (million/μL).
produced by the immune system to
specifically bind to and neutralize those Differential White Blood Count
antigens. It binds to antigen however they are ➢ The differential white blood count determines
very specific, meaning that each antibody can the percentage of each type of white blood
bind only to certain antigen. cell.
➢ Antigens - are foreign substances that trigger
an immune response in the body Clotting

ABO Blood Group ➢ Platelet count and prothrombin time

measurement determine the blood’s ability to
➢ Type A blood has A antigens, type B blood clot.
has B antigens, type AB blood has A and B
antigens, and type O blood has neither A nor Blood Chemistry
B antigens.
➢ The composition of materials dissolved or
➢ Type A blood has anti-B antibodies, type B
suspended in plasma (e.g., glucose, urea
blood has anti-A antibodies, type AB blood
nitrogen, bilirubin, and cholesterol) can be
has neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies, and
used to assess the functioning and status of
type O blood has both anti-A and anti-B
the body’s systems.
antibodies.
➢ Mismatching the ABO blood group can result
in transfusion reactions.
Rh Blood Group
➢ Rh-positive blood has Rh antigens, whereas
Rh-negative blood does not.
➢ Antibodies against the Rh antigen are
produced when Rh-negative person is
exposed to Rh-positive blood.
➢ The Rh blood group is responsible for
hemolytic disease of the newborn, which can
occur when the fetus is Rh-positive and the
mother is Rh-negative.
BLOOD
Finals
BSMT – 2B GIESSAN MAE LABRADO