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WUNNA EDUCATIONAL SERVICES

LOWER SECONDARY CURRICULUM

PHYSICS LEARNER’S WORK BOOK TWO
BY: KATO IVAN WUUNA
AND
SSEDDUGE ISAAC SHADRAC
Wunna Educational Services (W.E.S)
FIRST EDITION 2024
School name
_____________________________________________
Student’s name
_____________________________________________
Class:___________ Stream:________ Year:______
For more information, call or WhatsApp us on
+256750463703 /+256788463703
Email us on:
[email protected]
[email protected]
Visit our Websites:
www.wunnaeducationservices.com
www.wunnadigitallibrary.com

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Preface
This Learner’s workbook has been written in line with the revised
Physics syllabus for the lower secondary curriculum. The activities of
integration together with the research assignments embedded in each
chapter will enable the learner to produce new knowledge, values and
skills are required in the 21st century.
This work book provides a range of class activities, activities of
integration and research assignments which will enable the learner to
interact and discuss with fellow learners, research and discover more
through the internet and textbooks in order to understand the
applicability of knowledge acquired at his or her respective school.
The learner is expected to be able to work as an individual, in pairs and
groups according to the nature of the activities in order to be able to
develop personal confidence and communication skills as they share
learning experiences with their colleagues.
This Learner’s workbook is one of the materials that are to be used to
support the teaching and learning process of the lower secondary
curriculum.

KATO IVAN WUUNA

Physics and Mathematics tutor

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SENIOR TWO PHYSICS TOPICS AND THEIR LEARNING OUTCOMES
TERM 1
TOPIC1: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Competency: Understand and use the relationship between energy, work done,
force and power in the operation of simple machines.
Learning outcomes
a) Know that the sun is our major source of energy, and the different forms of
energy (k)
b) Know that energy can be changed from one form into another and understand
the law of conservation of energy (k, u)
c) Understand the positive and negative effects of solar energy(u)
d) Understand the difference between renewable and non-renewable energy
resources with respect to Uganda. (u, v/a)
e) Know and use the relationship between work done, force, and distance moved,
and time taken (k, s)
f) Understand that an object may have energy due to its motion or its position and
change between kinetic and positional potential energy (u, s)
g) Know the mathematical relationship between positional potential energy and
kinetic energy, and use it in calculations (k, u, s, g, s)
h) Understand the meaning of machines and explain how simple machines simplify
work (u, s)
i) Understand the principles behind the operation of simple machines (u, s, g, s)

TOPIC 2: TURNING EFFECTS OF FORCES, CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND STABILIY

Competency: The learner should be able to investigate the relation between
turning effect of forces and stability of bodies.
Learning outcomes
The student should be able to:
a) Understand the turning effect of forces and its applications (u, s, v/a)
b) Understand and apply the concept of centre of gravity (u, s,v/a)

TERM 2
TOPIC 3: PRESSURE IN SOLIDS AND FLUIDS
Competency: The learner should able to explain pressure in solids and fluids and
identify their applications in everyday life.
Learning outcomes
The learner should be able to:
a) Understand that pressure is the result of a force applied over an area (u, s)
b) Understand the effect of depth on the pressure in a fluid and the implications of
this (u, s)
c) Understand the nature of the atmosphere and how atmospheric pressure is
measured (u, s)
d) Know the structure of the atmosphere and the significance of the different layers
(k, u, v/a)
e) Understand the use of the bernoulli effect in devices like aerofoils and bunsen
burner jets (u)
f) Understand the concept of sinking and flotation in terms of forces acting on a
body submerged in a fluid (u)
g) Understand and apply the Archimedes’ principle in different situations (u, s, v/a)
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TOPIC 4: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL; HOOKE’S LAW
Competency: The learner should investigate and understand how the mechanical
properties of different materials are related to their applications.
Learning outcomes
The learner should be able to:
a) Understand how the mechanical properties of common materials can be utilised
in physical structures (u, s, v/a)
b) Understand that the tensile strength of materials is determined by the properties
of the substances they are composed of (u)
c) Understand that heating changes the structure and properties of some materials

TOPIC 5: REFLECTION OF LIGHT BY CURVED SURFACES

Competency: The learner should understand how concave and convex mirrors
form images, and also be able to describe the uses of these mirrors in everyday
life.
Learning outcomes
The learner should be able to:
a) Understand reflection of light and the formation of images by curved mirrors (u)
b) Use ray diagrams to show how images are formed by curved mirrors and the
nature of the images (s)
c) Determine the focal length of concave mirrors using a variety of methods. (s, g, s)

TERM 3
TOPIC 6: MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC FIELD
Competency: The learner should investigate and understand the properties of
magnets and explain how the earth behaves as a magnet.
Learning outcomes
The student should be able to:
a) Know that a small number of materials are magnetic, but most are not (k)
b) Know how magnets can be made and destroyed (k, s)
c) Understand the behaviour of magnets and magnetic fields (u)
d) Know that the earth is a magnet and how a compass is used to determine
direction

TOPIC 7: ELECTROSTATICS
Competency: The learner should understand electrostatics and use electrostatics
to explain lighting and other phenomena.
Learning outcomes
The student should be able to:
a) Understand everyday effects of static electricity and explain them in terms of the
build-up and transfer of electrical charge (u, s)
b) Apply knowledge of electrostatic charge to explain the operation of devices like
lightening conductors (u, s, v/a)

TOPIC 8: THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Competency: The learner should understand the relative movement of the earth
and moon in relation to the sun and explain the consequences for the Earth.

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Learning outcomes
The student should be able to:
a) know the relative sizes, positions, and motions of the earth, sun and moon (k, u)
b) understand how day and night occur and demonstrate the phases of the moon
(u, s)
c) understand the roles of the sun, earth and moon in explaining time, seasons,
eclipses, and ocean tides (k, u, gs)
d) know the components of the solar system and their positions (k)
e) know the main characteristics of the inner and outer planets in the solar system
(k)
f) understand the various views about the origin and structure of the universe

THEME: MACHINES AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

CHAPTER 1: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Learning outcomes;
By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to;
1. Know that the sun is our major source of energy and the different forms of
energy.
2. Know that energy can be changed from one form to another and understand the
law of conservation of energy.
3. Understand the positive and negative effects of solar energy.
4. Understand the difference between renewable and non- renewable energy
resources with respect to Uganda.
5. Know and use the relationship between work done, force, distance moved and
time taken
6. Understand that an object may have energy due to its motion or its position and
change between kinetic energy and potential energy.
7. Know the mathematical relationship between positional potential energy and
kinetic energy and use it in calculations.
8. Understand the meaning of machines and explain how simple machines simplify
work.
9. Understand the principles behind the operation of simple machines.
Key words
 Work done Power
 Energy Potential energy
 Kinetic energy Joule
 Load Efficiency
 Mechanical advantage Velocity ratio
 Work input Work output
 Energy wasted.
1.1 Introduction
This chapter will introduce us to work, energy, power and how they apply in simple
machines. We always engage in many activities such as playing, digging, cutting
among others. We need tools in order to carry out these activities. However, as we
conduct these activities, through the use of energy, we eventually perform work.

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At times we employ machines to do for us the work, what do you understand by
machines? How do they simplify work? In this section we will learn all the above
mentioned concepts.

ENERGY
Energy is the ability or capacity to do work. The S.I unit of work done and energy is
a joule (J).
SOURCES OF ENERGY (ENERGY SOURCES)
The raw material for the production of energy is called the energy source. There are
two types of energy sources.
 Renewable sources of energy
 Non-renewable sources of energy

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

These are energy sources which can be replaced when they get used up. They can
never get exhausted. They include;
1. Solar Energy
Source: Energy from the sun captured using solar panels or photovoltaic cells.
Advantages:
 Abundant and inexhaustible source
 Low operating costs after installation
 No greenhouse gas emissions during operation
Disadvantages:
 Intermittent energy supply (dependent on weather and time of day)
 High initial installation costs
 Requires significant space for large-scale installations
2. Wind Energy
Source: Energy from wind captured using wind turbines.

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Advantages:
 Renewable and abundant
 Low operating costs after installation
 No greenhouse gas emissions during operation
Disadvantages:
 Intermittent energy supply (dependent on wind availability)
 Noise and visual impact concerns
 Requires suitable locations with consistent wind
3. Hydropower
Source: Energy from moving water, typically harnessed using dams on rivers.
Advantages:
 Reliable and consistent power generation
 Can provide large-scale power
 No greenhouse gas emissions during operation
Disadvantages:
 Ecological impact on aquatic ecosystems
 Displacement of communities and wildlife
 High initial construction costs
4. Biomass Energy
Source: Energy from organic materials (plant and animal matter), including wood,
agricultural residues, and biofuels.
Advantages:
 Can use waste materials, reducing landfill use
 Renewable if managed sustainably
 Can reduce greenhouse gas emissions if replacing fossil fuels
Disadvantages:
 Air pollution from burning biomass
 Land and water resource competition with food production
 Can contribute to deforestation if not managed sustainably
5. Geothermal Energy
Source: Energy from heat stored within the Earth, harnessed using geothermal
power plants or heat pumps.
Advantages:
 Reliable and consistent power generation
 Low greenhouse gas emissions
 Small land footprint compared to other renewables
Disadvantages:
 Limited to regions with accessible geothermal resources
 High initial capital costs
 Potential for induced seismic activity
 Emerging and Alternative Energy Sources
6. Hydrogen Energy
Source: Energy from hydrogen, used in fuel cells to generate electricity or as a direct
fuel.

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Advantages:
 High energy density
 Can be produced from various resources (including water and renewable energy)
 No greenhouse gas emissions when used in fuel cells
Disadvantages:
 High production and storage costs
 Infrastructure for widespread use is still developing
 Energy-intensive production process if not using renewable sources
7. Tidal and Wave Energy
Source: Energy from ocean tides and waves captured using specialized turbines and
generators.
Advantages:
 Predictable and reliable energy source
 High energy potential in coastal areas
 No greenhouse gas emissions during operation
Disadvantages:
 High initial capital costs
 Environmental impact on marine ecosystems
 Limited to suitable coastal locations

NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

These are energy sources, which cannot be replaced when they get used up.
Examples of non- renewable sources of energy
1. Fossil fuels; these are formed from plant remains that died million years ago.
They include;
Coal: A solid fossil fuel used primarily for electricity generation and steel
production.
Oil: A liquid fossil fuel used for transportation, heating, and generating electricity.
Natural Gas: A gaseous fossil fuel used for heating, electricity generation, and as a
raw material in chemical industries.
Advantages:
 High energy density
 Established infrastructure and technology
 Reliable and consistent power generation
Disadvantages:
 Significant greenhouse gas emissions
 Air pollution and health impacts
 Finite resource, leading to depletion concerns
2. Nuclear Energy
Source: Generated through nuclear fission, where atomic nuclei (typically uranium-
235 or plutonium-239) are split to release energy.
Advantages:
 Low greenhouse gas emissions during operation
 High energy density and reliable power generation
 Long-term energy supply with abundant fuel resources

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Disadvantages:
 Radioactive waste disposal issues
 High initial capital costs
 Risk of nuclear accidents (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima)
Questions
1. Are the sources given above natural sources or artificial sources or both? Explain
how you were able to differentiate the two kinds of sources.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the major source of energy for all living things on earth? Explain your
response.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3. What do plants use the energy from the sun for?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. Imagine that the sun goes down for a week, how would life be? Explain your
response.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

NOTE;
On earth, all the energy we use comes originally from the sun. For example all
plants get their energy from the sun in order to manufacture their own food and we
are able to get food because plants got energy from the sun.
RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT.
1. In your groups, discuss and make a presentation on how wind mill, waterfalls,
nuclear power stations and tides generate energy.
2. Think about daily activities we engage in that require use of energy and include
them in your presentation.

FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy cannot be touched because it has no mass, neither does it occupy space. We
define energy by what it does or what it can do. Therefore energy is defined as the
ability to do work and can exist in the following forms;
a) Chemical energy:
Chemical energy is the form of energy a body has due to the nature of its atoms and
molecules and the way they are arranged.
In the combination of atoms to form compounds, there is gain or loss of energy. This
energy is stored in the compound as chemical energy.
If the atoms in such compounds are rearranged to form a new compound, this
energy is released. E.g If sugars in the human body are burnt, a lot of chemical
energy is released.
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b) Nuclear energy:
This is the energy released when atomic nuclei disintegrate during nuclear
reactions. In nuclear reactions, the energy, which holds the nuclear particles
together (Binding energy), is released.
There are two types of nuclear reactions i.e. fission (Where large nuclei break to
form smaller ones) and fusion (Where smaller nuclei combine to form larger ones).
In both cases, large amounts of energy are released.
c) Electrical energy (Electricity):
This is the form of energy which is due to electric charges moving from one point of
a conductor to another.
This form of energy is most easily converted to other forms, making it the most
useful form.
d) Light energy:
This is the form of energy which enables us to see. Light is part of a wider spectrum
of energy called the electromagnetic spectrum. Light consists of seven visible
colours, of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. We are able to see
because the eye is sensitive to the colours.
e) Heat energy:
Heat is a form of energy, which results from random movement of the molecules in
the body. It is responsible for changes in temperature. When a body is heated or
when heat energy of the body increases;
(i) The internal kinetic energy of the molecules increases leading to a rise in
temperature.
(ii) The internal potential energy of molecules increases leading to expansion and
change of state of the body.
f) Sound energy:
This is the energy which enables us to hear. Like light, sound is also a form of wave
motion, which makes particles to vibrate. Our ears are able to detect sound because
it produces vibrations in the ear.
g) Mechanical energy:
Mechanical energy is classified into two major categories; potential energy and
kinetic energy. In other words, mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and
all forms of potential energy associated with an object. That is;
Mechanical energy = kinetic energy + potential energy
M.E = K.E + P.E
Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy possessed by an object because its position in
reference to the ground. A bicycle on top of a hill, a book held over your head, and a
stretched spring all have potential energy.
Potential energy (P.E) = mgh where m is the mass of the body and g is acceleration
due to gravity and h is the height at which the body is above the ground.
Types of potential energy
There are three main types of potential energy and these are;
 Chemical potential energy
 Elastic potential energy
 Gravitational potential energy

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Kinetic energy
This is energy a body possesses because of its motion. The kinetic energy is given by
1
K.E = 2 mv2, where m is mass of the body and v is its velocity.
Assignment.
1. Research about the above types of potential energy and write brief notes about
each.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
2. Research and write brief notes about the types of kinetic energy.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Trial Questions
1) A ball of mass 2kg is kept on a hill of height 3km. calculate the potential energy
possessed by the body.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
2) 145g spear is thrown at a speed of 25ms-1 to kill a wild animal. What is its kinetic
energy? How much work was done on the spear to make it reach this speed, if
started from rest?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
3) If you a 3kg ball from a height h of 10m, ignoring frictional forces, what is;
a) The velocity when the ball hits the ground?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

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b) The kinetic energy of the body as it hits the ground (take g = 10ms-2)
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
As we saw earlier that all energy in the universe comes from the sun, using both
natural and man-made systems, we can transform it into many forms.
For example, Green plants change sun energy into chemical energy and the solar
panel transform sun energy into electrical energy and light we use.
Activity (Energy transformation)
What you need
 A bulb
 Loud speaker
What to do
1. Discuss the energy changes that take place in the bulb and loud speaker.
2. State the energy transformation in the following devices/events.
a) A torch using dry cells
b) A man running
Group discussion work
1. In groups, discuss the energy transformations that take place in:
a) a mango falling from a tree
b) A swinging pendulum
c) Using a catapult
d) A ball is thrown vertically upwards

1.5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.

One of the major features of energy is that it can be changed from one form to more
forms of energy. For example;
1. When lighting a match box
Chemical energy Heat + Light
2. When a boy compresses the spring
Mechanical energy Elastic potential energy
3. When lighting a lamp connected to a battery
Chemical energy Electrical energy heat + light
4. Catapult pulled by a person to propel a stone
Mechanical energy Elastic potential energy kinetic energy
N.B: The following devices can be used to carry out the following energy changes;
i) Electrical energy to mechanical energy Motor
ii) Mechanical energy to electrical energy Dynamo
iii) Electrical energy to sound energy Loudspeaker
iv) Sound energy to electrical energy Microphone
v) Heat energy to electrical energy Thermopile
vi) Electrical energy to heat energy Electrical heater
vii) Electrical energy to light energy Electric lamps
viii) Light energy to electrical energy Photocells
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ix) Chemical energy to electrical energy Cell
x) Electrical energy to chemical energy Battery charging
xi) Nuclear energy to heat energy Nuclear reactor
xii) Electromagnetic to electrical energy Aerial
Note: For a body falling freely its kinetic energy before impact is equal to potential
energy above the ground.
In an electrical bulb, electrical energy is transformed into light energy and heat
energy. As energy changes from one form to another, the overall amount must
remain constant. Hence during transformation, energy is conserved.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed but transformed from one form to another. For example, if a fruit falls
freely from a tree, the potential energy of the fruit before falling is conserved into
kinetic energy as it hits the ground.
Therefore;
Loss in potential energy = gain in kinetic energy
1
mgh = 2 mv2
NOTE: Don’t confuse the expressions “conservation of energy”. And “energy
conservation”. Conservation of energy is law of nature while energy conservation
refers to the wise use of energy resources aimed at saving energy by reducing the
length of use.
ACTIVITY
1. In groups, suggest different ways a man has innovated to save the amount of
energy used.
2. A bride of mass 3kg resting on a wall fall freely to the ground through a vertical
height of 3m.calculate the;
a) Kinetic energy of the brick as it hits the ground.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
b) Velocity with which the brick hits the grounds. (take g=10ms-2)
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3. Using internet and other sources,
a) Suggest and explain ways in which energy can be stored.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
b) How are the ways suggested above useful to the environment and the society?

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

When we walk, push a wheel barrow or even ride a bicycle, we say we have done
work. Therefore, in our everyday life, work describes any activity that a person does.
Work is defined as a product of force and distance moved in the direction of the
force. The S.I unit of work is joules (J) If the object is moved through a distance of
1m by a force of IN, the from the definition for work,
Work done (W) = Force (F) x Distance (D)
S.I unit of work is; IN x IM= IJ
Therefore IJ= IN x IM
Therefore a joule is defined as the work done when a force of 1 newton moves the
point of application through a distance of 1m.
Trial questions
1. Jane pushes a trolley in a super market full of goods with a force of 150N
through a distance of 10m. How much work did Jane do?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. Isaac pushes a concrete wall in his room with a force of 300N. How much work
does he do?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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POWER
We normally use the term “power” always need a powerful person to accomplish any
work. We all do work but at different rates. For example: The power developed by
Isaac whose weight is 750N is different from the developed by Ivan whose weight is
650N if they are climbing the same stair case in the same time.
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. The S.I unit of power is the Watt
(W). From the definition
Work done
Power =
time taken

Force X distance
Power =
time taken

FXD
P =
T
D
But = V (velocity)
T
D
Therefore P = F x T
P = F x V, Where V is Velocity
Examples
1. An engine raises200kg of sand through the height of 50m in 20 seconds,
Calculate the power of the engine.
Solution
work done
From the power =
time taken

Force x distance
Power =
time

mxgxd
P=
t

200 x 10 x 50
P=
20
P = 5000W
2. Joseph of mass 60kg walks up a flight of 15 steps each of height 20cm. Calculate
the power he develops in 30secs.
Fxd
From, P =
t

Force, F = m x g
F = 60x10
F = 600N
Distance, d = number of step (n) x height (h)
=nxh
= 15x20cm
= 300cm

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300
Distance = = 3m
100
mxgxd
Therefore P = , t = 30seconds
t
Fxd
P =
t
600 x 3
P = = 60W
30
3. At what average velocity can a motor rated 400W raise a load of mass 80kg?
Solution
Force x distance
From power =
time
mxgxd
400 =
t
d
400 = 80 x10 x
t
400 = 800 x V
400 800V
=
800 800
V = 0.5ms-1
TRIAL QUESTIONS
a) Define a Watt
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
b) Convert 2.5 kilowatts to Watts.
__________________________________________________________________________________
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c) A crane lifts 20 bricks per minute trough a height of 15m. Calculate the power
that is expended if each brick weighs 5N.
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2. A block of mass 2kg falls freely from rest through a height of 20m above the
ground. Find,
a. The potential energy of the block above the ground.
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__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
b. The velocity with which the block hits the ground.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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SIMPLE MACHINES
Machines are all around us. They help us to do a lot of work with ease. Machines
are simplified into two that is simple machines and complex machines. Both work
in the same way however complex machines like bicycles, tractors and others are
made out of many simple machines put together and perform work more easily and
quickly than simple machines.
Note: A machine is an appliance which eases work by using a small force (effort)
applied at one point to overcome a large fore (load) at another point.
Research assignment
In groups, using textbooks or the internet connected device, prepare a presentation
explain the principle of moments of a force, Where possible, use of diagrams on a
poster.
Terms used in simple machines,
For easy understanding of machines, one must first understand the following terms.
1. Fulcrum (F) (Pivot)
This is a point on a lever about which the lever turns.
2. Effort (E)
This is the force applied on a machine so that it can perform work.
3. Load (L)
This refers to the force (weight) of an object on which the machine has to overcome
as it performs work.
4. Mechanical Advantage (M.A)
This is the ratio of load to effort i.e.
Load(L)
Mechanical advantage (M.A) =
Effort(E)
Note; Mechanical advantage is a measure of how much the machine easies the
work for which it is used. The bigger the mechanical advantage, the easier the
machine makes the work.
Mechanical advantage has no units because it is a ratio of two quantities.
5. Velocity ratio (VR)
This is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort (effort distance) to the distance
moved by the load (load distance) i.e.
Effortdistance
Velocity ratio (VR) =
Load distance
Velocity ratio has no units because it is a ratio of the same quantities.
6. Efficiency of a machine
This refers to the ratio of the useful work done by a machine to the total work put
into the machine expressed as a percentage I.e.

Work output
Efficiency = X 100%
Work input
Wo
η= X 100%
WE
Where η is efficiency, WO is the useful work done by the machine and WE is the total
work done by the machine.
Efficiency of a machine can also be expressed as;

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Eo
η= x 100% where n is efficiency, Eo is energy output and Ei is
Ei
energy input
Efficiency is the measure of how well the machine works.
Note; No machine can ever be more than 100% efficiency because the energy output
of the machine can never be more than energy input. Machines are always less than
100% efficiency because of the energy wasted.
Energy wasted is the difference between the work input and the work output which
makes the machine less than 100% efficient
Energy wasted = work input – work output
= Effort x Effort distance – Load x Load distance
Energy Wasted is work done against friction when using the machine and also work
done on useless loads.
WORK INPUT AND WORK OUTPUT OF A MACHINE
It is possible to determine how effective the machine is simplifying work when you
compare the work you put into the machine and its work output.
Activity; (Determining work input and work output of a machine)
What you need;
 A pulley block
 150g mass (on a mass hunger)
 Knitting thread
 Metre rule
 Ten 20g slotted masses (on a mass hunger)
 Retort stand with a clamp
What to do;
1) Tie the 150g mass (load) at one end of the knitting thread.
2) Fix the single pulley block in the clamp of the retort stand and pass the free end
of the thread over the groove in the pulley.
3) Tie the 20g mass hanger (effort) at the free end of the thread and adjust the
arrangement such that the 150g rests on the surface of the table as shown below.
4) Measure and record the distance between the bottom of 20g mass hanger and the
table surface as da.
5) Add 20g masses on the effort pan, one at a time unit the 150g mass moves
upwards as the 20g masses move downwards until it rests on the table.
6) Measure and record the distance between the bottom of the 150g mass and the
surface of the table as db.
7) Determine the force Fa corresponding to the 20g masses used to lift the 150g
mass.
8) Calculate the work input (Wi) and work output (Wo) from,Wi = da x Fa and
Wo = db x Fb
9) Why do you think the work output and work output are different
10) Determine the energy wasted
Trial assignment
1. A machine has a velocity ratio of 6. It is used to lift a load of 480N using an effort
of 40N. Calculate
a) Mechanical advantage of the machine.
b) Efficiency of the machine.
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__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________
3. A machine lifts a stone of mass of 150g through a height of 10m. An effort of
750N applied passes through 15m so as to overcome the load. What is the
efficiency of the machine? (Take g = 10ms-2)
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__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
3. The effort of 300N raises a load of 1200N through 8m when using a simple
machine. The effort moves through 25m. What is the;
a) Work input of the machine
b) Work output of the machine
c) Efficiency of the machine
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__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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M.A
4. a) Derive the relationship. Efficiency = X100% for a perfect machine.
V.R
b) Explain why machines are ever less 100% effective.
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TYPES OF SIMPLE MACHINES

There are six simple machines namely; Pulleys, Levers, Wedges, Wheel and axel,
Inclined planes, and, Screws.

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However, the wheel and axel combination is similar in principle to the lever, while
the wedge and screws are similar to the inclined planes. This, simple machines are
categorized in three i.e.
 The levers
 The pulleys
 Inclined planes
THE LEVERS
A lever is a simple machine that makes work easier by applying the principle of
moments. It involves moving the load around the fulcrum or pivot using an effort.
A lever is a rigid bar that rests on a support called pivot (fulcrum). Levers are
commonly used in our homes and these include;
 Pairs of scissors
 Pliers
 Claw hummer
 Nut cracker
 Pair of tongs
 Forceps
 Wheelbarrows
NB; Lever are called force multipliers because they amplify a small effort to produce
greater force which is used to overcome loads
CLASSES OF LEVERS
Activity
a. In groups, discuss and write short notes, including definitions and examples,
about three classes of levers.
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__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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For a complete turn;

The effort moves through a distance equal to the circumference of the wheel
C = 2πR where R is the radius of the wheel.
The load moves through a distance equal to the circumference of the axel C = 2πr
where r is the radius of the axel.
Effort distance
This is from V.R =
Load distance

2πR R
V.R = 2πr =
r
Activity:
1. In a wheel and axle system, a wheel of radius 40cm uses an effort of 300N to rise
a load of 900N using an axle of radius 10cm. Calculate the;
a). Velocity ratio.
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b). Efficiency of the system
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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2. A common windlass is used to raise a load of 480N by application of an effort
200N at right angles to the handle. If the prank is 33cm from the axis and the
radius of the axle is 11cm, calculate the;
a). Velocity ratio.
b). Efficiency of the windlass.
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__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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THE GEAR SYSTEM
Gears are modified wheel and axel. A gear is a wheel with equally spaced teeth
around it along its circumference which can rotate about its center. The small gear
wheel (driving wheel or effort gear with n teeth) turns and makes the bigger wheel
(driven wheel or load gear) turn.
The direction of the driven gear is opposite to that of the driving gear and the
number of rotations of the gear wheels depends on the rotation of the number of
teeth and the radii of the wheels.

A large velocity ratio is obtained only when the effort is applied on a smaller gear so
that it drives the large gear.
Number of teeth in the driven gear (N)
Velocity ratio =
Number of teeth in the driving gear (n)

N
V.R =
n
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Activity:
1. A gear system is 30% efficient. The number of teeth on the driven wheel is 100
while that on the driving wheel is 20. Calculate;
a). velocity ratio of the system
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
b). mechanical advantage
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
c). load which can be raised by the effort of 200N
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Research assignment:
In groups, using the internet and text books, research about:
a). the examples and applications of wheel and axel machines
b). why it is easier to undo a tight nut using a spanner with long handle than one
with the short handle.
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__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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WEDGE
A wedge is an object with at least one slanting side ending in sharp edge, which
cuts materials apart.
A wedge is simply a triangular tool, often made up of materials, wood, stone or
plastic. It is thick at one end and tapers to a thin or sharp edge at the other end.
A wedge may be attached to a handle to make it easier to use.
Examples of wedges include;
 Nails
 Knives
 Axes
 teeth

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Wedges may be used in many ways which include;
 Cutting (knives)
 Splitting (axes)
 Holding together (nails)
 Tightening and holding back (door stoppers)
Wedges work by changing direction and the force applied to it.
Note: Longer And thinner wedges give more mechanical advantage compared to
shorter and wider wedges.

SCREWS
A screw is a long inclined plane wrapped around an axel, with the axel rotated by a
handle used as a lever.

When a screw is rotated through one complete turn, it moves through a distance
equal to its pitch.
A pitch is the distance between one thread and the next measured along the axis of
the screw
circumference of the screw head
Velocity ratio =
Pitch

2πa
V.R = , Where r is the radius of the screw head
P
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Activity
1) A load of 800N is raised using a screw jack whose lever arm is 49cm has a pitch
of 2.5cm. if it is 40% efficient, find the;
a. Velocity ratio
b. Mechanical advantage
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__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2) A certain screw machine has a pitch 3.5mm, the effort is applied using a handle,
which is 44cm long. Calculate its velocity ratio
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__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Assignment
Research and write brief notes about;
a. Why the efficiency of a screw jack is always less than 50%
b. Daily life applications of screws
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

INCLINED PLANE
An inclined plane is a slanting surface raised at an angle to the horizontal over
which a heavy load is lifted to a certain height easily by pushing or pulling

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Effort distance L
Therefore velocity ratio =
Load distance H

L
V.R =
H
Note; the steepness (angle) of the inclined plane determines the effort needed to
raise the weight. More effort will be required when the angle is steeper
Activity
A brick of mass 2kg is lifted to a height of 3m a long a smooth inclined plane 15m
long by applying an effort of 5N as shown below.

Calculate;
i) Its velocity ratio
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__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
ii) Its mechanical advantage
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__________________________________________________________________________________
iii) The efficiency of the incline
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PULLEYS
A pulley is a simple machine that uses grooved wheels and a rope to rise, lower or
move a load.
A simple pulley serves only to change direction of the applied force (effort). The use
of more than one pulley results into a higher mechanical advantage, so that a given
effort can raise a higher load.
TYPE OF PULLEYS
1. Single fixed pulley
A single fixed pulley has a fixed axel. It is used to change the direction of the force
on a rope (belt).

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A fixed pulley has a mechanical advantage of 1 which means that the applied effort
is equal to the load being overcome by the pulley. If there is no friction and the rope
is weightless then at equilibrium;
L=E
L
M.A =
E
M.A = 1
In practice the rope has weight and there is friction in the groove, therefore the
effort is always greater than the load. Hence mechanical advantage is always less
than 1.
However the distance moved by the effort is always equal to the distance moved by
the load
effort distance E.D
Thus V.R = = L.D = 1
load distance
Question;
Suggest any daily life applications of a single fixed pulley.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. Single movable pulley
This is a simple pulley with a rope passing around the groove of a movable wheel. In
a single movable pulley one end of the rope is fixed and the effort is applied on the
other end but the load is tied to the wheel.

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A movable pulley is used multiply forces and has a mechanical advantage of 2
Note; the effort distance is twice the load distance i.e. E.D = 2L.D
E.D 2L.D
Thus V.R = = =2
L.D L.D

If no friction is considered, the load = 2(effort) i.e L = 2E

2(E)
Thus M.A = =2
E
Therefore for a single movable pulley, the mechanical advantage and velocity ratio is
2. In practice the rope has weight and there is friction in the groove, therefore the
effort is always greater than the load. Hence mechanical advantage is always less
than 2.
Questions
Explain why a single movable pulley is more advantageous than a single fixed
pulley.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
BLOCK AND TACKLE PULLEY SYSTEM
This is the system consisting of two or more pulleys combined to form a machine of
large velocity ratio and higher mechanical advantage.
In the block and tackle pulley system, two or more pulleys are mounted on the
same axle to form a block. The block and tackle pulley system uses very little effort.
One block is fixed and the other block is movable. The two blocks are joined by a
single rope known as the tackle that passes through each pulley as shown below

Note:
If the number of pulleys is odd, then the fixed block has more pulleys by one than
the movable block and the sting (tackle) starts from the movable block as shown in
(ii) above.
If the number of pulleys is even, the blocks will have equal number of pulleys and
the string starts from the fixed upper block as shown in (i) and (iii) above.

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The velocity ratio is equal to the number of pulleys of the pulley system or the
number of strings supporting the movable block.
Uses of pulley systems:
 Construction pulleys lift heavy materials from the ground.
 Curtains at the theatre are moved using pulley systems.
 Flag poles use pulleys in order to raise or bring down the flag.
 A crane is a pulley system used in construction.
 Engines utilize pulley systems in order to function.
 Fans with chains use pulley systems in order to be turned on or off.
 Timing belts in cars use pulley systems.
 Escalators utilize pulley system to function.
 A lift uses pulley system to move items to higher floors.
 Bulldozer uses a pulley system.
 Rock climbers use pulley systems.
 Oil derricks use pulley systems.
 Garage doors close and open using pulley systems.
Assignment
1. Differentiate between a single fixed pulley and a single movable pulley.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. In the space provided below, draw two pulley system of velocity ratio 5 and 6.
V.R = 5 V.R = 6

3. The minimum effort required to raise a load of 100N is 40N as shown in diagram
below. Calculate
i) The mechanical advantage
ii) Efficiency
iii) Work done by the load if it is raised through 6m.
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MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

CHAPTER 2
TURNING EFFECTS OF FORCES, CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND STABILITY
Learning out comes:
1. Understand the turning effect of forces and its applications
2. Understand and apply the concept of Centre of gravity.
Key words:
 Centre of gravity
 Centre of mass
 Equilibrium
 Force pivot
 Stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium
 Turning effect and torque

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Competency
To investigate the relationship between turning effect of forces and stability of
bodies.
Introduction
Every time we open a door by turning the handle, turn on a tap, turn a steering
wheel of a car or even tighten up a nut with a spanner, we exert a turning force.
The turning effect of force also plays a big role in stability of all things around us. In
this chapter, you will understand how the turning effect of forces affects stability of
bodies.
TURNING EFFECT OF A FORCE
We usually apply forces on bodies during different activities. Some forces may cause
a pulling or a pushing effect on the body while others may cause a turning effect on
bodies.
Elements of Turning of a Force:
Force (F): The push or pull applied to the object.
Pivot (Fulcrum): The fixed point around which the object rotates.
Distance (d): The perpendicular distance between the point where the force is
applied and the pivot or axis of rotation. This distance is called the moment arm or
lever arm.
The turning effect of a force is called moment of a force or a Torque (T), Moment
of a force is defined as the product of force and the perpendicular distance of the
line of action of the force from the turning point (Pivot/Fulcrum).
From the definition, we can deduce the formula,
Moment (Torque) = Force × Perpendicular distance from the pivot
τ=Fxd
Where: τ is the moment or torque (measured in newton-metres, Nm), F is the force
(measured in newtons, N), d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot (measured
in metres, m)
Clockwise Moment: When a force causes an object to rotate in the direction of a
clock's hands, it is a clockwise moment.
Counterclockwise Moment: When a force causes an object to rotate in the
opposite direction to a clock's hands, it is a counterclockwise moment.
Principle of Moments Formula:
For an object to be in equilibrium (not rotating), the sum of the moments in the
clockwise direction must equal the sum of the moments in the counterclockwise
direction.
Practical Examples:
Opening a Door: When you push a door, the door rotates around its hinge (the
pivot). The further from the hinge you apply the force, the easier it is to open the
door, because the turning effect (moment) increases.
Using a Wrench: Applying force on the handle of a wrench at a greater distance
from the bolt gives more torque, making it easier to turn the bolt.
Factors Affecting Turning of a Force:
Magnitude of the Force: A larger force will produce a greater turning effect.
Distance from the Pivot: The farther the force is applied from the pivot, the greater
the moment.

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Direction of the Force: For maximum turning effect, the force must be applied
perpendicular to the object. If it's not, only the perpendicular component of the
force contributes to the turning effect.
Activity; determining moment of a force
Required materials
 A metre rule
 A knife edge
 One 100g mass on a hanger
 One piece of knitting thread (30 cm long)
What to do;
1. Balance the metre rule provided on a knife edge with its scale facing upwards and
record its balancing point G.
2. Hang a mass, m = 100g using a thread at the 10.0cm mark from one end of the
metre rule.
3. Adjust the position of the metre along the knife edge until it balances horizontally.
4. State the balancing point of the ruler
___________________________________________________________________________________
5. State the perpendicular distance d, from the balancing point.
___________________________________________________________________________________
6. Find the force F due to the mass suspended on the ruler.
___________________________________________________________________________________
7. Calculate the moment of the force from M = F x d and state its S.I unit.
___________________________________________________________________________________
8. Define moment of a force on the body and share your findings with the class.
Examples
1. While opening a screw, the torque used is 180 Nm when the force used is 45 N.
What is the perpendicular distance of the force from the turning point?
Solution
From torque (𝜏) = F x d
180 = 45 x d
180
d=
45
d=4m
2. Ivan applies a force of 25.2 N to open their gate at home for his grandma to drive
out. The gate handle is at 8.5 m from the hinges. Calculate the torque created by
his force.
Solution
Force = 25.2 N, distance = 8.5 m
From torque (𝜏) = F x d
= 25.2 x 8.5
= 214.2 Nm
Principle of moments
The principle of moments states that when an object is in equilibrium, the sum of
anticlockwise moments is equal to the sum of clockwise moments about the same
point. This means that the net torque on a system in equilibrium at any point is
zero.
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Application of the Principle of Moments:
Seesaw: On a seesaw, two children sit on either side of the pivot (the fulcrum). If
one child is heavier, they will sit closer to the pivot, while the lighter child will sit
further away to balance the seesaw. The clockwise moment from the heavier child is
balanced by the counterclockwise moment from the lighter child. This keeps the
seesaw level. If the moments are not equal, the seesaw will tip toward the side with
the greater moment.
Lever: When using a lever to lift a heavy object, the effort force applied on one side
must create a moment equal to the moment created by the weight of the object on
the other side for the system to balance. This explains how levers can be used to lift
heavy loads with smaller forces, by increasing the distance from the pivot where the
force is applied.
Balancing Beams: In mechanical structures, such as bridges or cranes, the
principle of moments is used to ensure that all forces acting on the structure are
balanced to prevent rotation or collapse.
Assignment (Group work)
In groups, using materials in the laboratory, carry out research and write a report
on how you can;
(a) Verify the principle of moments using a suspended metre rule and attached
weights.
(b) Use the principle of moments and equilibrium to determine an unknown mass
using a metre rule of known mass.
(c) Determine the mass of a metre rule.
(d) Present your findings to the class.
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Taking moments about point P

Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
M x 25 = 40 x 20
M = 32g
2. A uniform half metre rule is pivoted at 15cm mark and balances horizontally
when a body of mass 30g is hung at 3cm mark. Calculate the mass of the metre
rule.

Taking moments about point P

Clockwise moments = M x 10
Anticlockwise moments = 40 x 12
At equilibrium, clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
10M = 480
M = 48g

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3. Two laborers A and B carry a uniform pole of weight 50N. If the pole is 2m long.
Find the reactions at A and B. Given that each labourer is 10cm from each end.

Sum Upward forces = sum down ward forces

RA + RB = 50………(i)
Taking moments about A
RB x 180 = 50 x 90
RB = 25N
From (ii) RA = 50 – 25
RA = 25N

Trial task
1. A uniform half metre rule is pivoted at 10cm mark and balances horizontally
when a body of mass 90g is hung at 4cm mark. Calculate the mass of the metre
rule
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2. A man weighing 90kg walks along a uniform plank resting on two supports 1.2m
from each end. Plank is 10m long and weighs 60kg. Find the force on each support
when the man is at one end of the plank .
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3. A uniform log of wood AB is 7m long and weighs 300N. It is supported
horizontally at two points P and Q. P is 1.5m from end A while Q is 2m from end B.
Calculate the reactions at points P and Q.
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4. A uniform metal rod of length 6m is suspended horizontally from two vertical
strings P and Q. String P is attached at 1.2m from one end while Q is attached at
2.4m from the other end. Given that the weight of the metal rod is 180N, calculate
the tension in each of the strings.
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Conditions for Equilibrium:
There are two conditions for an object to be in static equilibrium:
Translational Equilibrium: The net force acting on the object must be zero,
meaning there is no linear motion.
Rotational Equilibrium: The sum of the clockwise moments must equal the sum of
the counterclockwise moments, ensuring there is no rotation.
Importance of the Principle of Moments:
Engineering and Construction: Ensures structures like bridges, cranes, and
buildings are stable and balanced.
Mechanical Systems: Helps in designing levers, gears, and other rotating systems
for effective functioning.
Daily Life: From using wrenches to balance scales, the principle is applied in
various practical situations.
In summary, the Principle of Moments governs rotational equilibrium, ensuring that
when forces act on a system at different distances from a pivot, the system remains
balanced if the clockwise and counterclockwise turning effects (moments) are equal.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
This is the point of application of the resultant force due to the earth’s attraction on
it. It is where the resultant force of gravity (mg) on the body is acting. Hence it is the
point on the body where gravity seems to act OR it is a point on the body where its
mass/weight is concentrated. Understanding the center of gravity is crucial for
maintaining balance and stability in structures and moving objects.
Key Concepts of Center of Gravity:
Definition: The center of gravity is the point at which the weight of an object is
evenly distributed in all directions, and around which the object balances in any
orientation. It is the theoretical point where the gravitational force acts on an object.
For Symmetrical Objects: In objects with uniform density and symmetrical shape
(such as a sphere or cube), the center of gravity G is located at the geometric center
of the object.

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For Asymmetrical Objects: In objects with irregular shapes or non-uniform
density, the center of gravity may be closer to the heavier part of the object. The
center of gravity is not necessarily located inside the object — for example, in hollow
or irregularly shaped objects; the C.O.G may lie outside the physical material.
How to Find the Center of Gravity:
For simple shapes with uniform mass, the center of gravity can be found
geometrically. For example: For a rectangle or cube: The center of gravity is located
at the intersection of the diagonals. For Circle or Sphere: The center of gravity is at
the geometric center.

For more complex or irregular objects, the center of gravity can be determined
experimentally by balancing the object at different points or through calculation,
often using integration for continuous mass distributions.
Balance and Stability:
If the center of gravity is low and close to the base of an object, the object tends to
be more stable. If the center of gravity is high or located away from the base, the
object is less stable and more prone to tipping over.
Practical Examples of Center of Gravity:
1. Balancing Objects: For a seesaw to balance, the center of gravity of the entire
system must be located directly over the pivot point.
2. Vehicles: In cars and trucks, a lower center of gravity improves stability and
reduces the risk of rollover. That’s why race cars are designed with low profiles to
keep the center of gravity close to the ground.
3. Athletics and Sports: In gymnastics, athletes must keep their center of gravity
within their base of support to maintain balance during movements. In sports like
high jump, athletes manipulate their body position to raise their center of gravity for
better jumps.
4. Construction: Cranes and tall buildings need careful design to ensure that their
center of gravity remains within their base of support, preventing them from
toppling over.
Center of Gravity and Center of Mass:
In many situations, center of gravity and center of mass are used interchangeably
because the force of gravity acts uniformly across the object. However, they can
differ in cases where gravitational fields vary across the object, such as very large
objects or in astrophysical scenarios.
Center of Mass: This is the point where the mass of an object is evenly distributed,
regardless of external forces (like gravity).
Center of Gravity: This is the point where the gravitational force effectively acts on
an object. The center of gravity is the point where the total weight of an object
appears to act.

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Application of the Center of Gravity in Physics and Engineering:
1. Aviation: The center of gravity is critical in aircraft design. The position of the
C.O.G affects an airplane's stability and control. If it’s too far forward or backward,
the plane could become unstable or difficult to control.
2. Robotics: Robots are designed with low centers of gravity to avoid tipping over
when moving or carrying objects.
3. Construction Equipment: Cranes and heavy lifting machines are designed with
counterweights to adjust the center of gravity for stability during operation.
For uniform objects, it is typically located at the geometric center, while for irregular
objects; it is closer to the heavier side.
Stability and balance are directly related to the position of the center of gravity
relative to the base of support.
A lower center of gravity typically increases stability, while a higher one decreases it.
Activity:
In your groups, determine the Center of Gravity of an Irregular Object:
Required Materials:
 The irregular object (e.g., a cardboard cut-out)
 A piece of string
 A plumb line (a string with a weight at the end)
 A pin or nail
 A marker
Procedure:
1. To determine center of gravity of irregular object three holes A, B and C are made
on an irregular object in different corners.

2. The object and plumbline bob are made to swing through hole A and when
swinging stops a line is marked along the string on the object
3. The experiment is repeated with holes B and C and where the three lines meet is
the Centre of gravity, G of the object.
The stability of a body refers to its ability to maintain equilibrium and resist
disturbances that might cause it to tip, fall, or rotate.
Key Concepts of Stability:
1. Equilibrium: A body is in equilibrium when the sum of the forces and the sum of
the moments acting on it are zero. There are three types of equilibrium:

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(a) Stable Equilibrium: If the body is slightly disturbed, it returns to its original
position. This usually occurs when the center of gravity is low and the base of
support is wide.
(b) Unstable Equilibrium: If the body is disturbed, it moves further away from its
original position. This occurs when the center of gravity is high or the base of
support is narrow.
(c) Neutral Equilibrium: If the body is disturbed, it remains in its new position.
This is typical for objects that have a flat surface, like a sphere on a flat plane.
Note; The stability of the body can be increased by;
i) Lowering its centre of gravity
ii) Increasing the area of the base of the body
This explains why a bus carrying luggage on its roof racket wobbles more than a
bus when its luggage is below its seats.
Comparison of states of equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium Un-stable Equilibrium Neutral Equilibrium
 Wide base  Narrow base  Base is a straight line
 Low centre of gravity  High centre of gravity  Centre of gravity at its
 When pushed centre of  When pushed the centre lowest point
gravity is raised from of gravity is lowered.  When pushed the centre
the base  When pushed slightly it of gravity remains at the
 When pushed slightly it falls same level
falls back to its initial  When pushed it remains
position at rest in its new
position
2. Center of Gravity: The location of the center of gravity plays a crucial role in
stability. A lower center of gravity typically increases stability, while a higher
centre of gravity decreases it. This is because a lower center of gravity means that
the object has a greater resistance to tipping.
3. Base of Support: The area beneath an object that includes all points of contact
with the ground. A wider base of support generally leads to greater stability. If the
center of gravity falls within this base, the object will be stable; if it falls outside,
the object will topple.
Factors affecting Stability:
1. Height of the Center of Gravity: A high center of gravity increases the
likelihood of tipping. For example, tall vehicles (like trucks) are more prone to
rollovers than lower vehicles (like sedans).
2. Width of the Base of Support: A wider base increases stability. For example, a
tripod has three points of contact, making it more stable than a two-legged
structure.
3. Position of the Center of Gravity Relative to the Base: When the center of
gravity is directly above the center of the base of support, the object is more stable.
If it shifts outside this area, the object becomes unstable.
4. Distribution of Mass:
How mass is distributed affects stability? For example, a low and wide shape is
generally more stable than a tall and narrow shape because the mass distribution
lowers the center of gravity.

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Applications of Stability:
Engineering and Architecture: Structures like bridges, buildings, and towers must
be designed to ensure that their center of gravity remains within their base of
support to prevent collapse.
Vehicles: Car designs focus on lowering the center of gravity to improve handling
and reduce the risk of rollover.
Sports and Physical Activities: Athletes and performers often use techniques to
lower their center of gravity to maintain balance during dynamic movements, such
as in gymnastics or martial arts.
Robotics: Robots are designed with stability in mind to prevent tipping during
movement or when carrying loads.
Research Assignment
Using internet or other sources research about the following
(a) Examples in everyday life where stability is applied
(b) Why the bus chassis is made heavier than other parts?
(c) Why does the luggage compartment in a bus designed below the passenger’s seats
instead of the roof rack?
(d) Why racing cars are low and have wide wheel base?
(e) Why does someone lean in the opposite direction when carrying a load?
(f) Why it is not advisable for people in a small boat on water to neither stand nor
lean over its sides.
Responses:
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Discuss your findings with the whole class
Activity of intergration
Nawaikona is a village of farmers who rely on selling agricultural produce such as
maize, beans, millet within the community. However the community has a challenge
of measuring the exact amount of agricultural produce between 1kg to 10kg to be
sold to each other as it has no access to weighing scale. The community does a lot
of estimation in measuring the products for sale.
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Task
As physics learner, discuss how you would help the community to measure their
agricultural produce without using a weighing scale
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CHAPTER 3: PRESSURE IN SOLIDS AND FLUIDS
Learning outcomes:
By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to;
1. Explain that pressure is as a result of a force applied over an area
2. Examine the effect of depth on the pressure in a fluid and the implications of this
3. Describe the nature of the atmosphere and the significance of the different layers
4. Discuss the structure of the atmosphere and the significance of different layers
5. Explain the Bernoulli effect in devices like aero foils and Bunsen burner jets
6. Explain the concepts of sinking and floating in terms of forces acting on a body
submerged in a fluid
7. State and apply the Archimedes principle in different situations
Introduction
Have ever thought of the reason why tractors have wide tyres and cutting tools have
sharp edges or why it is advisable to walk on muddy surfaces with flat shoes than
high heeled shoes?
To understand these and others, we need the concept of pressure
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In this chapter, we will be able to explain pressure in solids and fluids, and identify
their applications in everyday life.
Pressure in solids
Pressure of a solid occurs only due the weight of the solid. When a force acts on a
given surface experiences pressure.
Solids exert pressure on the surfaces which support them in one direction
depending on the area of the solid in contact with the surface.
Note; Pressure exerted by a body depends on the force (weight) and the area of
contact with another body or surface where the force is applied. Therefore Pressure
is defined as the force acting normally per unit area.
Force (N) F
Pressure = = A (Nm-2)
Area (m)
The S.I unit of pressure is Nm or Pascal (Pa). Pressure is also measured in mmHg,
-2

atmospheres (atm)
Minimum and maximum pressure
The pressure exerted by an object on another varies depending on the area of
contact between the two objects. The pressure increases when the surface area is
decreased and vice versa. This can be demonstrated using a needle and a nail,
sharp panga against blunt panga, high-heeled shoe against gumboots, bicycle tyre
against tractor tyre, etc. The increase in pressure when the surface area is
decreased explains why a tractor can easily move in a muddy area than the bicycle.
Activity: Investigating maximum and minimum pressure
Required materials
 Wooden block or brick
 Working table
 Sponge
 Metre rule
 Weighing scale
What to do
(1) Measure and record the dimensions of the wooden block
(2) Calculate the weight of the wooden block
(3) Determine the areas of the faces of the wooden block
(4) Place the sponge on the table
(5) Place the block on the sponge with different faces and state the observations and
calculate the pressure on the sponge
(6) Measure the depth created by the block in the sponge
(7) State the areas that exert a minimum and a maximum pressure on the sponge
(8) State the relationship between pressure and area.
Note; For a given amount of force, the smaller the area of contact between the two
bodies, the greater the pressure exerted. i.e.
Force or weight Force or weight
Maximum Pressue = and Minimum Pressue =
Minimum Area Minimum Area
This explains why;
i) A nail has appointed end so that the driving force is applied on a very small
surface area hence pressure is very high and this makes it to penetrate the material
easily.

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ii) An elephant has toes made of flat surface area which makes the pressure to
decrease hence exerting a small force on the ground.
iii) A tractor has very broad wheels and though very heavy, it doesn’t sink into the
soft ground because of the large areas of the wheels which cause the tractor to exert
a small pressure on the ground.
iv) Bridges are thicker at the base than at the top so that it doesn’t sink on the
ground.
Assignment
Research and make brief notes about the applications of minimum and maximum
pressure.
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Examples
1. A metallic block of mass 40kg exerts a pressure of 20Nm-2 on the surface. Find the
area of contact between the block and the surface
Solution
Force
From pressure = but Force = weight
Area
weight
Pressure =
Area
mg
P=
A
40 x 10
20 =
A
20 400
=
1 A
20A = 400
A = 20m2
Therefore the area of contact between the block and the surface is 20m2
2. A metallic block of weight 100N rests on a surface. Find the pressure exerted on
the surface if the area of contact between the block and surface is 0.01m2

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Solution
Weight = 100N, area = 0.01m2

F
P= , F = weight = 100N
A
100
P= = 10,000Nm-2
0.01
3. The dimensions of a cuboid are 5cm x 10cm x 20cm and weight of the cuboid is
60N. Calculate;
i) Maximum pressure it exerts
ii) Minimum pressure it exerts
Solution
Force or weight
Maximum Pressue =
Minimum Area
60
Pmax = = 12,000Pa
(5𝑋10)𝑋10−4

Force or weight
Minimum Pressure =
Maximum Area
60
Pmin = = 3,000Pa
(10𝑋10)𝑋10−4
Task
1. A rectangular block of dimensions 4cm x 2cm x 1cm exerts a maximum pressure
of 2000Nm-2 when resting on a table. Calculate the mass of the block.
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2. A rectangular block of mass 50kg measures 8cm by 10cm by 20cm. What is the
minimum pressure it can exert on a given surface?
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PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
A fluid can be a liquid or a gas. Fluids (liquids and gases) also exert pressure on
surfaces and objects in contact with them. Pressure in fluids occurs due to both
weight and movement of fluid molecules and act in all directions.
Consider a liquid in a cylindrical container of radius r and height h. Liquids take up
the shape of the container; hence the volume of a liquid filling a cylindrical
container is equal to the volume of that cylindrical container.

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Volume of the liquid = Area of the base x height
V = Ah
From Mass = density x volume
M = ρAh
From weight = mass X acceleration due to gravity
Weight = Ahρg
Force
From Pressure = but Force = weight
Area
weight Ahρg
Pressure = = = hρg
Area A
Note that pressure at any point in a liquid is the same in all directions and depends
on the following factors
i) Depth (height) below the surface of the liquid
ii) Density of the liquid
iii) Acceleration due to gravity
Examples:
1. Find the pressure in a liquid of density 1000kgm-3 at a height of 80cm
Pressure = hρg
= 0.8 x 1000 x 10
= 8,000Nm-2
2. The pressure of in a liquid is 10,000Nm-2. What is the height if its density is
1000kgm-3
Pressure = hρg
10000 = h x 1000 x 10
10000 = 10000h
h = 1m
3. The pressure at the bottom of a column of mercury is 106000 Pa. How high is the
mercury column? Density of mercury is 13600 kgm-3
Pressure, P = h𝝆g
106000 = 13600 x h x 10
106000 = 136,000h
106,000
h = = 0.78m
136,ooo
Task
1. Calculate the pressure due to water experienced by a diver working 15m below the
surface of the sea.
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2. A paraffin reservoir tank contains paraffin of density 800kgm-3 to a depth of 5m.
What is the pressure at the base of the reservoir?
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Experiment to show variation of pressure in a liquid:
 Three holes A, B and C of the same diameter are made using a nail on a tall tin
along a vertical line on one side.
 The tin is then filled with water and observe the jets of water from holes A, B and C
as shown below.

 The lower hole, A throws water farthest followed by hole, B and lastly C.
 Hence pressure at A is greater than pressure at B and is greater than pressure at C.
 Therefore pressure increases with depth.
Research assignment
Using the internet or other sources, research about how water flows from a reservoir
(dam or storage tank) to a house and share your findings with the class.
Note:
 Naturally, water flows from upland sources such as crater lakes in mountain to
sources in low land due to differences in pressure. To lift water from a lower level
to a storage tank at upper levels, you need extra power using a water pump.
 Pressure in fluids is considered when designing overhead water tanks and in
construction of dams. The thickness of the dam increases from top to bottom in
order to counteract the increasing water pressure.
 Static fluid pressure does not depend on the shape and cross-sectional area of the
container. When water is filled in differently shaped containers, it will attain the
same level implying that pressure in fluids does not depend on the shape of the
container.

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We experience fluid pressure in the following ways;
(1) If you dive down to the bottom of a deep swimming pool, you feel water pressure
pressing on you from all sides. For this reason, deep sea divers wear a reinforced
diving suit if they are to work safely at great depths.
(2) Sometimes water from taps at home may come out slowly if the water supply tank
is not much higher than the top.
(3) Dam walls are thicker at the bottom than they are at the top because there is
high pressure at high depth.
(4) Hydraulic jerks work on the principle of fluids and can be used to lift cars.
Transmission of pressure in liquids
Liquids in an enclosed system are incompressible and if pressure is applied at one
point to the system, it will act in all directions equally.
Gases transfer pressure in a similar way when confined and compressed.
Fluid pressure can also be increased through hydraulic mechanisms and changes
in the velocity of the fluid.
The principle of transmission of pressure in liquids:
The principle of transmission of pressure in liquids states that pressure applied at
any point of an enclosed fluid is transmitted equally throughout the whole fluid.
This is sometimes referred to as Pascal’s principle.
When the plunger is pushed in the liquid comes out of the holes with equal force.
This shows that pressure is transmitted equally to all parts of the liquid but the
holes must have the same diameter

The above principle is applied in hydraulic systems such as hydraulic press,

hydraulic brakes, hydraulic jacks and hydraulic cylinders.
Assignment (Group work)
In your groups, research about;
(a) How a simple hydraulic press can constructed and make a presentation in class.
(b) How to compare densities of two liquids using Hare’s apparatus.
The hydraulic press
The hydraulic press uses the principle of transmission of pressure in fluids or the
Pascal’s principle which states that pressure applied at any point in an enclosed
fluid is transmitted equally to all parts of the fluid.
Considering the hydraulic press below.

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Pressure due to the small piston is equally transmitted to large piston and to all
other parts of the liquid i.e.
Pressure P1 on small piston = Pressure P2 on large piston
P1 = P2
F1 F2
=
A1 A2

Examples
(1) The pistons of a hydraulic press have their areas given as 3.0x10-2 m2 and 2x102
m2 respectively. If the small piston is pushed down with a force of 120N, what is
the force required to push the larger piston?
Solution
For small piston, A1 = 3 x 10-2 m2
F1 = 120N

For large piston, A2 = 2 x 102 m2

F2 =?

F1 F2
From =
A1 A2

𝐹1
F2 = X A2
𝐴1

120 x 2 x 102
F2 =
3 x 10−2
F2 = 8 x 105 N
2. A force of 40N is applied on the piston pump of area 2 cm2 to lift a load of 1000N
placed on the ram piston. Calculate the;
(a) Pressure transmitted to the ram piston
(b) Area of the ram piston in square centimetres
Solution
(a) For the pump piston
F1 = 40N, A = 2cm2 = 2x 10m2
Pressure transmitted to the ram piston
F1 40
P1 = = = 200,000 Nm-2
A1 2 x 10−4

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(b). Pressure due to the pump piston (P1) is equal to the pressure on the ram piston
(P2)
P1 = P2
F2
200,000 =
A2
200,000A2 = F2
F2
A2 =
200,000
A2 = 0.005m2
A2 = (0.005 x 104) cm2
A2 = 50cm2
The area of the ram piston is 50cm2
Assignment
1. In a hydraulic press, a force of 300N is applied to the master piston of area 35cm2
if the hydraulic press is designed to produce a force of 5000N, determine;
(a) The area of the slave piston.
(b) The radius of the slave piston.
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2. A hydraulic press machine is used to raise a load W placed on a piston of cross-
sectional area of 100cm2 by using an effort of 20N at a piston of cross-sectional
area of 2cm2 calculate the;
(a)Pressure transmitted throughout the liquid.
(b) The load W.
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3. Describe how a hydraulic car brake system works.(draw an illustration)
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4. State the factors of pressure and explain how they affect pressure.
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THE ATMOSPHERE
The earth is surrounded by an envelope of gases known as the atmosphere. It is
made up of five layers with different characteristics. These layers are;
1) Troposphere
2) Stratosphere
3) Mesosphere
4) Thermosphere
5) Exosphere

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1. Troposphere. This is the layer closest to the earth’s surface where all weather
conditions occur. The temperature of air close to the earth’s surface is higher and
decreases as you move upwards.
2. Stratosphere. This is the second layer from the earth’s surface. It contains ozone
gas which protects us from absorbing dangerous radiations (ultra-violet radiations)
from the sun.
3. Mesosphere. This is the coldest part of the earth’s atmosphere at an average
temperature of about -90oC.
4. Thermosphere. This is the hottest layer reaching temperatures above 1500oC
the density of the thermosphere is too low.
5. Exosphere. This is the top most layer of the atmosphere. It is extremely thin and
is where the atmosphere combines with the outer space. It is composed of widely
dispersed particles of hydrogen and helium.
Effects of human activities on the atmosphere
The ozone gas found in the stratosphere is of great importance to humans as this
protects us by absorbing harmful sun radiations. However, human activities destroy
it.
Research assignment
In groups, research and write about the human activities that affect the atmosphere
suggest possible solutions.
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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The earth is surrounded by a sea of air called atmosphere. Air has weight therefore
it exerts pressure at the surface of the earth. The pressure this air exerts on the
earth’s surface is called atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air on all objects on
earth’s surface.
The higher you go the less dense the atmosphere and therefore atmospheric
pressure decreases at high altitude and increases at low altitude. The value of
atmospheric pressure is about 101325 Nm-2.
Demonstrating the existence of atmospheric pressure by the crushing can
experiment or collapsing can experiment

A metal can with its tight stopper removed, is heated until the small quantity of
water in boils.
When the steam has driven out all the air, the cork is tightly replaced and the heat
removed at the same time.
Cold water is poured over the can. This causes the steam inside to condense
reducing air pressure inside the can
The can collapses in wards. This is because the excess atmospheric pressure
outweighs the reduced pressure inside the can.
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Assignment
Describe how to demonstrate the existence of atmospheric pressure using a glass,
water and a cardboard.
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Atmospheric pressure varies across the earth, it is highest at sea level and
decreases with altitude. In the upper layers of the atmosphere, there is little air and
thus little oxygen for breathing. This is the reason why mountain climbers use
oxygen cylinders and areoplanes have pressurized cabins in which air pressure is
increased sufficiently to enable people to breathe comfortably.
Measurement of atmospheric pressure
The atmospheric pressure is measured using a liquid-in-glass barometer or aneroid
barometer.
Types of barometers Units of pressure
1. Simple barometer Nm-2
2. Fortin barometer Pa
3. Aneroid barometer atmospheres
Simple barometer
A barometer is a manometer which measures atmospheric pressure.
Describing how a simple mercury barometer is made in the laboratory.
1. A 1 m long thick walled tube is filled with mercury.
2. The above filled is inverted several time with finger over the open end. This is done
in order for the large air bubble to run up and down collecting any air small air
bubble in mercury.
3. After inverting several times, the tube is refilled with mercury.
4. With a finger on the open end, the filled tube is inverted into a bowl of mercury.
When the finger is removed, the mercury column falls until it is equal to atmospheric
pressure.

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Note;
 Mercury is harmful, therefore the activity should be carried out with guidance of a
teacher.
 When mercury is used, the height of the mercury column is 760mm. therefore the
atmospheric pressure is measured as 760mmHg (760mm of mercury)
 If water is used, the corresponding column would be 10m or 10,000mm. Thus may
not be appropriate for use in a simple barometer.
 When a mercury barometer is taken from sea level to the top of a mountain i.e. low
altitude to high altitude, the mercury column falls. This is because the
atmospheric pressure decreases at the top of the mountain. The decrease in
atmospheric pressure is due to density of air decreasing because air is less
compressed above.
 Deep-sea divers must return slowly to the surface because the sudden decrease in
pressure when they return fast from deep water is very painful
 Pilots operating at great heights must have protective headgear to prevent nose
bleeding because atmospheric pressure at great height is much smaller than blood
pressure.
Calculating the height of the reading of the mercury barometer at high
altitude:
This is calculated from;
Pressure change for air = Pressure change for mercury
𝐡𝐚𝛒𝐚𝐠 = (𝐇𝐚𝐭𝐦−𝐡𝐦)𝛒𝐦𝒈
Where: 𝐡𝐚 is the height of altitude, 𝛒𝐚 is the density of air, 𝐡𝐦 is the mercury
column barometer at that altitude and 𝐇𝐚𝐭𝐦 is atmospheric pressure before rising.
Examples:
1. A mercury barometer reads a pressure of 75cmHg at the bottom of a mountain
and 73.5cmHg at the top. If the density of mercury is 13600kgm-3 and that of air is
1.25kgm-3. Calculate the height of the mountain.
Solution:
Change in pressure,
P = 75.0 – 73.5
= 1.5cmHg
But P = hρg
13600X1.5 X10
P =
100
P = 2040Nm-2
2040 = hairρairg
2040 = H x 1.25 x 10
Height, H = 163.2m
Research Assignment
In groups, research and prepare a class presentation about the following.
(1) The structure and features of aneroid barometer and the fortin’s barometer.
(2) The advantages of an aneroid barometer over a mercury barometer.
NB: Aneroid barometer can also work as an altimeter, which is a device that is used
in aircrafts to measure altitude. Atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude
increases.
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Applications of atmospheric pressure
The presence of atmospheric pressure has enabled humans to design machines and
devices that simply work such as rubber suckers, bicycle pump, lift pump, force
pump, siphon, water supply system and drinking straw among others.
Rubber Sucker
This is circular hollow rubber cap before it is put to use it is moisturized to get a
good air seal and firmly pressed against a small flat surface so that air inside in
pushed out then atmospheric pressure will hold it firmly against surface as shown
below

Uses of rubber sucker;

 Fitting sheets against walls
 It is used printing machines for lifting papers to be fed into the printer
Drinking straw:
When drinking using a straw some of the air in the straw goes into the lungs once
sucked. This leaves space in the straw partially evacuated and atmospheric
pressure pushing down the liquid becomes greater than the pressure of the air in
the straw.
Syringe:
When the piston is pulled up from the lowest part of the barrel, a vacuum is created
below it. Atmospheric pressure then forces the liquid into the barrel.
The siphon:
A tube can be used to empty tanks or draw petrol from petrol tanks in cars referred
to as a siphon

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The pressure at the surface of the water is atmospheric pressure. One end of the
tube is at a height, h below the surface of the water and therefore pressure at this
end is greater than pressure at the surface (atmospheric pressure). The tube is then
filled with water and water will continue running out so long as its end is below the
water surface. Pressure at this end of the tube is equal to atmospheric pressure and
pressure due to height h. P = H + hρg where H is the atmospheric pressure.
Therefore water flows out the tube at this end due to excess pressure hρg.
Conditions for a siphon to operate:
 The end of the tube must be below the surface of the liquid to be emptied.
 The tube is first filled with the liquid without any bubble in it.
 One end of the tube is inside the liquid to be emptied.
 The tube does not rise above the barometric height of the liquid from the surface of
the liquid to be emptied.
Note; A siphon is a tube which transfers a liquid from a higher level to lower level.
The flow is maintained by gravity and atmospheric pressure. For a siphon to work
the tube must be filled with water at all times.
Applications of siphon principle
Automatic flushing tank: This uses siphon principle. Water drips slowly from a tap
into the tank. The water therefore rises up the tube until it reaches and fills the
bend. In the pipe, the siphon action starts and the tank empties (the water level
falls to the end of the tube).The action is then repeated again and again.
Flushing tank of water closet: This also uses the siphon principle. When the chain
or handle is pulled, water is raised to fill the bend in the tube.
The siphon action at once starts and the tank empties.
Lift pump or Common pump;
Pumps are used to raise water from walls. They consist of cylindrical metal barrel
with side tubes near the top to act as spouts
Measurement of pressure:
1. Manometer:
This is an instrument used to measure fluid pressure. It consists of a U-tube filled
with either water if the pressure to be measured is low or mercury if the pressure to
be measured is high.

When one limb of the manometer is connected to the gas supply, the water level in
the other limb rises due to the gas pressure.
The difference in water levels is the difference between gas pressure and
atmospheric pressure.

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Pressure at A is equal to pressure at b since they are at the same horizontal level
and pressure at B is the pressure of the gas.
Pressure at A = H + h. Where H is the atmospheric pressure.
If the atmospheric pressure is known and taking the density of water to be
1000kgm-3. Then pressure of the gas can be calculated as P = H + hρg
P = 103360 + 0.2 x 1000 x 10
P = 105,360Nm-2
The diagram below shows a mercury manometer

Find the pressure of the gas in Nm-2 in cmHg and Nm-2

Solution:
i) P = H + h
P = 76 + 10
P = 86cmHg
ii) P = hρg
P = 0.86 x 13600 x 10
P = 116,960Nm-2
Note: If the enclosed end is opened the gas trapped escapes and the liquid level in
both arms will be the same.
BERNOULLI’S EFFECT
Thus, Bernoulli’s effect is the decrease in pressure of a fluid as its velocity
increases. It states that when the speed of the fluid increases, the pressure in the
fluid decreases and vice versa.
Activity: Demonstrating Bernoulli’s effect
Key Question: Explain how you can demonstrate Bernoulli’s effect?
Required materials
Two pieces of paper
What to do
(1) Write down what you observed.
(2) Explain the impact of blowing air between the papers and that outside the papers
(3) Share with other groups and discuss the reasons for the observation.
(4) Make research on the internet and find out the machines that operate upon this
principal.
(5) Share your findings with the whole class.

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Bernoulli Effect in an air stream can be shown by blowing air between two sheets.

Application of Bernoulli’s principle

 When the fluid comes out of a jet, the speed increases as the pressure decreases.
 At the jet the gas comes out at high speed so the pressure is low at the jet. This
results in air to be drawn in.
 A spinning ball takes a curved path because the ball drag air around causing air to
pass more rapidly over one side than the other. This results in pressure difference
that causes a resultant force on the ball.
 An aero plane wing called aero foil is shaped so that air has to travel farther and so
faster on the top than underneath. This results in a pressure difference that causes
a resultant up ward force on the wing, thus it lifts.
 When two large vehicles pass each other, a force of attraction is experienced. This is
because:
The speeding vehicles drag layers of air along with them. As these layers of air pass
each other at high speed, they cause a pressure decrease.
This results in the vehicles being pushed towards each other.
Research assignment
In groups, research and make a presentation about the following.
(1) State the Bernoulli’s effect and explain how it is applied also in Bunsen burner
jets.
(2) Why do you think it feels very comfortable when airplanes fly in regions where air
flows in streamlines?
(3) Explain why cars feel light when moving at high speeds?
(4) Share your findings with the whole class.
Reasons why it is necessary to measure the rate of flow
(1) In various industrial processes, it is crucial to measure the rate of fluid flow
accurately within a system as a whole or in part. This applies equally to gases
and liquids which are an integral part of the process, or to compressed air, water
or steam, which are essential to plant operation.
(2) Flow describes a wide range of fluid movement, such as blowing through the air,
flowing through pipes, or running along a surface. The flow of the fluid is
classified in a variety of different ways based on the various properties of the flow.
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(3) A flow meter is used to measure the rate of fluid or energy flow to allow the
process to be controlled and also ensure that the product is of the appropriate
quality.
SINKING AND FLOATING (UPTHRUST)
When an object is dropped in water, it may stay on the water surface or fall to the
bottom of the water. Those objects that stay on the surface of water without
drowning are said to be floating objects while that fall to the bottom of water are
said to be sinking objects.
In addition, it is easier to carry an object in water than in air. This is due to up
thrust.
Activity: Sorting out items that can float or sink
Key Question: what items float on water?
Required materials
- Deep bowl of container filled with water
- Various items such as oranges, apples, stone, piece of wood, sharpener, pen, pencil,
piece of chalk and rubber.
What to do:
(1) Fill a bowl with water.
(2) Name the items you think will float or sink.
Floating objects Sinking objects

(3) One at a time, place each object in water. As you place them in water, observe
what happens and record your results.
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(4) Name the forces that make the items to sink or float.
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Activity two: Experimenting forces that act on floating objects
Required materials
 A basin filled with water
 Small piece of wood
Procedure
(1) Put a piece of wood on top of water. What do you observe?
(2) Explain your observation in (1) above
(3) Also, explain what would happen if the mass of the wood is increased.
(4) Basing on your observations, explain why objects weigh less in water than in air
and relate your findings to the density of the body.
Note;
 Floating or sinking objects in a fluid (liquid or gas) experience some forces
 If the upward force is equal to the downward force, the object floats in the fluid
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 If the upward force is greater than the downward force , the object rises
 If the downward force is greater than the upward force, the object sinks.
UPTHRUST AND WEIGHT OF FLUID DISPLACED
Bodies submerged in fluids experience an upward force due to the fluid, known as
up thrust (buoyancy force) the up thrust is due to the pressure a fluid exerts on the
surface of the body. Up thrust is an upward force due to the fluid resisting being
compressed. When any object is immersed or submerged into fluid its weight
appears to have been reduced because it experiences an up thrust from the fluid.
Up thrust is expressed as;
Up thrust, F = weight in air – water in fluid
Up thrust, F = weight of displaced fluid (w)
F = mg = 𝝆vg since m= 𝝆v
Where m is the mass, 𝝆 is the density and v is the volume of the displaced fluid.
This relationship was discovered by a Greek physicist called Archimedes, who later
came up with the Archimedes principle
Archimedes principle states that when a body is partially or totally immersed in a
fluid, it experiences an up thrust (upward force) that is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced.
Assignment: Research and prepare a presentation about;
(a) The relationship apparent loss, up thrust, and weight of a displaced fluid.
(b) The relationship between the weight of a body in air and weight of liquid
displaced by a floating body.
(c) How can you make a simple hydrometer?
Responses:
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Practical assignment
In groups, demonstrate sinking and floating using two oranges (one peeled),
transparent glass and water. Explain your observations.
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ARCHIMEDE’S PRINCIPLE AND LAW OF FLOATATION
A giant ship made from iron easily floats on water yet a nail from the same material
sinks. An object submerged in a fluid will either sink or float depending on the
weight of the fluid it displaces compared to its own weight.
Floatation can be defined as the tendency of an object to rise to the upper levels of
the fluid or to stay on the surface of the fluid.
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The opposite of floatation is sinking and this can be defined as the tendency of an
object to fall on the lower levels of the fluid.
The law of floatation states that a floating body displaces its own weight of fluid in
which it floats. This means that a log of 400kg (4000N), floating in water displaces
400kg (4000N) of water.
Conditions for objects to float
(1) The average density of the object should be less than the density of the fluid in
which the object has to float. For example, a ship is very heavy but floats because
it’s hollow inside containing air which causes its average density to be less than
that of the water.
(2) The up thrust force of the fluid on the object must be equal to the weight of the
object. For example, a coin will sink to the bottom when placed on the water
surface. This is because the up thrust of water on the coin is less than its weight.
(3) The volume of the object submerged must be large so as to displace a large
amount of fluid.
Activity: Determining the weight of a fluid displaced by a floating body
Required materials
 Spring balance
 Water in a jerry can
 thread
 wooden block
 beaker
 weighing scale
 displacement can (overflow can)
Procedure
(1) Use a spring balance, measure and record the weight of the block in air.
(2) Pour water in an over flow can until it starts flowing out of the spout. When the
water stops flowing out, place a measuring cylinder below the spout.
(3) Place the wooden block in the over flow can. State and explain what you observe.
(4) Measure the mass of the displaced water and calculate its weight.
(5) Compare the weight of the wooden block and that of the displaced water.
(6) Draw your conclusion and discuss your findings with other groups.
Application of the law of floatation
(i) A hydrometer
The relative density of any liquid may be found using a hydrometer.
-It is used to test the purity of milk.
-It is used to test R.D of a car battery acid.
This consists of a float with along stem. A heavy weight is placed beneath the float to
keep the hygrometer up right. The higher the hydrometer float the higher the relative
density of the liquid.
Applications of a hydrometer:
 To determine the degree of purity of milk
 To determine the level of charge of batteries
 To determine the level of sugar in some drinks
 To determine the alcoholic content of drinks

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(ii) Submarines
The average density of submarines is varied by means of ballast tanks. For the
submarines to float, the ballast tanks are filled with air. To sink the submarines, the
tanks are filled with water causing average density to rise higher than that of water.
(iii) Ships (Why ships float)
Ships float on water, although they are made from iron and steel which are denser
than water. This is because a steel or iron ship is made hollow and contains air. So
the average density of the ship is less than that of water.
The loading lines called plimsoul marks on the sides show the level to which it can be
safely loaded under different conditions.
Weight of displaced water (Ww) = weight of the ship (Ws) + weight of the cargo (Wc).
𝐖𝐰=𝐖𝐬+𝐖𝐜
(iv) Balloons
These are airships used in meteorological measurements.
A balloon filled with hydrogen weighs less than the weight of air it displaces.
The up thrust being greater than its weight, a resultant up ward force on the balloon
causes it to rise.
The balloon continues to rise up until the upthrust acting on it is equal to the weight
of the balloon plus its content and then it floats.
The lifting power of the balloon is calculated from the formula:
𝑈 = 𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑛 + 𝑊ℎ𝑦dr𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛+𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑏𝑔 + 𝑉ℎ𝜌ℎ𝑔 + 𝑚𝑙𝑔

ARCHIMEDE’S PRINCIPLE
Archimedes’ principle states that when a body is partially or totally immersed in a
fluid, it experiences an up thrust (upward force) that is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced.
Application of Archimedes’ principle
1. Submarine: A submarine has a large ballast tank, which is used to control its
position and depth from the surface of the sea. A submarine submerges by letting
water into the ballast tank so that its weight becomes greater than the up-thrust on
it. Otherwise, it floats by reducing water in the ballast tank.-thus its weight is less
than the up-thrust.
2. Hot Air balloon: The atmosphere is filled with air that exerts up-thrust force on
any object. A balloon rises and floats when the up-thrust force is greater than its
weight. It descends when the balloon's weight is higher than the up-thrust force. It
becomes stationary when the weight equals the up-thrust force.
3. Hydrometer: A hydrometer is an instrument to measure the relative density of
liquids. It consists of a tube with a bulb at one end. Lead shots are placed in the
bulb to weigh it down and enable the hydrometer to float vertically in the liquid. In a
liquid of less density, a greater volume of liquid must be displaced for the up-thrust
force to be equal to the weight of the hydrometer so it sinks lower. Hydrometer
floats higher in a liquid of higher density.
4. Ship: A ship floats on the surface of the sea because the volume of water
displaced by the ship is enough to have a weight equal to the weight of the ship.
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A ship is constructed in a way so that the shape is hollow, to make the overall
density of the ship less than the density of water. Therefore, the up-thrust force
acting on the ship is large enough to support its weight.
The plimso-line marked on the body of the ship acts as a guideline to ensure that
the ship is loaded within the safety limit.
A ship submerges lower in fresh water as fresh water density is less dense than sea
water. Ships will float higher in cold water as cold water has a relatively higher
density than warm water.
5. Fishes:
Certain group of fishes uses Archimedes‟ principles to go up and down the water.
To go up to the surface, the fishes will fill its swim bladder (air sacs) with gases. The
gases diffuse from its own body to the bladder and thus making its body lighter.
This enables the fishes to go up. To go down, the fishes will empty their bladder,
this increases its density and therefore the fish will sink.
Uses of Archimedes’ principle
1. Measurement of relative density of solids
2. Measurement of relative density of a liquid
Measurement of relative density of a solid
Weigh the object in air and note it to be Wa
Weigh the object in water and note it to be Ww
Determine the upthrust U = Wa – Ww
Wa
Relative density of solid =
Wa−Ww
Determination of RD of a liquid
Weigh the object to find its weight in air Wa using a spring balance
Weigh the object in the liquid whose RD is to be determined, label it Wl
Weigh the object in water, call it 𝑊𝑤
Find the upthrust in liquid = 𝑊𝑎 – 𝑊1
Find the upthrust in water = 𝑊𝑎 – 𝑊𝑤
Wa – W1
Obtain R.D of a liquid from 𝑅.𝐷 = Wa – Ww
Examples
A metal block of volume 0.2m3 is hanging in a water tank by the help of a string.
What is the tension in the string? (Density of the metal is 8 x 103 kgm-3 and that of
water is 1x103 kgm-3)
Solution
Let the tension in the string be T, weight of the metal block be W, and up thrust be
F.
At equilibrium, T + F = W
T=W–F
T = 𝝆 1V g – 𝝆2 V g
Where 𝝆 1 is the density of the metal and 𝝆 2 is the density of water.
T = (8000 x 0.2 x 10) – (1000 x 0.2 x 10)
T = 14,000N
The tension in the string is 14,00N.

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(1) A wooden sphere of density 0.9gm-3 and mass 180g, is anchored by a string to a
lead weight at the bottom of a vessel containing water. If the wooden sphere is
completely immersed in water, find the tension in the string.
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(2) A steel cable holds a 12kg shark tank 3m below the surface of salt water. If the
volume of the water displaced by the shark tank is 0.1m3, what is the tension in
the cable? Assume the density of the salt water is 1025kgm-3
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Activity of integration
Your geography teacher intends to take S.3 and S.4 students to one of the two
tourist locations; mountain Rwenzori and the shores of Lake Albert in western
Uganda. Suppose you are their tour guide, write the guidelines based on the
knowledge of pressure that students should follow to ensure safety while on the
tour.
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