DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND VLSI DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY

ANSWER KEY

SUBJECT: 22VLT402-COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANIZATION

SEM/YEAR: IV/II

UNIT-I COMPUTER ORGANIZATION & INSTRUCTIONS

PART- A

1. Express the equation for the dynamic power required per transistor.

Ans:

Pdynamic=CLV2f

Where,

 PdynamicP_{\text{dynamic}}Pdynamic is the dynamic power dissipation per

transistor.

 CLC_LCL is the capacitance being switched (also known as load capacitance).

 VVV is the supply voltage.

 f is the switching frequency.

2. Identify general characteristics of Relative addressing mode with an example.

Ans: General Characteristics of Relative Addressing Mode:

I. Base Address: The address of the operand is calculated relative to the address of the
current instruction (or program counter).

II. Program Counter (PC): The instruction's offset is added to the program counter to
get the effective address.

III. Flexibility: It allows for easy implementation of control flow operations like loops,
branches, and jumps since the address of the next instruction can be given relative to
the current position.

IV. Offset: The address is typically represented as a signed displacement (positive or

negative value) from the current instruction address, allowing forward and backward
jumps.

V. Compact Instructions: It reduces the need for large immediate values or fixed
addresses, making instructions more compact, as the offset is usually small and can
fit within a limited number of bits.
Example:

Consider an instruction with the following format in assembly language:

assembly

BEQ -10

 BEQ stands for "Branch if Equal," which is a conditional branch instruction.

 -10 is the relative offset from the current program counter (PC).

If the program counter is at address 0x1000, the actual address for the branch would be
calculated as:

Effective Address=PC+Offset=0x1000+(−10)=0x0F6\text{Effective Address} = \text{PC} + \

text{Offset} = 0x1000 + (-10) = 0x0F6Effective Address=PC+Offset=0x1000+(−10)=0x0F6

So, the instruction would cause a branch to the address 0x0F6.

3. List the eight great ideas invented by computer architects.

Ans:

a) Stored-Program Concept

b) Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

c) Pipelining

d) Parallelism

e) Memory Hierarchy

f) Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)

g) Out-of-Order Execution

h) Speculative Execution

4. Tabulate are the components of computer system.

Ans: Here's a table summarizing the main components of a computer system:

Component Description

Central The "brain" of the computer responsible for executing instructions,

Processing Unit performing calculations, and controlling other components. Includes the
(CPU) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit (CU).

Memory Stores data and instructions that are being processed. Divided into
Component Description

Primary Memory (RAM) and Secondary Memory (Hard drives, SSDs).

Devices used to input data into the computer include keyboard, mouse,
Input Devices
microphone, and scanner.

Devices used to display or present the results of processing. Examples

Output Devices
include monitors, printers, and speakers.

Devices that store data persistently. Examples include Hard Disk Drives
Storage Devices
(HDDs), Solid State Drives (SSDs), optical drives, and USB flash drives.

5. Distinguish Pipelining from Parallelism.

6. Interpret the various instructions based on the operations they perform and give one
example to each category.

Ans: 1. Data Movement Instructions

 Operation: These instructions move data from one location to another, either
between registers, between memory and registers, or from input/output devices to
memory.

 Example: MOV A, B

Explanation: This instruction moves the contents of register B to register A.

2. Arithmetic Instructions

 Operation: These instructions perform arithmetic operations such as addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division.

 Example: ADD A, B
Explanation: This instruction adds the contents of register B to register A and stores the
result in A.

3. Logical Instructions

 Operation: These instructions perform logical operations like AND, OR, XOR, and NOT
on data.

 Example: AND A, B

Explanation: This instruction performs a bitwise AND operation between the contents of
register A and B and stores the result in A.

4. Control Flow Instructions

 Operation: These instructions modify the sequence of execution by altering the flow
of control in a program, typically through conditional and unconditional jumps,
branches, and calls.

 Example: JMP 1000

Explanation: This instruction causes the program to jump to the instruction at memory
location 1000, continuing execution from there.

5. Comparison Instructions

 Operation: These instructions compare two operands and set flags (such as zero,
carry, sign, or overflow) based on the result of the comparison.

 Example: CMP A, B

Explanation: This instruction compares the contents of register A with register B and sets the
flags based on whether A is equal to, greater than, or less than B.

7. Differentiate between DRAM and SRAM

8. Give the components of a computer system and list their functions.

Ans:

I. CPU: Executes instructions and processes data.

II. Memory: Temporarily stores data and instructions (RAM and Cache).

III. Storage: Long-term data storage (HDD, SSD).

IV. Input Devices: Allow user interaction with the computer (Keyboard, Mouse).

V. Output Devices: Present the results from the computer (Monitor, Printer).

VI. Motherboard: Connects all internal components.

VII. Bus: Transfers data and control signals between components.

VIII. Power Supply: Provides power to the system.

9. What is the MIPS code for the statement f (g+h)-(i+j)?

Ans:

1. Compute the sum of g and h.

2. Compute the sum of i and j.

3. Subtract the result of step 2 from the result of step 1

4. Store the final result in f.

MIPS Code:

Assume the following register assignments:

 g is in register $s0

 h is in register $s1

 i is in register $s2

 j is in register $s3

 f will be stored in register $s4

10. Calculate throughput and response time.

Ans:

Throughput Total Work Done (or Tasks) / Total Time Taken

Response Time = Time of Completion- Time of Request

Alternatively, response time can also be expressed as:

Response Time = Waiting Time + Processing Time

11. Compose the CPU performance equation.

Ans:

Instruction Count X Cycles per instruction/clock speed

12. Measure the performance of the computers: If computer A runs a program in 10 seconds
and computer B runs the same program in 15 seconds, how much faster is A over B?

Ans: The speedup of computer A over computer B can be calculated using the formula:

Speedup = Execution Time of B / Execution Time of A

Given:

 Execution time of Computer A = 10 seconds

 Execution time of Computer B = 15 seconds

Speedup =15 / 10 = 1.5

This means Computer A is 1.5 times (or 50%) faster than Computer B.

13. Formulate the equation of CPU execution time for a program.

Ans:

The equation for CPU execution time for a program is formulated as:

CPU Time = Instruction Count × Cycles Per Instruction × Clock Cycle Time

Or, using clock speed:

CPU Time = Instruction Count × Cycles Per Instruction / [Clock Speed]

Where:

 CPU Time = Total execution time of the program.

 Instruction Count (IC) = Number of instructions executed.

 Cycles Per Instruction (CPI) = Average number of clock cycles per instruction.

 Clock Cycle Time = Time taken for one clock cycle (Clock Cycle Time) = 1/ clock speed

 Clock Speed = Frequency of the CPU (measured in Hz).

This equation helps in understanding how different factors affect the execution time of a
program on a CPU.
14. State the need for an indirect addressing mode. Give an example.

Ans:

a) Efficient Memory Utilization – Allows access to large memory areas beyond the
direct addressing limit.

b) Supports Pointers – Enables pointer-based operations, useful in high-level

programming languages.

c) Flexibility in Data Access – Useful for handling arrays, linked lists, and dynamic
memory allocation.

d) Code Reusability – The same instruction can work with different data by changing
the pointer.

e) Dynamic Memory Access – Allows modifying memory addresses at runtime for

efficient data handling.

15. Show the formula for CPU clock cycles required for a program.

Ans:

The total number of CPU clock cycles required for a program can be calculated using this
formula:

Total Clock Cycles = Instruction Count × Cycles Per Instruction

Breaking It Down:

 Instruction Count (IC) – The total number of instructions the program executes.

 Cycles Per Instruction (CPI) – The average number of clock cycles needed to
complete each instruction.

 Total Clock Cycles – The final number of CPU cycles required to finish running the
program.

Example:

Let’s say a program has 500 instructions, and on average, each instruction takes 4 cycles to
execute.

500×4=2000 clock cycles500 \times 4 = 2000

So, the CPU will need 2000 cycles to complete the program.

16. Define Stored Program Concept.

Ans: The Stored Program Concept, proposed by John von Neumann, states that instructions
and data are stored in the same memory and treated alike. This allows a computer to fetch
and execute instructions sequentially from memory.
Key Features:

1. Instructions are stored as binary code in memory, just like data.

2. CPU fetches, decodes, and executes instructions one by one from memory.

3. Programs can be modified (e.g., self-modifying code) since they are stored in
memory.

4. Facilitates conditional execution (like loops and branches).

5. Forms the basis of modern computing, used in most general-purpose computers

today.

Example:

When a program runs, instructions are fetched from RAM and executed by the CPU step by
step, rather than requiring manual reconfiguration of hardware.

Thus, the Stored Program Concept enables flexibility, automation, and ease of
programming in modern computers.

17. Name the different addressing modes

Ans:

a) Immediate Addressing Mode – The operand is directly specified in the instruction.

Example: MOV A, #5 (Loads the value 5 into register A)

b) Register Addressing Mode – The operand is stored in a register.

Example: MOV A, B (Copies the value from register B to A)

c) Direct Addressing Mode – The instruction contains the memory address of the
operand.

Example: MOV A, 5000H (Loads value from memory address 5000H into A)

d) Indirect Addressing Mode – The memory address of the operand is stored in a

register or memory location.

Example: MOV A, (R1) (Loads value from the address stored in R1)

e) Register Indirect Addressing Mode – The operand’s address is held in a register.

Example: MOV A, [R1] (Loads value from the address in R1)

18. Compare multi-processor and uniprocessor.

Ans:

Comparison Between Multi-Processor and Uniprocessor Systems

Feature Multi-Processor System Uniprocessor System

A system with two or more A system with a single processor

Definition
processors working together. handling all tasks.

Higher performance due to parallel Lower performance as only one task is

Performance
processing. executed at a time.

Faster execution due to multiple Slower execution as tasks are

Speed
CPUs handling tasks simultaneously. processed sequentially.

More reliable; if one processor fails, Less reliable; system failure occurs if
Reliability
others can continue. the processor fails.

More expensive due to multiple

Cost Cheaper as it uses a single processor.
CPUs and complex architecture.

Power Higher power consumption due to Lower power consumption since only
Consumption multiple processors running. one processor operates.

Used in high-performance Used in personal computers,

Suitability computing, servers, and AI embedded systems, and basic
applications. computing tasks.

19. Illustrate the relative addressing mode with an example.

Ans:

Illustration of Relative Addressing Mode (Simplified)

In Relative Addressing Mode, the address of the operand is determined by adding an offset
to the Program Counter (PC). It is mainly used for branching instructions (jumps, loops).

Example (8085 Assembly):

JMP LABEL; Jump to the address relative to the current PC

If the PC = 2000H and the offset is +05H, the jump goes to:

Effective Address=2000H+05H=2005H\text{Effective Address} = 2000H + 05H = 2005H

Key Points:

✔ Used in loops and conditional jumps

✔ Memory-efficient (stores only the offset, not the full address)
✔ Simplifies program relocation

20. Consider the following performance measurements for a program. Which computer has
the higher MIPS rating?
Measurement Computer Computer B
A

Instruction 10 billion 8 billion

Count

Clock Rate 4GHz 4GHz

Ans:
CPI 1.0 1.1
MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second) is calculated
using the formula:

MIPS = Instruction Count / Execution Time×10^6

Since execution time can be calculated as:

Execution Time = Instruction Count × CPI / Clock Rate

Let's calculate MIPS for each computer.

Computer A:

 Instruction Count = 10×10910 \times 10^9

 Clock Rate = 4 GHz = 4×1094 \times 10^9 Hz

 CPI = 1.0

Execution Time = (10 X 10^9) X 1.0 / 4 X 10^9

= =4×10910×109

Computer B:

 Instruction Count = 8×1098 \times 10^9

 Clock Rate = 4 GHz = 4×1094 \times 10^9 Hz

 CPI = 1.1

Execution Time =

Conclusion:

 Computer A MIPS = 4000

 Computer B MIPS = 3636.36

Since Computer A has the higher MIPS rating (4000 vs. 3636.36), it has a higher instruction
throughput.
PART – B

1. i).Summarize the eight great ideas of computer Architecture.

Ans: The eight great ideas of computer architecture are fundamental concepts that have
shaped the design and evolution of computer systems over time. These ideas are key to
understanding how computers function efficiently and are integral to both hardware and
software design. Here’s a summary of the eight great ideas:

1. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

 What it is: The ISA is the interface between the software and the hardware. It defines
the set of instructions that a processor can execute, along with the machine-level
operations and the format of the instructions.

 Why it matters: The ISA allows software to interact with the hardware in a
predictable way. It serves as the foundation for writing assembly programs, which
directly control the machine.

2. Abstraction

 What it is: Abstraction involves hiding the details of how something works while
exposing only the necessary aspects to the user. In computer architecture,
abstraction is used to manage complexity.

 Why it matters: Abstraction allows designers to create higher-level systems without

needing to understand every detail of lower-level operations. For example, the
abstraction layer in operating systems lets programs run on hardware without
dealing directly with machine code.

3. Performance via Pipelining

 What it is: Pipelining is a technique that allows multiple instructions to be processed

simultaneously at different stages, such as fetching, decoding, and executing
instructions in parallel.

 Why it matters: Pipelining significantly improves CPU performance by making more

efficient use of the processor's resources, thus increasing throughput and reducing
the time to execute instructions.

4. Parallelism

 What it is: Parallelism refers to the simultaneous execution of multiple instructions

or tasks, which can be achieved in multiple ways, including multiple processors or
multiple cores within a processor.
  Why it matters: Leveraging parallelism allows computers to perform more tasks
simultaneously, leading to faster processing and better scalability, especially for high-
performance applications.

5. Memory Hierarchy

 What it is: Memory hierarchy refers to the organization of memory systems with
varying speeds and sizes, from the fastest (registers and caches) to the slowest (main
memory and storage). The goal is to provide faster data access by using smaller,
faster memory levels closer to the CPU.

 Why it matters: A well-designed memory hierarchy improves system performance by

ensuring that the most frequently accessed data is stored in the fastest accessible
memory, reducing latency.

6. Virtualization

 What it is: Virtualization allows a single physical machine to run multiple virtual
machines, each with its own operating system and applications, as if they were
separate physical machines.

 Why it matters: Virtualization improves resource utilization and provides flexibility

for system management, testing, and development. It allows for more efficient
deployment of resources and increased security by isolating workloads.

7. Latency vs. Throughput

 What it is: Latency refers to the time it takes to process a single piece of data, while
throughput refers to the amount of data that can be processed over a period of time.

 Why it matters: Optimizing for both latency and throughput is essential for balancing
the speed of individual operations (latency) with the overall capacity of the system
(throughput). Designing systems to efficiently handle both is key for performance in
various applications, from web servers to data centers.

8. Dependability

 What it is: Dependability refers to the ability of a system to consistently perform its
functions without failure. It encompasses reliability, availability, safety, and security.

 Why it matters: A dependable system is essential in many applications, such as in

medical devices, transportation, and military systems, where system failure could
have catastrophic consequences. Ensuring reliability and fault tolerance is critical for
building trustworthy and safe computer systems.

ii). Explain the technologies for Building Processors.

Ans: Building processors involves a variety of technologies that address both the physical
hardware design and the optimization of computational performance. These technologies
are used to create the core components of processors, such as the arithmetic logic units
(ALUs), control units, memory, and interconnects. Here’s an explanation of the major
technologies used in building processors:

1. Semiconductor Technology (Transistor Fabrication)

 What it is: Transistors are the building blocks of modern processors. They function as
switches to control the flow of electrical signals. Semiconductor technology,
especially silicon-based technology, is used to fabricate transistors on chips.

 Why it matters: The miniaturization of transistors allows for more transistors to be

packed into smaller areas, improving the performance and power efficiency of
processors. The smaller the transistors, the faster and more power-efficient the
processor can be.

 Key Technologies:

o Moore’s Law: This principle states that the number of transistors on a chip
doubles approximately every two years. This enables constant improvements
in processing power and efficiency.

o Photolithography: A method of patterning semiconductor materials to create

transistors and other structures on silicon wafers.

o FinFET (Fin Field-Effect Transistor): A 3D transistor design that allows for

greater control of current flow, which reduces leakage and improves
performance.

2. Parallelism

 What it is: Parallelism involves executing multiple operations simultaneously. This

can be achieved at various levels: instruction-level parallelism (ILP), data-level
parallelism (DLP), and thread-level parallelism (TLP).

 Why it matters: Increasing parallelism allows processors to handle more tasks

concurrently, improving throughput and performance. This is especially critical for
applications like scientific simulations, machine learning, and high-performance
computing.

 Key Technologies:

o Multicore Processors: These processors have multiple processing units

(cores) that can handle separate tasks simultaneously, providing a significant
boost to performance for parallel tasks.

o SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data): A technique where one instruction

operates on multiple pieces of data in parallel (used in vector processors or
GPUs).
 o Superscalar Architecture: This design enables the processor to execute more
than one instruction per clock cycle, achieving instruction-level parallelism.

3. Pipeline Architecture

 What it is: Pipeline architecture involves breaking down the processor’s instruction
execution process into several stages, allowing multiple instructions to be processed
at once in different stages.

 Why it matters: Pipelining improves the throughput of the processor by ensuring

that multiple instructions are being processed simultaneously at different stages of
execution, reducing idle time and increasing overall instruction throughput.

 Key Technologies:

o Deep Pipelines: Modern processors use deep pipelines with many stages
(fetch, decode, execute, etc.), which can allow instructions to be processed
more efficiently.

o Superscalar Pipelining: Involves multiple pipelines for executing instructions

in parallel. This enables the processor to execute multiple instructions per
clock cycle.

4. Memory Hierarchy

 What it is: Memory hierarchy refers to the different levels of memory in a computer
system (e.g., registers, cache, main memory, disk storage) with varying access speeds
and sizes.

 Why it matters: A well-designed memory hierarchy helps to speed up data access.

Processors have small, fast memory (registers and caches) close to the core, and
slower, larger memory (main memory and storage) farther away. By ensuring that
frequently used data is placed in faster memory, processors can work more
efficiently.

 Key Technologies:

o Cache Memory: Small, fast memory located close to the CPU to store
frequently accessed data, improving overall performance.

o Cache Coherency: Mechanisms (like MESI protocol) to ensure that different

caches in multicore processors are synchronized.

o DRAM (Dynamic RAM): A type of memory used in the main memory of

computers, though slower than cache memory, it provides a large capacity for
storing data.

o Non-Volatile Memory (NVM): Technologies like flash storage and newer

persistent memories that can maintain data without power.
5. Clocking and Synchronization

 What it is: Clocking involves the use of a clock signal to synchronize the operations of
different components of a processor. The clock signal determines the timing of
instruction execution.

 Why it matters: Proper clocking ensures that all parts of the processor work together
correctly. A high clock speed leads to more operations per second, improving
performance, but must be balanced with power consumption and heat dissipation.

 Key Technologies:

o Clock Gating: A technique to save power by turning off clock signals to parts
of the processor that are not in use.

o Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS): A technique where the

processor dynamically adjusts its clock speed and voltage to balance
performance and power consumption.

o Global vs. Local Clocking: Global clocking uses one clock for the entire
processor, while local clocking uses multiple clocks, reducing synchronization
problems in complex processors.

6. Interconnect Technologies

 What it is: Interconnects are the pathways used to transfer data between
components of the processor and between processors in a system. High-speed
interconnects are essential for ensuring fast data communication.

 Why it matters: The speed and efficiency of interconnects directly impact the
processor’s ability to communicate with memory, I/O devices, and other processors.

 Key Technologies:

o Bus Systems: Common interconnects in older processor designs, connecting

various components via a shared bus.

o Point-to-Point (P2P) Connections: Faster and more reliable interconnects that

connect components like cores and memory directly, as seen in modern CPUs.

o Networks-on-Chip (NoC): A method for interconnecting multiple cores in a

chip, enabling efficient data transfer between cores without bottlenecks.

7. Energy Efficiency and Power Management

 What it is: Processor power consumption has become a critical consideration as chip
performance improves. Power management techniques are used to reduce energy
use while maintaining performance.
  Why it matters: As processors become more powerful, the heat and energy
consumption increase. Efficient power management can help reduce energy costs,
heat dissipation, and extend battery life in mobile devices.

 Key Technologies:

o Low Power Design: Using techniques like low-voltage operation, power

gating, and multi-threshold CMOS (MT-CMOS) to reduce energy consumption.

o Energy-Efficient Cores: Incorporating low-power cores into processors for

tasks that do not require high performance (as in ARM-based mobile
processors).

o Thermal Management: Techniques to handle heat dissipation effectively,

such as heat sinks, liquid cooling, and dynamic thermal management.

8. Custom Processors and Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)

 What it is: Custom processors or ASICs are specialized hardware designs optimized
for specific applications, such as machine learning, cryptocurrency mining, or video
processing.

 Why it matters: Custom processors allow for highly efficient execution of specific
tasks, often outperforming general-purpose processors (like CPUs) in those areas.

 Key Technologies:

o Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs): Reconfigurable hardware that can

be customized for specific tasks, often used in prototyping or specialized
applications.

o ASIC Design: Creating custom processors for tasks that benefit from highly
optimized hardware, such as AI acceleration or encryption.

2. List the various components of a computer system and explain with a neat diagram.

A computer system consists of various components that work together to perform tasks,
process data, and communicate with external devices. These components can be broadly
categorized into hardware and software components, but for this explanation, we will focus
primarily on the hardware components.

Key Components of a Computer System:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

2. Memory

o Primary Memory (RAM)

o Secondary Memory (Storage)

3. Input Devices

4. Output Devices

5. Motherboard

6. Power Supply Unit

7. Bus System

8. Communication Devices

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 Description: The CPU is the "brain" of the computer and is responsible for executing
instructions and performing calculations. It consists of several key parts:

o Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Performs all arithmetic and logical
operations (addition, subtraction, comparison, etc.).

o Control Unit (CU): Directs the flow of instructions and data within the system.

o Registers: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU used to hold data
temporarily during processing.

2. Memory

 Primary Memory (RAM):

o Description: Random Access Memory (RAM) is a volatile memory used to

store data and instructions that the CPU is currently using. It is faster but
loses all data when the computer is powered off.

 Secondary Memory (Storage):

o Description: This type of memory is non-volatile and used for long-term

storage of data. Common types include:

 Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

  Solid-State Drives (SSD)

 Optical Discs (CD/DVD)

3. Input Devices

 Description: These devices allow the user to provide data to the computer.

o Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, Touchpad

4. Output Devices

 Description: Output devices are used to display the processed data or results of
computation to the user.

o Examples: Monitor, Printer, Speakers, Projector

5. Motherboard

 Description: The motherboard is the main circuit board that houses the CPU,
memory, and other crucial components. It also provides the electrical connections
and pathways for communication between different parts of the computer system.

o It contains slots for expansion cards (e.g., graphics cards, network cards) and
connectors for peripheral devices.

6. Power Supply Unit (PSU)

 Description: The power supply unit converts electricity from a wall outlet into a
usable form for the computer's internal components.

o It supplies power to the CPU, memory, motherboard, and other connected

devices.

7. Bus System

 Description: The bus system refers to the communication pathways used by the CPU
to communicate with memory and other components. Buses carry data, addresses,
and control signals.

o Types of Buses:

 Data Bus: Transfers data between components.

 Address Bus: Carries memory addresses from the CPU to other parts
of the system.

 Control Bus: Carries control signals to synchronize operations

between the components.

8. Communication Devices
  Description: These devices enable the computer to communicate with external
devices and networks.

o Examples: Network Interface Cards (NIC), Wi-Fi adapters, Bluetooth adapters,

modems, and routers.

3. i). Define the addressing mode.

Ans: The addressing mode is the method to specify the operand of an instruction. The job of
a microprocessor is to execute a set of instructions stored in memory to perform a specific
task. Operations require the following: The operator or opcode which determines what will
be done.

Purpose of Addressing Modes:

 Provides flexibility in operand access.

 Optimizes memory usage and execution speed.

 Reduces the number of bits required in an instruction.

ii) Describe the basic addressing modes for MIPS and give one suitable example instruction
to each category

Ans: Basic Addressing Modes in MIPS

MIPS (Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages) is a RISC (Reduced Instruction Set
Computing) architecture that supports several addressing modes to access operands
efficiently. Below are the fundamental addressing modes used in MIPS, along with example
instructions for each.

1. Immediate Addressing

 The operand is directly provided in the instruction.

 Used for constants or small values.

📌 Example:

addi $t0, $t1, 5 # $t0 = $t1 + 5

Here, 5 is an immediate value added to register $t1, and the result is stored in $t0.

2. Register Addressing

 The operand is stored in a register.

 The instruction specifies register names.

📌 Example:

add $t0, $t1, $t2 # $t0 = $t1 + $t2

Both operands and the result are stored in registers.

3. Direct (Absolute) Addressing (Not commonly used in MIPS)

 The memory address is directly specified in the instruction.

 MIPS generally does not use direct addressing because it follows a load-store
architecture.

MIPS does not have direct addressing, but other architectures may use it like:

LDA 1000 # Load data from memory address 1000 into the accumulator (not MIPS)

4. Indirect Addressing

 The instruction contains a register that holds a memory address.

 The operand is located at the memory address stored in that register.

📌 Example:

lw $t0, 0($t1) # Load word from memory address stored in $t1

Here, the value stored at the memory location pointed to by $t1 is loaded into $t0.

5. Base + Offset (Displacement) Addressing

 A memory address is calculated as Base Register + Offset.

 Used in array and structure accesses.

📌 Example:

lw $t0, 4($t1) # Load word from memory address ($t1 + 4)

This loads a word from memory at the address $t1 + 4 into $t0.

6. PC-Relative Addressing

 The address is specified relative to the current Program Counter (PC).

 Used in branching instructions.

📌 Example:

beq $t0, $t1, LABEL # If $t0 == $t1, branch to LABEL

Here, the branch target address is calculated as PC + offset.

7. Pseudo-Direct Addressing

 Used in jump instructions, where the target address is partially specified in the
instruction.

📌 Example:
j TARGET # Jump to address TARGET

The address is formed by combining part of the PC with the target field.

4. Examine the operands and operations of computer hardware.

Ans: Examination of Operands and Operations in Computer Hardware

In computer hardware, operands refer to the data on which instructions operate, and
operations define the tasks performed by the CPU. The execution of instructions involves
fetching, decoding, and executing operations on operands stored in registers, memory, or
immediate values.

1. Operands in Computer Hardware

Operands are the data elements used in computation. They can be classified into the
following types:

a) Types of Operands

1. Register Operands – Data stored in CPU registers.

o Example: add $t0, $t1, $t2 (Operands: $t1, $t2)

2. Memory Operands – Data stored in main memory (RAM).

o Example: lw $t0, 0($t1) (Operand is in memory at address $t1 + 0)

3. Immediate Operands – Constant values embedded in instructions.

o Example: addi $t0, $t1, 5 (Operand: 5)

4. I/O Operands – Data from input/output devices.

o Example: Reading a character from the keyboard.

2. Operations in Computer Hardware

Operations define the type of computation or task performed by the CPU. The key categories
of operations include:

a) Data Transfer Operations

 Move data between registers and memory.

 Example Instructions:

o lw (Load Word) → Load data from memory into a register.

o sw (Store Word) → Store register data into memory.

o move → Transfer data between registers.

b) Arithmetic and Logical Operations

  Perform mathematical and logical computations.

 Example Instructions:

o add $t0, $t1, $t2 → $t0 = $t1 + $t2

o sub $t0, $t1, $t2 → $t0 = $t1 - $t2

o and $t0, $t1, $t2 → Bitwise AND operation

c) Control Operations

 Change the sequence of instruction execution (Branching and Jumping).

 Example Instructions:

o beq $t0, $t1, LABEL → If $t0 == $t1, branch to LABEL.

o j TARGET → Unconditional jump to TARGET.

d) I/O Operations

 Handle data exchange between the CPU and external devices.

 Example: Reading from a keyboard or displaying on a screen.

e) Floating-Point Operations

 Perform calculations on decimal numbers using floating-point registers.

 Example Instructions:

o add.s $f0, $f1, $f2 (Floating-point addition).

5. i) Discuss the logical operations and control operations of a computer.

Ans: Logical Operations and Control Operations in a Computer

Computers perform different types of operations to process data efficiently. Among them,
logical operations and control operations play crucial roles in decision-making and program
execution.

1. Logical Operations

Logical operations involve bitwise manipulations on binary data. These operations are
primarily used in Boolean logic, bitwise calculations, and condition checking.

a) Types of Logical Operations

Logical operations work on bits (0s and 1s). The common types include:

1. AND (&) – Returns 1 if both bits are 1, otherwise 0.

o Example: 1010 & 1100 = 1000

 o Assembly Example (MIPS):

o and $t0, $t1, $t2 # $t0 = $t1 AND $t2

2. OR (|) – Returns 1 if at least one bit is 1.

o Example: 1010 | 1100 = 1110

o Assembly Example:

o or $t0, $t1, $t2 # $t0 = $t1 OR $t2

3. XOR (^) – Returns 1 if the bits are different, otherwise 0.

o Example: 1010 ^ 1100 = 0110

o Assembly Example:

o xor $t0, $t1, $t2 # $t0 = $t1 XOR $t2

4. NOT (~) – Inverts the bits (1s become 0s and vice versa).

o Example: ~1010 = 0101

o Assembly Example:

o nor $t0, $t1, $zero # $t0 = NOT $t1

5. Shift Operations

o Left Shift (<<): Shifts bits to the left, multiplying by 2.

 Example: 0001 << 2 = 0100

 Assembly Example:

 sll $t0, $t1, 2 # Shift left logical by 2 bits

o Right Shift (>>): Shifts bits to the right, dividing by 2.

 Example: 1000 >> 2 = 0010

 Assembly Example:

 srl $t0, $t1, 2 # Shift right logical by 2 bits

b) Applications of Logical Operations

 Used in bitwise manipulations for low-level programming.

 Helps in masking specific bits (e.g., setting or clearing bits).

 Plays a role in cryptography and data encryption.

 Essential in hardware control and microprocessor design.

2. Control Operations

Control operations manage the flow of execution in a program. These operations enable
decision-making, looping, and function calls.

a) Types of Control Operations

1. Conditional Branching (Decision-Making)

o Used to jump to another instruction based on a condition.

o Example (MIPS Assembly):

o beq $t0, $t1, LABEL # If $t0 == $t1, go to LABEL

o bne $t0, $t1, LABEL # If $t0 != $t1, go to LABEL

2. Unconditional Jumping

o Directly transfers control to another part of the program.

o Example:

o j TARGET # Jump to TARGET

3. Procedure Call and Return

o Calls a function (subroutine) and returns to the main program after execution.

o Example:

o jal FUNCTION # Jump and link (calls function)

o jr $ra # Jump register (return to caller)

4. Loop Control

o Used in implementing loops like for, while, and do-while.

o Example:

o Loop:

o addi $t0, $t0, -1 # Decrease counter

o bne $t0, $zero, Loop # If not zero, repeat

b) Applications of Control Operations

 Decision-making in programs (e.g., if-else conditions).

 Looping to perform repetitive tasks efficiently.

 Function calling to organize code into reusable subroutines.

  Operating system task management, such as process switching.

ii) Express the concept of the Powerwall processor.

Ans: Concept of the PowerWall Processor

The PowerWall processor concept is primarily associated with addressing the memory wall
problem in computer architecture. The term "PowerWall" represents the power
consumption barrier faced by modern processors due to increasing transistor density and
clock speeds.

1. Understanding the PowerWall Problem

 As CPU speeds increase, their power consumption and heat generation rise
exponentially.

 This issue limits further performance improvements because:

o More power leads to excessive heat dissipation, requiring better cooling

solutions.

o Increased energy demand affects battery life in mobile devices.

o Heat dissipation challenges restrict the ability to increase clock speeds

beyond a certain point.

2. Solutions to the PowerWall Problem

To overcome these limitations, modern processor designs focus on power efficiency rather
than raw clock speed. Key strategies include:

a) Multi-Core Processors

 Instead of increasing clock speed, processors now have multiple cores that execute
tasks in parallel.

 Example: Quad-core and octa-core CPUs in modern smartphones and PCs.

b) Power-Efficient Architectures

 Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) architectures like ARM focus on lower
power consumption.

 Dynamic voltage and frequency scaling (DVFS) adjusts power usage based on
workload.

c) Improved Cooling & Power Management

 Liquid cooling and better thermal materials help dissipate heat efficiently.

 Low-power states (e.g., Intel’s SpeedStep, AMD’s Cool’n’Quiet) reduce power usage
when the CPU is idle.
d) Heterogeneous Computing

 Combining different types of cores (e.g., big.LITTLE architecture) optimizes power

efficiency.

 Used in ARM-based mobile processors to balance performance vs. power.

3. Impact of the PowerWall on Modern Processors

 Shift from clock speed improvements to multi-core and parallel computing.

 Increased focus on energy efficiency and specialized processors (like GPUs, TPUs).

 Development of power-aware computing techniques to extend battery life in mobile

devices.

Conclusion

The PowerWall processor challenge has led to innovative solutions in modern computing,
shifting focus from raw speed to efficient power consumption. Today's processors achieve
high performance without excessive power usage by leveraging multi-core architectures,
low-power designs, and intelligent power management.

6. Consider three different processors PI, P2, and P3 executing the same instruction set. PI
has a 3 GHz clock rate and a CPI of 1.5. P2 has a 2.5 GHz clock rate and a CPI of 1.0. P3 has a
4.0 GHz clock rate and has a CPI of 2.2.

i).Which processor has the highest performance expressed in instructions per second?

ii).If the processors each execute a program in 10 seconds, find the number of cycles and the
number of instructions?

iii).We are trying to reduce the execution time by 30% but this leads to an increase of 20% in
the CPI. What clock rate should we have to get this time reduction?

Ans: To analyze the performance of the three processors P1,P2,P3P_1, P_2, P_3, let's go step
by step.

Given Data

Processor Clock Rate (GHz) CPI

P1 3.0 GHz 1.5

P2 2.5 GHz 1.0

P3 4.0 GHz 2.2

(i) Which processor has the highest performance in Instructions Per Second (IPS)?
Instructions Per Second (IPS) is given by:

IPS=Clock RateCPI\text{IPS} = \frac{\text{Clock Rate}}{\text{CPI}}

For P1:

IPS1=3.0×1091.5=2.0×109 Instructions per secondIPS_1 = \frac{3.0 \times 10^9}{1.5} = 2.0 \

times 10^9 \text{ Instructions per second}

For P2:

IPS2=2.5×1091.0=2.5×109 Instructions per secondIPS_2 = \frac{2.5 \times 10^9}{1.0} = 2.5 \

times 10^9 \text{ Instructions per second}

For P3:

IPS3=4.0×1092.2=1.818×109 Instructions per secondIPS_3 = \frac{4.0 \times 10^9}{2.2} =

1.818 \times 10^9 \text{ Instructions per second}

Answer:

 Processor P2 has the highest IPS at 2.5 billion instructions per second.

(ii) If each processor executes a program in 10 seconds, find the number of cycles and the
number of instructions executed.

We use the execution time formula:

Execution Time=Instruction Count×CPIClock Rate\text{Execution Time} = \frac{\

text{Instruction Count} \times \text{CPI}}{\text{Clock Rate}}

Rearranging to find Instruction Count (IC):

IC=Execution Time×Clock RateCPIIC = \frac{\text{Execution Time} \times \text{Clock Rate}}{\

text{CPI}}

Since Execution Time = 10 seconds for all processors:

For P1:

IC1=10×(3.0×109)1.5=20×109 InstructionsIC_1 = \frac{10 \times (3.0 \times 10^9)}{1.5} =

20 \times 10^9 \text{ Instructions}

For P2:

IC2=10×(2.5×109)1.0=25×109 InstructionsIC_2 = \frac{10 \times (2.5 \times 10^9)}{1.0} =

25 \times 10^9 \text{ Instructions}

For P3:

IC3=10×(4.0×109)2.2=18.18×109 InstructionsIC_3 = \frac{10 \times (4.0 \times 10^9)}{2.2} =

18.18 \times 10^9 \text{ Instructions}
Now, the total number of cycles is:

Total Cycles=IC×CPI\text{Total Cycles} = IC \times CPI

For P1:

Total Cycles1=20×109×1.5=30×109 cycles\text{Total Cycles}_1 = 20 \times 10^9 \times 1.5 =

30 \times 10^9 \text{ cycles}

For P2:

Total Cycles2=25×109×1.0=25×109 cycles\text{Total Cycles}_2 = 25 \times 10^9 \times 1.0 =

25 \times 10^9 \text{ cycles}

For P3:

Total Cycles3=18.18×109×2.2=40×109 cycles\text{Total Cycles}_3 = 18.18 \times 10^9 \times

2.2 = 40 \times 10^9 \text{ cycles}

Answer:

Processor Instructions Executed (billion) Total Cycles (billion)

P1 20 30

P2 25 25

P3 18.18 40

(iii) If execution time is reduced by 30% and CPI increases by 20%, what should be the new
clock rate?

Step 1: Define new execution time

Given that execution time is reduced by 30%, the new execution time is:

Tnew=0.7×Told=0.7×10=7 secondsT_{\text{new}} = 0.7 \times T_{\text{old}} = 0.7 \times 10

= 7 \text{ seconds}

Step 2: Define new CPI

If CPI increases by 20%, the new CPI is:

CPInew=1.2×CPIold\text{CPI}_{\text{new}} = 1.2 \times \text{CPI}_{\text{old}}

Since the instruction count remains the same, we use:

Tnew=IC×CPInewClock RatenewT_{\text{new}} = \frac{\text{IC} \times \text{CPI}_{\

text{new}}}{\text{Clock Rate}_{\text{new}}}

Solving for Clock Rate:

Clock Ratenew=IC×CPInewTnew\text{Clock Rate}_{\text{new}} = \frac{\text{IC} \times \
text{CPI}_{\text{new}}}{T_{\text{new}}}

Let’s compute for P1 as an example:

For P1:

CPInew=1.2×1.5=1.8\text{CPI}_{\text{new}} = 1.2 \times 1.5 = 1.8

Clock Ratenew=20×109×1.87\text{Clock Rate}_{\text{new}} = \frac{20 \times 10^9 \times
1.8}{7} Clock Ratenew=36×1097=5.14 GHz\text{Clock Rate}_{\text{new}} = \frac{36 \times
10^9}{7} = 5.14 \text{ GHz}

Thus, to achieve a 30% reduction in execution time, P1 needs a new clock rate of 5.14 GHz.

Final Answers:

(i) Highest Performance (IPS):

 P2 with 2.5 billion instructions per second.

(ii) Instructions Executed & Total Cycles:

Processor Instructions Executed (billion) Total Cycles (billion)

P1 20 30

P2 25 25

P3 18.18 40

(iii) New Clock Rate to Achieve 30% Time Reduction:

For P1, the new clock rate should be 5.14 GHz.

7. Assume a program requires the execution of 50 x 106 FP instructions,110 x 106 INT

instructions, 80 x 106 L/S instructions, and 16 x 106 branch instructions The CPI for each
type of instruction is 1, 1, 4, and 2, respectively. Assume that the processor has a 2 GHz clock
rate.

i).By how much must we improve the CPI of FP instructions if we want the program to run
two times faster?

ii).By how much must we improve the CPI of L/S instructions?

iii).By how much is the execution time of the program improved if the CPI of INT and FP
Instructions are reduced by 40% and the CPI of L/S and Branch is reduced by 30%?

Ans: Let's analyze the problem step by step.

Given Data:

 Instruction count (IC) for different instruction types:

 o FP (Floating Point) Instructions: 50×10650 \times 10^6

o INT (Integer) Instructions: 110×106110 \times 10^6

o L/S (Load/Store) Instructions: 80×10680 \times 10^6

o Branch Instructions: 16×10616 \times 10^6

 CPI for each instruction type:

o FP: 1

o INT: 1

o L/S: 4

o Branch: 2

 Clock rate: 22 GHz = 2×1092 \times 10^9 cycles/sec

Step 1: Calculate the Original Execution Time

Execution time is given by:

T=∑(Instruction Count×CPI)Clock RateT = \frac{\sum (\text{Instruction Count} \times \

text{CPI})}{\text{Clock Rate}}

Total Cycle Count Calculation

Total Cycles=(50×106×1)+(110×106×1)+(80×106×4)+(16×106×2)\text{Total Cycles} = (50 \

times 10^6 \times 1) + (110 \times 10^6 \times 1) + (80 \times 10^6 \times 4) + (16 \times
10^6 \times 2) =50×106+110×106+320×106+32×106= 50 \times 10^6 + 110 \times 10^6 +
320 \times 10^6 + 32 \times 10^6 =512×106 cycles= 512 \times 10^6 \text{ cycles}

Original Execution Time

Toriginal=512×1062×109T_{\text{original}} = \frac{512 \times 10^6}{2 \times 10^9}

Toriginal=0.256 secondsT_{\text{original}} = 0.256 \text{ seconds}

(i) Improve CPI of FP Instructions to Make the Program 2× Faster

We want the execution time to be half:

Tnew=Toriginal2=0.2562=0.128 secondsT_{\text{new}} = \frac{T_{\text{original}}}{2} = \

frac{0.256}{2} = 0.128 \text{ seconds}

Let the new CPI of FP instructions be CPInew FP\text{CPI}_{\text{new FP}}. The new total
cycle count is:

(50×106×CPInew FP)+(110×106×1)+(80×106×4)+(16×106×2)=256×106(50 \times 10^6 \

times \text{CPI}_{\text{new FP}}) + (110 \times 10^6 \times 1) + (80 \times 10^6 \times 4) +
(16 \times 10^6 \times 2) = 256 \times 10^6 (50×106×CPInew FP)
+110×106+320×106+32×106=256×106(50 \times 10^6 \times \text{CPI}_{\text{new FP}}) +
110 \times 10^6 + 320 \times 10^6 + 32 \times 10^6 = 256 \times 10^6
50×106×CPInew FP=256×106−462×10650 \times 10^6 \times \text{CPI}_{\text{new FP}} =
256 \times 10^6 - 462 \times 10^6 50×106×CPInew FP=−206×10650 \times 10^6 \times \
text{CPI}_{\text{new FP}} = -206 \times 10^6

Since CPI cannot be negative, this isn't possible. Reducing only FP CPI won't be enough to
double the speed.

(ii) Improve CPI of L/S Instructions to Make the Program 2× Faster

Let the new CPI of L/S instructions be CPInew L/S\text{CPI}_{\text{new L/S}}, and keep all
other CPI values unchanged.

(50×106×1)+(110×106×1)+(80×106×CPInew L/S)+(16×106×2)=256×106(50 \times 10^6 \

times 1) + (110 \times 10^6 \times 1) + (80 \times 10^6 \times \text{CPI}_{\text{new L/S}}) +
(16 \times 10^6 \times 2) = 256 \times 10^6 50×106+110×106+(80×106×CPInew L/S)
+32×106=256×10650 \times 10^6 + 110 \times 10^6 + (80 \times 10^6 \times \text{CPI}_{\
text{new L/S}}) + 32 \times 10^6 = 256 \times 10^6
80×106×CPInew L/S=256×106−192×10680 \times 10^6 \times \text{CPI}_{\text{new L/S}} =
256 \times 10^6 - 192 \times 10^6 80×106×CPInew L/S=64×10680 \times 10^6 \times \
text{CPI}_{\text{new L/S}} = 64 \times 10^6 CPInew L/S=6480=0.8\text{CPI}_{\text{new L/S}}
= \frac{64}{80} = 0.8

Answer:

 The CPI of L/S instructions must be reduced from 4 to 0.8 to make the program run
2× faster.

(iii) Execution Time Improvement with 40% CPI Reduction for FP and INT, and 30%
Reduction for L/S and Branch

The new CPIs are:

CPInew FP=1×0.6=0.6\text{CPI}_{\text{new FP}} = 1 \times 0.6 = 0.6 CPInew INT=1×0.6=0.6\

text{CPI}_{\text{new INT}} = 1 \times 0.6 = 0.6 CPInew L/S=4×0.7=2.8\text{CPI}_{\text{new
L/S}} = 4 \times 0.7 = 2.8 CPInew Branch=2×0.7=1.4\text{CPI}_{\text{new Branch}} = 2 \times
0.7 = 1.4

New Total Cycle Count

(50×106×0.6)+(110×106×0.6)+(80×106×2.8)+(16×106×1.4)(50 \times 10^6 \times 0.6) + (110

\times 10^6 \times 0.6) + (80 \times 10^6 \times 2.8) + (16 \times 10^6 \times 1.4)
=30×106+66×106+224×106+22.4×106= 30 \times 10^6 + 66 \times 10^6 + 224 \times 10^6 +
22.4 \times 10^6 =342.4×106 cycles= 342.4 \times 10^6 \text{ cycles}

New Execution Time

Tnew=342.4×1062×109T_{\text{new}} = \frac{342.4 \times 10^6}{2 \times 10^9}
Tnew=0.1712 secondsT_{\text{new}} = 0.1712 \text{ seconds}

Improvement Factor

Speedup=ToriginalTnew=0.2560.1712=1.496

Percentage Improvement

(1−TnewToriginal)×100\left(1 - \frac{T_{\text{new}}}{T_{\text{original}}}\right) \times 100

(1−0.17120.256)×100=33.1%\left(1 - \frac{0.1712}{0.256}\right) \times 100 = 33.1\%

Final Answer

 Execution time improves by 33.1% when FP and INT CPI are reduced by 40% and L/S
and Branch CPI are reduced by 30%.

8. Recall how performance is calculated in a computer system and derive the necessary
performance equations.

Ans: Performance Calculation in a Computer System

Performance in a computer system is typically measured in terms of execution time or

throughput. The key equation for performance is:

Performance = 1 / Execution time

This means that a lower execution time results in higher performance.

1. Execution Time Formula

Execution time (also called response time or latency) depends on the instruction count, clock
cycles per instruction (CPI), and clock cycle time. The fundamental performance equation is:

Execution Time = Total Cycles / Clock Rate

Since Total Cycles is determined by the number of instructions executed (IC\text{IC}) and the
average CPI, we substitute:

Total Cycles=IC×CPI

Thus, the CPU Execution Time equation becomes:

T=IC×CPI / Clock Rate

where:

 TT = Execution Time (seconds)

 IC = Instruction Count (total number of instructions executed)

  CPI= Cycles Per Instruction (average number of clock cycles per instruction)

 Clock Rate= Clock speed in cycles per second (Hz)

Since clock rate is the inverse of clock cycle time, we can also write:

T=IC× CPI× Clock Cycle Time

where:

 Clock Cycle Time = 1 / Clock Rate

2. Instructions Per Second (IPS)

Another important performance metric is Instructions Per Second (IPS), which is the number
of instructions a processor can execute per second:

IPS = Clock Rate / CPI

The higher the IPS, the faster the processor can execute instructions. However, IPS alone
does not fully determine performance because different instructions take different amounts
of time to execute.

3. MIPS (Millions of Instructions Per Second)

MIPS is another commonly used performance metric:

MIPS=IPS / 10^6 =Clock Rate/CPI / 10^6

While MIPS is useful, it does not always reflect real performance, because different
instruction sets have different instruction complexities.

4. Performance Comparison Between Two Systems

To compare the performance of two systems AA and BB, we use:

Speedup = Execution Time of System B / Execution Time of System A

If Speedup>1, System A is faster than System B.

5. Amdahl’s Law (Performance Improvement Limitation)

If we improve only part of a system (e.g., floating point operations), the overall speedup is
limited by the fraction of execution time that part contributes. Amdahl’s Law states:

Speedup overall=1 / (1−f)+f / Speedup enhanced

where:

 ff = fraction of execution time affected by the improvement

 Speedup enhanced = speedup of the improved portion

9. i) Formulate the performance of a CPU.

Ans: Throughput is the total amount of work done in a given time. CPU execution time is the
total time a CPU spends computing on a given task. It also excludes time for I/O or running
other programs. This is also referred to as simply CPU time. Performance is determined by
execution time as performance is inversely proportional to execution time.

Performance = (1 / Execution time)

And,

(Performance of A / Performance of B)
= (Execution Time of B / Execution Time of A)

If given that Processor A is faster than processor B, that means execution time of A is less
than that of execution time of B. Therefore, performance of A is greater than that of
performance of B. Example – Machine A runs a program in 100 seconds, Machine B runs the
same program in 125 seconds

(Performance of A / Performance of B)
= (Execution Time of B / Execution Time of A)
= 125 / 100 = 1.25

That means machine A is 1.25 times faster than Machine B. And, the time to execute a given
program can be computed as:

Execution time = CPU clock cycles x clock cycle time

Since clock cycle time and clock rate are reciprocals, so,

Execution time = CPU clock cycles / clock rate

The number of CPU clock cycles can be determined by,

CPU clock cycles

= (No. of instructions / Program ) x (Clock cycles / Instruction)
= Instruction Count x CPI

Which gives,

Execution time
= Instruction Count x CPI x clock cycle time
= Instruction Count x CPI / clock rate

Units for CPU Execution Time

ii) Compose the factors that affect the performance of a CPU

Ans:
Clock speed

Clock speed is the number of pulses the central processing unit's (CPU) clock generates per
second. It is measured in hertz.

CPU clocks can sometimes be sped up slightly by the user. This process is known as
overclocking. The more pulses per second, the more fetch-decode-execute cycles that can be
performed and the more instructions that are processed in a given space of time.
Overclocking can cause long term damage to the CPU as it is working harder and producing
more heat.

Cache size

Cache is a small amount of high-speed random access memory (RAM) built directly within
the processor. It is used to temporarily hold data and instructions that the processor is likely
to reuse.

The bigger its cache, the less time a processor has to wait for instructions to be fetched.

Number of cores

A processing unit within a CPU is known as a core. Each core is capable of fetching, decoding
and executing its own instructions.

The more cores a CPU has, the greater the number of instructions it can process in a given
space of time. Many modern CPUs are dual (two) or quad (four) core processors. This
provides vastly superior processing power compared to CPUs with a single core.

10. i) Illustrate the following sequence of instructions and identify the addressing modes
used and the operation done in every instruction

i) Move (R5)+, RO

j) Add(R5)+, RO

k) Move RO, (R5)

l) Move 16(R5),R3

m) Add #40, R5
Ans: Illustration of Instructions, Addressing Modes, and Operations

Let's analyze the given sequence of instructions, identify their addressing modes, and
explain the operation performed.

Instruction 1: Move (R5)+, R0

 Addressing Mode: Auto-increment Addressing

 Operation:
 1. The value at the memory location pointed to by R5 is loaded into R0.

2. R5 is incremented after the operation (post-increment).

Illustration:

Register Before Execution After Execution

R5 1000 (Memory Address) 1004 (Incremented)

Memory [1000] 50 -

R0 - 50

Instruction 2: Add (R5) +, R0

 Addressing Mode: Auto-increment Addressing

 Operation:

1. The value at the memory location pointed to by R5 is fetched and added to

R0.

2. R5 is incremented after the operation.

Illustration:

Register Before Execution After Execution

R5 1004 1008

Memory [1004] 30 -

R0 50 50 + 30 = 80

Instruction 3: Move R0, (R5)

 Addressing Mode: Register Indirect Addressing

 Operation:

1. The value in R0 is stored at the memory location pointed to by R5.

Illustration:

Register Before Execution After Execution

R5 1008 1008

R0 80 80
 Register Before Execution After Execution

Memory [1008] - 80

Instruction 4: Move 16(R5), R3

 Addressing Mode: Indexed Addressing

 Operation:

1. Fetch the value from the memory location (R5 + 16) and store it in R3.

Illustration:

Register Before Execution After Execution

R5 1008 1008

Memory[1024] (1008+16) 70 -

R3 - 70

Instruction 5: Add #40, R5

 Addressing Mode: Immediate Addressing

 Operation:

1. The value 40 is directly added to R5.

Illustration:

Register Before Execution After Execution

R5 1008 1048

ii) Calculate which code sequence will execute faster according to execution time for the
following conditions:

Consider the computer with three instruction classes and CPI measurements as given below
and instruction counts for each

instruction class for the same program from two different compilers are given. Assume that the computer's
clock rate is IGHZ

Code from CPI for the instruction class

CPI 1 2 3

Code from CPI for the instruction class

Compiler 1 2 1 2

Compiler 2 2 1 1

Ans: To determine which code sequence executes faster, we need to calculate the execution
time for each compiler based on the given CPI values and instruction counts.

Step 1: Execution Time Formula

The execution time of a program is calculated using:

Execution Time=Total CyclesClock Rate\text{Execution Time} = \frac{\text{Total Cycles}}{\

text{Clock Rate}}

Total cycles can be determined as:

Total Cycles=∑(Instruction Count×CPI)\text{Total Cycles} = \sum (\text{Instruction Count} \

times \text{CPI})

Since the clock rate is 1 GHz (1 × 10⁹ Hz), the execution time simplifies to:

Execution Time=∑(Instruction Count×CPI)109\text{Execution Time} = \frac{\sum (\

text{Instruction Count} \times \text{CPI})}{10^9}

Step 2: Given Data

CPI Values for Each Instruction Class

Compiler CPI for Class 1 CPI for Class 2 CPI for Class 3

Compiler 1 2 1 2

Compiler 2 2 1 1

Instruction Counts for Each Class

Compiler Class 1 Instructions Class 2 Instructions Class 3 Instructions

Compiler 1 5 × 10⁶ 2 × 10⁶ 1 × 10⁶

Compiler Class 1 Instructions Class 2 Instructions Class 3 Instructions

Compiler 2 4 × 10⁶ 3 × 10⁶ 1.5 × 10⁶

Step 3: Compute Total Cycles for Each Compiler

Compiler 1:

Total Cycles=(5×106×2)+(2×106×1)+(1×106×2)\text{Total Cycles} = (5 \times 10^6 \times 2) +

(2 \times 10^6 \times 1) + (1 \times 10^6 \times 2) =10×106+2×106+2×106= 10 \times 10^6
+ 2 \times 10^6 + 2 \times 10^6 =14×106= 14 \times 10^6

Compiler 2:

Total Cycles=(4×106×2)+(3×106×1)+(1.5×106×1)\text{Total Cycles} = (4 \times 10^6 \times 2)

+ (3 \times 10^6 \times 1) + (1.5 \times 10^6 \times 1) =8×106+3×106+1.5×106= 8 \times
10^6 + 3 \times 10^6 + 1.5 \times 10^6 =12.5×106= 12.5 \times 10^6

Step 4: Compute Execution Time

Execution Time=Total CyclesClock Rate (1 GHz)\text{Execution Time} = \frac{\text{Total

Cycles}}{\text{Clock Rate (1 GHz)}}

Execution Time for Compiler 1:

=14×106109=0.014 seconds=14 milliseconds= \frac{14 \times 10^6}{10^9} = 0.014 \

text{ seconds} = 14 \text{ milliseconds}

Execution Time for Compiler 2:

=12.5×106109=0.0125 seconds=12.5 milliseconds= \frac{12.5 \times 10^6}{10^9} = 0.0125 \

text{ seconds} = 12.5 \text{ milliseconds}

Conclusion: Which Compiler is Faster?

 Compiler 1 Execution Time = 14 ms

 Compiler 2 Execution Time = 12.5 ms

Compiler 2 produces a faster code sequence. 🚀

11. Consider two different implementation of the same instruction (13) set architecture,
The instruction can be divided into four classes according to their CPI ( class A,B,C and
D). P1 with clock rate 2.5 Ghz and CPI s of 1,2,3, and 3 respectively and P2 with clock
rate 3 Ghz and CPI s of 2,2,2and 2 respectively. Given a program with a dynamic
 instruction count of 1.0*10° instruction divided into classes as follows: 10% class A,
20% class B, 50% class C, and 20% class D, which implementation is faster? What is the
global CPI for each implementation? Find the clock cycles required in both cases.

Ans: To determine which implementation is faster, we will compute the execution time for
both processors P1 and P2. This requires calculating the global CPI, total clock cycles, and
then computing the execution time.

Step 1: Given Data

Processor Specifications

Processor Clock Rate CPI for Class A CPI for Class B CPI for Class C CPI for Class D

P1 2.5 GHz 1 2 3 3

P2 3.0 GHz 2 2 2 2

Instruction Distribution

Class % of Instructions Dynamic Count

A 10% 1.0×109×0.1=1.0×1081.0 \times 10^9 \times 0.1 = 1.0 \times 10^8

B 20% 1.0×109×0.2=2.0×1081.0 \times 10^9 \times 0.2 = 2.0 \times 10^8

C 50% 1.0×109×0.5=5.0×1081.0 \times 10^9 \times 0.5 = 5.0 \times 10^8

D 20% 1.0×109×0.2=2.0×1081.0 \times 10^9 \times 0.2 = 2.0 \times 10^8

Step 2: Compute Global CPI

Global CPI=∑(Instruction Count of ClassTotal Instruction Count×CPI of Class)\text{Global CPI}

= \sum \left( \frac{\text{Instruction Count of Class}}{\text{Total Instruction Count}} \times \
text{CPI of Class} \right)

Global CPI for P1

Global CPI for P1=(0.1×1)+(0.2×2)+(0.5×3)+(0.2×3)\text{Global CPI for P1} = (0.1 \times 1) +

(0.2 \times 2) + (0.5 \times 3) + (0.2 \times 3) =0.1+0.4+1.5+0.6=2.6= 0.1 + 0.4 + 1.5 + 0.6 =
2.6

Global CPI for P2

Global CPI for P2=(0.1×2)+(0.2×2)+(0.5×2)+(0.2×2)\text{Global CPI for P2} = (0.1 \times 2) +

(0.2 \times 2) + (0.5 \times 2) + (0.2 \times 2) =0.2+0.4+1.0+0.4=2.0= 0.2 + 0.4 + 1.0 + 0.4 =
2.0

Step 3: Compute Total Clock Cycles

Total Clock Cycles=Total Instructions×Global CPI\text{Total Clock Cycles} = \text{Total
Instructions} \times \text{Global CPI}

Clock Cycles for P1

Clock Cycles for P1=1.0×109×2.6=2.6×109 cycles\text{Clock Cycles for P1} = 1.0 \times 10^9 \
times 2.6 = 2.6 \times 10^9 \text{ cycles}

Clock Cycles for P2

Clock Cycles for P2=1.0×109×2.0=2.0×109 cycles\text{Clock Cycles for P2} = 1.0 \times 10^9 \
times 2.0 = 2.0 \times 10^9 \text{ cycles}

Step 4: Compute Execution Time

Execution Time=Total Clock CyclesClock Rate\text{Execution Time} = \frac{\text{Total Clock

Cycles}}{\text{Clock Rate}}

Execution Time for P1

Execution Time for P1=2.6×1092.5×10^9=1.04 seconds

Execution Time for P2

Execution Time for P2=2.0×1093.0×10^9 =0.67 seconds

Step 5: Conclusion

 Global CPI for P1 = 2.6

 Global CPI for P2 = 2.0

 Clock Cycles for P1 = 2.6 × 10⁹ cycles

 Clock Cycles for P2 = 2.0 × 10⁹ cycles

 Execution Time for P1 = 1.04 seconds

 Execution Time for P2 = 0.67 seconds

Processor P2 is faster, as it has a lower execution time (0.67s vs 1.04s).

12. i) Compare uni-processors and multi-processors.

Ans:
Parameter Single Processor Systems Multiprocessor Systems

The name itself is saying that the single For this also the name itself indicates that
Description processor system contains only one the multiprocessor system contains two or
processor for processing. more processors for processing.

Multiprocessor uses two types of

There is a use of a coprocessor in single approaches −
processors because it uses multiple In Symmetric Multiprocessing every
Is there any use
Controllers which are designed to processor performs all the tasks within the
of Co-
handle special tasks and that can operating system.
Processors?
execute limited instruction sets. For In Asymmetric Multiprocessing one
example − DMA Controller. Processor will acts as a Master and Second
Processor act as Slave.

The Throughput of Multiprocessor systems

is greater when compared to single
The Throughput of single processor processor systems.
systems is less when compared to Suppose if a system contains N processors
Throughput of
multiprocessor systems because every then its throughput will be less than N
the system
task is performed by the same because synchronization must be
processor. maintained between two processors and
they also share resources which increases a
certain amount of overhead.

Multiprocessor systems cost less than

Single processor systems cost is more
Cost of the equivalent multiple single processor systems
because here every processor requires
processor because they use the same resources on a
separate resources.
sharing basis.

It is difficult to design Multi Processor

What is the Systems because Synchronization must be
Design Process It is Easy to design Single Processor maintained between processors otherwise it
of the Systems. may result in overloading of one processor
processor? and another processor may remain idle at
the same time.

Reliability of the Single processor system is less reliable Multiprocessor system is more reliable
system because failure in one processor will because failure of one processor does not
 Parameter Single Processor Systems Multiprocessor Systems

halt the entire system but only speed will be

result in failure of the entire system.
slowed down.

Examples Most Modern PCs. Blade Servers.

ii) Analyze how instructions that involve decision making are executed with an example.

Ans: Execution of Decision-Making Instructions in a Processor

Instructions that involve decision-making are typically branch or conditional instructions

that alter the normal flow of execution based on some condition. These instructions are
crucial for implementing control structures like loops and conditional statements.

Types of Decision-Making Instructions

1. Conditional Branching (e.g., BEQ, BNE in MIPS)

o If a specified condition is met, the program jumps to a different memory

location.

o Otherwise, execution continues sequentially.

2. Unconditional Branching (e.g., JMP, J in MIPS)

o Always jumps to a specific address.

3. Compare and Jump (e.g., CMP, JLE, JGE in x86)

o Compares two values and jumps based on the result.

4. Procedure Calls (e.g., CALL, JAL)

o Transfers execution to a subroutine and returns after execution.

Example: Executing a Conditional Branch in MIPS

Consider the following MIPS assembly code:

beq $t0, $t1, LABEL # If $t0 == $t1, jump to LABEL

add $t2, $t2, $t3 # Normal execution: This runs if branch is not taken

sub $t4, $t4, $t5

LABEL:

mul $t6, $t7, $t8 # Execution jumps here if branch is taken

Step-by-Step Execution

1. Instruction Fetch (IF):

o The CPU fetches beq $t0, $t1, LABEL from memory.

2. Instruction Decode (ID):

o The CPU decodes the instruction and reads the values of $t0 and $t1.

3. Execution (EX):

o The CPU compares the values of $t0 and $t1.

4. Decision Making:

o If $t0 == $t1, the CPU branches to LABEL (jumps to the new address).

o Otherwise, it continues executing the next instruction.

5. If the Branch is Taken:

o The CPU fetches the instruction at LABEL and executes it.

6. If the Branch is Not Taken:

o The CPU executes add $t2, $t2, $t3, and then sub $t4, $t4, $t5 before
reaching LABEL.

Concept of Pipeline and Branch Prediction

 In pipelined processors, branch instructions cause hazards (delays) because the CPU
prefetches instructions assuming sequential execution.

 Branch Prediction techniques help mitigate delays by guessing whether a branch will
be taken.

Conclusion

 Decision-making instructions enable control flow changes based on conditions.

 Execution involves fetching, decoding, comparing, and either branching or

continuing.

 Optimizations like branch prediction help improve efficiency in modern processors.

13. Analyze the various instruction formats and illustrate them with an example.

Ans:

Analysis of Various Instruction Formats

Instruction formats define how different fields (opcode, registers, immediate values, etc.) are
structured in a machine instruction. The format depends on the instruction set architecture
(ISA) and affects how instructions are decoded and executed.

1. Components of an Instruction Format

An instruction typically consists of:

 Opcode (Operation Code): Specifies the operation to be performed.

 Operands: The source and destination registers or memory locations.

 Addressing Mode: Defines how operands are accessed.

 Immediate Values: Constants embedded in the instruction.

2. Common Instruction Formats

(i) Register Format (R-Type)

 Used for arithmetic and logical operations that involve only registers.

 Example: MIPS R-type format

Opcode Rs Rt Rd Shamt Funct

6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 6 bits

Example Instruction (MIPS):

add $t0, $t1, $t2 # $t0 = $t1 + $t2

Breakdown:

 Opcode: 000000 (R-type)

 Rs = $t1

 Rt = $t2

 Rd = $t0

 Shamt = 00000 (shift amount, unused)

 Funct = 100000 (ADD operation)

(ii) Immediate Format (I-Type)

 Used for instructions that involve an immediate value or memory access.

 Example: MIPS I-type format

Opcode Rs Rt Immediate

6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 16 bits

Example Instruction (MIPS):

addi $t0, $t1, 10 # $t0 = $t1 + 10

Breakdown:

 Opcode: 001000 (ADDI operation)

 Rs = $t1

 Rt = $t0

 Immediate = 0000000000001010 (10 in binary)

(iii) Jump Format (J-Type)

 Used for unconditional jumps.

 Example: MIPS J-type format

Opcode Target Address

6 bits 26 bits

Example Instruction (MIPS):

j 10000 # Jump to memory address 10000

Breakdown:

 Opcode: 000010 (JUMP)

 Target Address: 10000 (converted into a 26-bit binary address)

3. Example Illustration

Let's consider a sequence of instructions:

add $s0, $s1, $s2 # R-type

addi $t0, $t1, 5 # I-type

j 10000 # J-type

Instruction Breakdown

Instruction Type Opcode Rs Rt Rd Immediate/Address

add $s0, $s1, $s2 R-type 000000 $s1 $s2 $s0 00000 100000

addi $t0, $t1, 5 I-type 001000 $t1 $t0 - 0000000000000101

Instruction Type Opcode Rs Rt Rd Immediate/Address

j 10000 J-type 000010 - - - 00000000000000100111000000

Conclusion

 R-Type is used for register-based operations.

 I-Type is used for operations with immediate values or memory access.

 J-Type is used for jump instructions.

Each format is optimized for efficient execution and reduced instruction size in machine
code.

14. i) Summarize the compilation of assignment statements into MIPS with suitable
examples.

Ans:

Compilation of Assignment Statements into MIPS

Assignment statements in high-level languages (such as C or Java) are compiled into MIPS
assembly using load/store operations and arithmetic instructions. Since MIPS is a load/store
architecture, data must be explicitly loaded from memory to registers before processing and
then stored back.

1. Basic Assignment Statements

Example 1: Simple Assignment

High-Level Language (C Code)

int a = 10;

MIPS Assembly

li $t0, 10 # Load immediate value 10 into register $t0

 li (load immediate) is a pseudo-instruction that loads a constant into a register.

2. Assignment with Addition

Example 2: Basic Arithmetic Assignment

High-Level Language (C Code)

int a = b + c;
MIPS Assembly

lw $t1, 0($s1) # Load b from memory into $t1

lw $t2, 0($s2) # Load c from memory into $t2

add $t0, $t1, $t2 # $t0 = $t1 + $t2

sw $t0, 0($s0) # Store result a back into memory

 Here, lw (load word) brings values from memory into registers.

 add performs the addition.

 sw (store word) writes the result back to memory.

3. Assignment with Multiplication

Example 3: Multiplication Operation

High-Level Language (C Code)

int a = b * 5;

MIPS Assembly

lw $t1, 0($s1) # Load b from memory into $t1

li $t2, 5 # Load constant 5 into $t2

mul $t0, $t1, $t2 # $t0 = $t1 * $t2

sw $t0, 0($s0) # Store result a back into memory

 The mul instruction is used for multiplication.

4. Assignment with Memory Access

Example 4: Using an Array

High-Level Language (C Code)

A[2] = 5;

MIPS Assembly

li $t0, 5 # Load 5 into register $t0

sw $t0, 8($s1) # Store 5 at A[2] (assuming A starts at address in $s1)

 Since each integer takes 4 bytes, the offset for A[2] is 2 × 4 = 8 bytes.

5. Assignment with Conditionals

Example 5: Conditional Assignment

High-Level Language (C Code)

if (a > b) {

c = a;

MIPS Assembly

lw $t1, 0($s1) # Load a into $t1

lw $t2, 0($s2) # Load b into $t2

bgt $t1, $t2, label # If a > b, jump to label

j end # Otherwise, skip assignment

label:

sw $t1, 0($s3) # c = a

end:

 bgt (branch if greater than) is used to check the condition.

Conclusion

 Load and Store (lw, sw) are used for memory access.

 Arithmetic operations (add, sub, mul) handle computations.

 Conditional branches (bgt, beq) manage decision-making.

ii) Translate the following C code to MIPS assembly code .Use a minimum number of
instructions. Assume that I and k correspond to register $s3 and $s5 and the base of the
array save is in $s6.What is the MIPs assembly code corresponding to this is C segment
While(save[i]==k) i+=1;

Ans:

Translation of the Given C Code to MIPS Assembly

C Code:

while (save[i] == k) {

i += 1;

Assumptions:

 i corresponds to register $s3.

  k corresponds to register $s5.

 The base address of the array save is stored in register $s6.

 Each element in save is an integer (4 bytes per element).

MIPS Assembly Code:

loop:

sll $t0, $s3, 2 # Multiply i by 4 (since each int is 4 bytes)

add $t0, $t0, $s6 # Compute address of save[i] (base + offset)

lw $t1, 0($t0) # Load save[i] into $t1

bne $t1, $s5, exit # If save[i] != k, exit loop

addi $s3, $s3, 1 #i=i+1

j loop # Repeat the loop

exit:

Explanation of MIPS Instructions:

1. sll $t0, $s3, 2 → Shift i left by 2 (equivalent to multiplying by 4) to calculate the byte
offset in the array.

2. add $t0, $t0, $s6 → Add the base address of save to get the address of save[i].

3. lw $t1, 0($t0) → Load save[i] into $t1.

4. bne $t1, $s5, exit → If save[i] is not equal to k, exit the loop.

5. addi $s3, $s3, 1 → Increment i by 1.

6. j loop → Jump back to check the condition again.

7. exit: → Label where the program jumps when the loop terminates.

Optimized for Minimum Instructions

This implementation minimizes the number of instructions by efficiently computing the

memory address and using a single comparison inside the loop.
PART – C

1. Assume that the variables f and g are assigned to register Ss0 and SSI respectively.
Assume that base address of the array A is in register Ss2. Assume f is zero initially.

f- -g-- A[4] A[5]=f+ 100. Translate the above C statement into MIPS code. how many MIPS
assembly instructions are needed to perform the C statements and how many different
registers are needed to carry out the C statements?

Ans: Let's break down the C code and translate it into MIPS assembly instructions step-by-
step:

C Code:

f = g - A[4];

A[5] = f + 100;

Assumptions:

 f is in register Ss0.

 g is in register SSI.
  A is an array with the base address in Ss2.

 Initially, f = 0.

Step 1: Translate f = g - A[4];

 A[4] is the 5th element of the array (since arrays are zero-indexed).

 The base address of the array A is in Ss2, so the address of A[4] is base_address + 4 *
element_size.

 Assuming each element in A is 4 bytes (standard for integers), the offset to A[4] is 4 *
4 = 16 bytes.

The MIPS code to load A[4] into a register (say, $t0) would be:

lw $t0, 16($s2) # Load A[4] into $t0 (16 bytes offset from base address)

Next, we subtract A[4] from g and store the result in f:

sub $s0, $s1, $t0 # f = g - A[4], where $s1 is g and $t0 is A[4]

Step 2: Translate A[5] = f + 100;

 The base address of the array A is in Ss2, and A[5] is at an offset of 20 bytes (5 * 4 =
20).

First, add f and 100:

addi $t1, $s0, 100 # t1 = f + 100

Now store the result into A[5]:

sw $t1, 20($s2) # Store result of f + 100 into A[5] (20 bytes offset from base address)

MIPS Assembly Code:

lw $t0, 16($s2) # Load A[4] into $t0

sub $s0, $s1, $t0 # f = g - A[4], where $s1 is g and $t0 is A[4]

addi $t1, $s0, 100 # t1 = f + 100

sw $t1, 20($s2) # Store result into A[5]

Number of MIPS Assembly Instructions:

There are 4 MIPS instructions required to perform the operations.

Number of Registers Needed:

 $s0: For f.

 $s1: For g.
  $s2: For the base address of the array A.

 $t0: Temporary register for A[4].

 $t1: Temporary register for f + 100.

Thus, 5 registers are needed in total.

Summary:

 4 MIPS instructions are needed.

 5 registers are used in total.

2. Integrate the eight ideas from computer architecture to the following ideas from other
fields:

Integrating the eight ideas from computer architecture with concepts from other fields can
provide deeper insights into optimization, efficiency, and functionality. Let's break this down
for each of the fields you mentioned, comparing them with key concepts from computer
architecture.

i) Assembly Lines in Automobile Manufacturing

Ans:

In computer architecture, there are several key concepts that can be translated to improve
the functioning of an assembly line in automobile manufacturing:

1. Pipelining:

o Computer Architecture Concept: Pipelining is a method where multiple

instruction phases are overlapped to increase throughput.

o Application to Assembly Line: In an assembly line, different stages of vehicle

assembly can operate in parallel, with each vehicle moving through various
stations simultaneously. The stages (e.g., installing wheels, painting, engine
installation) can be pipelined so that while one vehicle is being painted,
another can be in the process of engine installation.

2. Parallelism:

o Computer Architecture Concept: Using multiple processors to perform tasks

simultaneously (parallelism) improves efficiency.

o Application to Assembly Line: Multiple workers or robots can work

simultaneously on different parts of the vehicle, increasing the overall
throughput of the assembly process.

3. Caching:
 o Computer Architecture Concept: Caches store frequently accessed data
closer to the processor to speed up access.

o Application to Assembly Line: Components or tools that are used frequently

in the assembly process (like nuts, bolts, or tools) can be placed closer to the
workstations, reducing time spent retrieving parts.

4. Optimization and Scheduling:

o Computer Architecture Concept: Optimizing the order of operations and

scheduling instructions can minimize delays and resource conflicts.

o Application to Assembly Line: Efficient scheduling of tasks and components

can minimize waiting times for assembly workers or machines and prevent
bottlenecks at certain stations.

ii) Express Elevators in Buildings

Ans:

1. Cache Memory:

o Computer Architecture Concept: Cache memory stores frequently used data

to reduce access times.

o Application to Express Elevators: Express elevators can optimize their routes

by using data on the most frequently requested floors (e.g., caching the most
common destinations for passengers) to reduce wait times and make more
efficient stops.

2. Load Balancing:

o Computer Architecture Concept: Distributing tasks evenly across processors

to ensure no single processor is overloaded.

o Application to Elevators: Load balancing can be used to direct elevators to

floors with high demand, preventing certain elevators from being
overcrowded while others are underutilized.

3. Instruction-level Parallelism:

o Computer Architecture Concept: Executing multiple instructions

simultaneously (where possible).

o Application to Elevators: Multiple express elevators can be used in parallel,

minimizing delays for passengers while maximizing the number of people
who can be served in a given time.

4. Pipeline Scheduling:
 o Computer Architecture Concept: Instruction pipelining allows the
simultaneous execution of instructions, with different stages operating at the
same time.

o Application to Elevators: The elevator system can be viewed as a pipeline

where different processes (boarding passengers, moving between floors,
opening doors) are done in parallel to improve efficiency.

iii) Aircraft and marine navigation systems that incorporate wind information.

Ans: Feedback Loops:

o Computer Architecture Concept: Feedback loops (like control systems) in

computer architecture monitor the system's performance and adjust
accordingly (e.g., clock speed adjustments in processors).

o Application to Navigation Systems: In navigation systems, wind data can be

used to dynamically adjust the flight path or course of ships in real-time,
improving accuracy and efficiency. Feedback loops help make continuous
adjustments based on the changing environmental conditions.

1. Branch Prediction:

o Computer Architecture Concept: Branch prediction helps processors predict

the outcome of conditional operations to minimize delays.

o Application to Navigation Systems: Using predictive models of wind patterns,

aircraft or marine navigation systems can predict and adjust for changes in
wind direction or intensity before they happen, improving fuel efficiency and
travel time.

2. Pipeline Processing:

o Computer Architecture Concept: Complex tasks are divided into stages to

improve processing speed.

o Application to Navigation Systems: The navigation system can process wind

data in stages (e.g., collecting data, processing it, updating course, adjusting
speed) in parallel to make real-time decisions faster and more accurately.

3. Redundancy and Fault Tolerance:

o Computer Architecture Concept: Redundancy is built into systems to ensure

reliability in case of failure.

o Application to Navigation Systems: Redundant sensors and data sources can

be used to gather wind information (e.g., using multiple weather stations,
satellites, or onboard sensors), ensuring that if one sensor fails, others can
take over without disrupting the system's functioning.
Summary

By applying key concepts from computer architecture to these domains, we can improve
efficiency, reliability, and performance. Here’s a brief summary of the connections:

 Assembly lines: Concepts like pipelining, parallelism, caching, and task scheduling
can optimize the manufacturing process.

 Express elevators: Cache memory, load balancing, parallelism, and pipeline

scheduling can be used to improve the efficiency of elevator systems.

 Navigation systems: Feedback loops, branch prediction, pipeline processing, and

redundancy can enhance the accuracy and efficiency of navigation systems that
incorporate wind information.

These ideas show how principles from computer architecture can be applied to a variety of
real-world systems to improve their performance and functionality.

3.Evaluate a MIPS assembly instruction in to a machine instruction, for the add Sto, $s1,$s2
MIPS instruction.

Ans: To convert the MIPS assembly instruction add $s0, $s1, $s2 into a machine instruction,
we need to follow the MIPS instruction format.

Step 1: Understand the format of the MIPS add instruction

The add instruction in MIPS is an R-type (Register-type) instruction, which uses the following
format:

op rs rt rd shamt funct

31 26 21 16 11-6 5-0

 op: The operation code (6 bits) for the instruction type (for R-type instructions, it’s
0).

 rs: The first source register (5 bits).

 rt: The second source register (5 bits).

 rd: The destination register (5 bits).

 shamt: Shift amount (5 bits), which is 0 for non-shift operations.

 funct: The function code (6 bits), specific to the instruction (for add, it's 100000).

Step 2: Break down the add instruction

The instruction add $s0, $s1, $s2 performs the addition of the values in registers $s1 and $s2
and stores the result in $s0.

 op = 0 (since it's an R-type instruction).

  rs = $s1 = register 17 (binary: 10001).

 rt = $s2 = register 18 (binary: 10010).

 rd = $s0 = register 16 (binary: 10000).

 shamt = 0 (since it's an addition operation, not a shift).

 funct = 100000 (binary value corresponding to the add operation).

Step 3: Construct the machine code

Now, we can put all the values together in the proper order:

op (6 bits) rs (5 bits) rt (5 bits) rd (5 bits) shamt (5 bits) funct (6 bits)

0 10001 10010 10000 00000 100000

Putting this together:

000000 10001 10010 10000 00000 100000

This is the binary representation of the add $s0, $s1, $s2 instruction in MIPS machine code.

Step 4: Convert to hexadecimal

Group the binary representation into 4-bit chunks and convert each chunk to hexadecimal:

000000 10001 10010 10000 00000 100000

0 11 12 8 0 32

So, the final machine instruction in hexadecimal is:

0x01328020

Final Answer:

The MIPS machine instruction corresponding to the assembly instruction add $s0, $s1, $s2
is:

0x01328020

4. Explain the steps to convert the following high level language (15) such as C into a MIPS
code. a=b+e; c=b+f;

Ans: To convert the high-level C code a = b + e; c = b + f; into MIPS assembly language, we

need to break the task down into several steps.

Given C Code:

a = b + e;
c = b + f;

Step 1: Understand the Variables and Registers

In MIPS assembly, we use registers to store variables. Assuming the variables a, b, c, e, and f
are mapped to specific registers, we will use the following typical conventions (though this
can vary depending on the calling convention):

 a is stored in register $s0.

 b is stored in register $s1.

 c is stored in register $s2.

 e is stored in register $s3.

 f is stored in register $s4.

Step 2: Breaking Down the Statements

Statement 1: a = b + e;

This statement means that the value of b and e are added together, and the result is
assigned to a.

In MIPS:

 We will load the value of b (stored in $s1) and e (stored in $s3).

 Perform the addition.

 Store the result in $s0 (for variable a).

MIPS Assembly:

add $s0, $s1, $s3 # a = b + e, where $s1 contains b and $s3 contains e

Statement 2: c = b + f;

This statement means that the value of b and f are added together, and the result is assigned
to c.

In MIPS:

 We will load the value of b (stored in $s1) and f (stored in $s4).

 Perform the addition.

 Store the result in $s2 (for variable c).

MIPS Assembly:

add $s2, $s1, $s4 # c = b + f, where $s1 contains b and $s4 contains f
Step 3: Final MIPS Code

Now, combining both statements, the final MIPS code will be:

add $s0, $s1, $s3 # a = b + e

add $s2, $s1, $s4 # c = b + f

Step 4: Explanation of MIPS Instructions

 add $s0, $s1, $s3: This adds the values in registers $s1 (representing b) and $s3
(representing e), and stores the result in $s0 (representing a).

 add $s2, $s1, $s4: This adds the values in registers $s1 (representing b) and $s4
(representing f), and stores the result in $s2 (representing c).

Summary of Steps to Convert High-Level Code to MIPS:

1. Identify which registers will hold each variable from the high-level code (e.g., a, b, c,
e, f).

2. For each statement in the high-level code, identify the operands and the operation
(e.g., addition).

3. Map the operands to appropriate registers, perform the operation using MIPS
instructions, and store the result in the corresponding register.

4. Write the MIPS assembly code for each statement.

UNIT - 2

PART A
1 . Calculate the following: Add 510 to 610 in binary and Subtract
-610 from 710 in binary?
1. 510 + 610 in binary: 101002 + 110102 = 1001002

2. 710 - (-610) in binary: 11100102 - (-110102) = 11110002

2. Analyze overflow conditions for addition and subtraction?

• Addition Overflow: Occurs when the sum exceeds the maximum value that can be
represented within the number of bits. This happens if the carry-out of the most significant
bit is different from the carry-in.

• Subtraction Overflow: Occurs when the difference results in a value outside the
representable range. This happens if subtracting a larger positive number from a smaller
positive number or subtracting a smaller negative number from a larger negative number.

3. Construct the Multiplication hardware diagram?

Multiplication Hardware Diagram:

1. Multiplicand Register (stores the multiplicand)

2. Multiplier Register (stores the multiplier)
3. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) (performs the addition of partial products)
4. Shift Registers (shift bits left/right for aligning the partial products)
5. Accumulator (stores the result) 4. List the steps of multiplication algorithm?

• Initialize: Set the result to 0.

• Add and Shift: Repeatedly add the multiplicand to the result and shift the multiplicand
left until all bits of the multiplier are processed.

5.What is meant by ALU fast multiplication?

ALU Fast Multiplication: A method used to speed up multiplication in the Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU) by utilizing techniques like parallel processing, pipelining, or specialized
algorithms (e.g., Booth's algorithm) to perform multiplications more quickly and efficiently.

6. Subtract (11011)2 — (10011)2 using 1&#39; s complement and

complement method?

Using 1's Complement:

1. 110112 (27 in decimal)

2. 100112 (19 in decimal)
3. Take 1's complement of 10011: 01100
4. Add: 11011 + 01100 = 1 00111 (Discard the extra 1)
5. Result: 00111 (7 in decimal)

Using 2's Complement:

1. 110112 (27 in decimal)

 2. 100112 (19 in decimal)
3. Take 2's complement of 10011: 01101
4. Add: 11011 + 01101 = 1 01000 (Discard the extra 1)
5. Result: 01000 (8 in decimal)

7. Illustrate scientific notation and normalization with example?

Scientific Notation & Normalization:

• Scientific Notation: Represents numbers as M×10EM \times 10^EM×10E (decimal)

or M×2EM \times 2^EM×2E (binary).
• Normalization: Adjusting MMM so that there's a single non-zero digit before the
radix point.
• Example: Decimal 123.45=1.2345×102123.45 = 1.2345 \times
10^2123.45=1.2345×102, Binary 10100.11=1.010011×2410100.11 = 1.010011 \times
2^410100.11=1.010011×24.

8. Perform X-Y using 2 's complement arithmetic for the given two 16-bit numbers X=0000
1011 1110 1111 and Y=1111 0010 1001 1101?

2’s Complement Subtraction (X - Y):

1. Given: X=0000101111101111X = 0000 1011 1110 1111X=0000101111101111,

Y=1111001010011101Y = 1111 0010 1001 1101Y=1111001010011101. 2. 2’s
Complement of Y: Invert Y → 00001101011000100000 1101 0110
00100000110101100010, then add 1 → 00001101011000110000 1101 0110
00110000110101100011.
3. Addition: X+(−Y)=0000101111101111+0000110101100011=0001100101010010X +
(-
Y) = 0000 1011 1110 1111 + 0000 1101 0110 0011 = 0001 1001 0101
0010X+(−Y)=0000101111101111+0000110101100011=0001100101010010.
4. Result: 00011001010100100001 1001 0101 00100001100101010010 (Decimal:
+6482).

9. Contrast overflow and underflow with examples?

Overflow: Occurs when a calculation exceeds the maximum limit of the number's range.

• Example: Adding two 8-bit numbers (127 + 1) results in 128, which cannot be
represented in an 8-bit signed integer.

Underflow: Occurs when a calculation goes below the minimum limit of the number's range.

• Example: Subtracting a large positive number from a small positive number in an 8-

bit signed integer (1 - 128) results in -127, which cannot be represented in an 8-bit
unsigned integer.
10. State the rules to add two integers?

1. Same Sign Addition: Add the absolute values and keep the common sign (e.g.,
+5+3=+8+5 + 3 = +8, −5+(−3) =−8-5 + (-3) = -8).
2. Different Sign Addition: Subtract the smaller absolute value from the larger and take
the sign of the larger (e.g., +7+(−3) =+4+7 + (-3) = +4, −7+3=−4-7 + 3 = -4).
3. Zero Property: Adding zero to any integer does not change its value (e.g., 5+0=55 + 0
=
5).
4. Commutative & Associative Properties: Order and grouping do not affect the sum
(e.g., a+ b=b+ aa + b = b + a and (a+ b) +c=a+ (b + c) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)).

11. Name the floating point instructions in MIPS?

1. Arithmetic Instructions: add.s , sub.s , mul.s , div.s (for single precision) and add.d,
sub.d , mul.d , div.d (for double precision).
2. Data Transfer Instructions: lwc1 (load word to FPU), swc1 (store word from FPU),
ldc1, sdc1 (for double precision).
3. Comparison Instructions: c.eq.s, c.lt.s, c.le.s (single precision), and `c.eq

12. Formulate the steps of floating point addition?

Steps for Floating Point Addition:

1. Align Exponents: Adjust the smaller exponent by shifting the mantissa.

2. Add Mantissas: Perform binary addition on the aligned mantissas.
3. Normalize the Result: Adjust the mantissa and exponent if needed.
4. Round & Handle Exceptions: Round the result and check for overflow/underflow.

13. Evaluate the sequence of floating point multiplication?

Steps for Floating Point Multiplication:

1. Multiply Mantissas: Perform binary multiplication of significands.

2. Add Exponents: Sum the exponents and adjust for bias.

3. Normalize the Result: Shift and adjust the exponent if needed.

4. Round & Handle Exceptions: Apply rounding and check for overflow/underflow.

14.Define scientific notation and normalized notation?

1. Scientific Notation: A way to express numbers as M×10EM \times 10^E (decimal)

or M×2EM \times 2^E (binary), where MM is the mantissa and EE is the exponent.
2. Normalized Notation: A special form of scientific notation where the mantissa has
exactly one nonzero digit before the decimal or binary point.
3. Example (Decimal): 12345=1.2345×10412345 = 1.2345 \times 10^4 (scientific &
normalized).
 4. Example (Binary): 10100.11=1.010011×2410100.11 = 1.010011 \times 2^4
(normalized binary notation).

15. Express the IEEE 754 floating point format?

1. Sign Bit: Indicates the sign of the number (0 for positive, 1 for negative).
2. Exponent: Encoded exponent value (with a bias added).
3. Significant (Mantissa): Represents the precision bits of the number.

For a 32-bit single precision floating-point number:

• 1 bit for the sign.

• 8 bits for the exponent.
• 23 bits for the significant

For a 64-bit double precision floating-point number:

• 1 bit for the sign.

• 11 bits for the exponent.
• 1652 bits for the significant State

16. State sub-word parallelism and the data path in CPU?

1. Sub-word Parallelism: A technique where a CPU processes multiple smaller data

elements (sub-words) within a single word-sized register, improving efficiency in
SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) operations.
2. Example: A 32-bit register can process four 8-bit integers simultaneously using
vectorized instructions.

3. Data Path in CPU: The internal structure handling data movement, including ALU,
registers, buses, and control units, ensuring efficient instruction execution.

4.Components: Key elements include instruction fetch, decode, execute, memory access,
and write-back stages for processing data efficiently.

17. Interpret single precision floating point number representation?

1. Single-Precision Floating Point (IEEE 754) is a 32-bit representation used to

store real numbers in computers.
2. Structure: It consists of 1-bit sign (S), 8-bit exponent (E) (with a bias of 127), and
23bit mantissa (M).
3. Formula: The value is represented as (−1) S×1.M×2(E− 127) (-1) ^S \times 1.M \
times 2^ {(E - 127)}.
4. Example: 010000010101000000000000000000000 10000010
10100000000000000000000 represents (+1) ×1.101×2(130−127)
=1.625×23=13.0(+1) \times 1.101 \times 2^ {(130-127)} = 1.625 \times 2^3 = 13.0.

18. Divide 1,001,010 by 1000?

 To divide 1,001,010 (binary) by 1000 (binary):

1. Convert to decimal: 1,001,010₂ = 42 and 1000₂ = 8.

2. Perform division: 42 ÷ 8 = 5 (remainder 2).
3. Convert quotient back to binary: 5 = 101₂.
4. So, 1,001,010₂ ÷ 1000₂ = 101₂ (quotient) with remainder 10₂ (2 in decimal).

19. Describe edge triggered clocking?

Edge Triggered Clocking: A method in digital circuits where changes to the state of a
flipflop or other storage element occur only at specific transitions (edges) of the clock signal,
rather than at the level state of the clock. This edge can be either the rising edge (transition
from low to high) or the falling edge (transition from high to low).

20. For the following MIPS assembly instructions above, decide the corresponding C
statement?
add f, g, h & add f, i , f?
For the given MIPS assembly instructions:
1. add f, g, h → This means f = g + h; in C, where f, g, and h are integer registers or
variables.
2. add f, i, f → This means f = i + f; in C, where f is updated by adding i to its previous
value.
3. Both instructions perform integer addition and store the result in register f.
4. The equivalent C statements are:
5. f = g + h;
6. f = i + f;

PART B

1. i).Discuss the multiplication algorithm its hardware and its sequential version with
diagram?

Multiplication Algorithm, Hardware, and Sequential Version

Multiplication Algorithm in Computers
Multiplication of binary numbers follows the shift-and-add approach, similar to
decimal multiplication. The key steps involve examining each bit of the multiplier,
performing conditional additions, and shifting operations.
There are different multiplication algorithms used in hardware:
1. Simple Shift-and-Add Multiplication – Iterative method where partial products are
shifted and added.
2. Booth’s Algorithm – Optimized method handling signed numbers efficiently.
3. Array Multiplication – Uses combinational logic circuits for parallel
4. Wallace Tree Multiplication – High-speed parallel multiplication using adders.
Multiplication Hardware Components:
The multiplication hardware consists of:
• Multiplicand Register (M) – Stores the first operand.
• Multiplier Register (Q) – Holds the second operand.
• Product Register (A & Q) – Stores the result.
• Control Unit – Manages shifts, additions, and iterations.
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs addition and shifting operations.

Sequential Multiplication Algorithm

A basic sequential shift-and-add algorithm works as follows:
1. Initialize:
o Set Product = 0.
o Load Multiplicand (M) and Multiplier (Q).
o Set n (number of bits in multiplier).
2. Loop (n times):
o If LSB of Multiplier (Q0) = 1, add Multiplicand (M) to Product (A).
o Shift Multiplier (Q) and Product (A) right by one bit.
3. End of Loop:
o The product is stored in (A, Q).

Diagram: Multiplication Hardware (Shift-and-Add Method)

+-----------------------------------------+
| Control Unit |
+-----------------------------------------+
| | |
+---------+ +------+ +------+
| ALU | | A | | Q |
+---------+ +------+ +------+
| | |
Multiplicand Product Multiplier
ii).Express the steps to Multiply 2*3?

Steps to Multiply 2 × 3 using the Shift-and-Add Method

Step 1: Convert to Binary
• 2 (decimal) → 10₂ (binary)
• 3 (decimal) → 11₂ (binary)
Step 2: Multiplication Using Shift-and-Add
We multiply 10₂ (multiplicand) by 11₂ (multiplier) using binary multiplication:
10 (Multiplicand = 2)
× 11 (Multiplier = 3)
--------
10 (Step 1: 10 × 1)
+ 10_0 (Step 2: 10 × 1, shift left)
--------
110 (Final result = 6 in decimal)
Step 3: Convert Back to Decimal
110₂ (binary) = 6 (decimal), so 2 × 3 = 6.

2 . Illustrate the multiplication of signed numbers using Booth algorithm. A = (-34)10=

(1011110)2 and B= (22)10 = (0010110)2 where B is multiplicand and A is multiplier?

Let's illustrate the multiplication of signed numbers using Booth's algorithm with A = (-
34) and B = 22.

Step-by-Step Booth's Algorithm

1. Initialize Variables:
o A = (-34)10 = (1011110)2 (multiplier) o B = (22)10 = (0010110)2
(multiplicand)
o Booth's algorithm uses an additional bit for sign extension, so we consider
both numbers in 7-bit representation.
2. Set Up Registers:
o Multiplicand (B): 0010110
o Multiplier (A): 1011110 (Booth's algorithm considers the 2's complement for
negative numbers)
o Product Register: Initial value of 0
3. Algorithm Process:
o Align the multiplicand and the product register.
o Apply the Booth's encoding for every bit of the multiplier:
▪ If the current bit is 0 and the previous bit is 1, add the multiplicand to
the product.
▪ If the current bit is 1 and the previous bit is 0, subtract the
multiplicand from the product.
▪ If the current bit is the same as the previous bit, perform arithmetic
right shift.
Iteration Process:

• Iteration 1: Current bit of A is 0, previous bit is 0. Perform arithmetic right shift.

• Iteration 2: Current bit of A is 1, previous bit is 0. Subtract B from product.
• Iteration 3: Current bit of A is 1, previous bit is 1. Perform arithmetic right shift.
• Iteration 4: Current bit of A is 1, previous bit is 1. Perform arithmetic right shift.
• Iteration 5: Current bit of A is 0, previous bit is 1. Add B to the product.
• Iteration 6: Current bit of A is 1, previous bit is 0. Subtract B from product.

4. Final Result: Combine the product register after all iterations to get the final
multiplication result in binary.

This process repeats until all bits of the multiplier are processed. Booth's algorithm
efficiently handles signed number multiplication by reducing the number of necessary
additions/subtractions through encoding.

3 . Describe about basic concepts of ALU design?

Basic Concepts of ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Design: 1. Functionality:

o The ALU is a critical component of the CPU, responsible for performing

arithmetic and logical operations. o Common arithmetic operations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
o Logical operations include AND, OR, NOT, XOR, etc.
2. Inputs and Outputs:
o Inputs typically consist of operands (data values) and control signals that
specify the operation to perform.
o The output is the result of the operation, which may also include status flags
(e.g., zero, carry, overflow).
3. Components:
o Adders and Subtractors: Circuits that perform addition and subtraction. o
Multipliers and Dividers: Circuits that handle multiplication and
division. o Logic Gates: Perform basic logical operations on data.

o Multiplexers: Selects one of several input signals based on control signals.

4. Control Unit:
o Directs the operation of the ALU by providing control signals that determine
which arithmetic or logical operation is performed.
o It ensures that data is correctly routed to and from the ALU.
2. Flags and Status Registers:
o Flags like Zero, Carry, Sign, and Overflow provide information about the
result of an operation, useful for conditional instructions and error detection.
3. Pipeline Design:
o Some ALUs are designed to support pipelining, which allows multiple
operations to be processed simultaneously in different stages of completion.
The ALU is designed to be versatile and efficient, enabling a wide range of computational
tasks within a processor.

4 . Develop algorithm to implement A *B. Assume A and B for a pair of signed 2&#39;s
complement numbers with values: A 010111, B-101100?

Here's an algorithm to implement the multiplication of signed 2's complement numbers:

Algorithm to Multiply A and B (2's Complement Numbers):

1. Initialize:

- Let A = `010111` (23 in decimal)

- Let B = `101100` (-20 in decimal) - Initialize a product

register to 0.

2. Determine the 2's Complement:

- For negative values, find the 2's complement of B (if not already done).

3. Booth's Algorithm Steps:

- Step 1:Load the multiplier (A) and multiplicand (B).

- Step 2: Initialize the product to zero.

- Step 3: Process each bit of the multiplier (A):

- If the current bit is 1, add the multiplicand (B) to the product.

- If the current bit is 0, do nothing.

- Shift the multiplicand left by one bit.

- Shift the multiplier right by one bit.

4. Combine Results:

- After processing all bits, combine the results to get the final product.

Example:

1. A = 010111

2. B = 101100

Step-by-Step:

1. Initial Product: 000000

2. Multiply A and B using the steps above:

- Align A and B for bitwise operations.

- Perform addition and shifting based on Booth's algorithm.

Final Result: The product of A and B in binary.

5 . i).State the division algorithm with diagram and examples?

Division Algorithm:

The basic division algorithm involves the following steps:

1. Initialize

- Set the dividend and divisor.

- Initialize the quotient and remainder to 0.

2. Shift and Subtract

- Align the divisor with the leftmost part of the dividend.

- Repeatedly shift the divisor to the right and subtract it from the dividend until the divisor
cannot be subtracted from the current remainder.

3. Update Quotient

- For each successful subtraction, shift the quotient left and set the least significant bit to 1.

4. End

- The final values in the quotient and remainder registers represent the result of the
division.

Example: Dividing 27 by 4

1. Binary representation

- Dividend (27): `11011`

- Divisor (4): `100`

2.Steps

- Align the divisor with the dividend: `11011`

- Subtract divisor from dividend where possible, updating the quotient and remainder.

Dividend Register (27): 11011

Divisor Register (4): 00100

Quotient Register: 00000

Remainder Register: 00000

5. ii).Divide 00000111 by 0010?

( 00000111 ) (7 in decimal) by ( 0010 ) (2 in decimal):

Step-by-Step Division:

1. Dividend: ( 00000111 ) (7)

2. Divisor: ( 0010 ) (2)

Binary Long Division:

1. Step 1: Align the divisor with the dividend:

00000111 \div 0010

2. Step 2: Perform the division bit by bit:

- 7 ÷ 2 = 3 (Quotient: 3, Remainder: 1)

Binary Result

00000111 \div 0010 = 00000011 text { with a remainder of } 00000001

So, ( 00000111 \div 0010 = 00000011 ) (3 in decimal) with a remainder of \( 00000001 \) (1

in decimal).

6 . i) . Express in detail about Carry looks ahead Adder?

Carry Look ahead Adder (CLA):

A Carry Look ahead Adder (CLA) is a type of adder used in digital circuits to improve the
speed of arithmetic operations by reducing the time required to determine carry bits. Unlike
the simpler ripple-carry adder, which calculates each carry bit sequentially, the CLA
calculates one or more carry bits before the sum, significantly reducing the wait time.

Key Concepts:

1. Generate and Propagate**:

- Generate (G): Indicates if a bit pair will generate a carry.

- Propagate (P): Indicates if a bit pair will propagate a carry from a lower bit position.

2. Carry Look ahead Logic

- The CLA uses generate and propagate signals to quickly determine carry bits for each bit
position.

- The carry-out for each bit position is calculated using the formula:

C_{i+1} = G_i + (P_i \cdot C_i)

- This allows the carry bits to be calculated in parallel, rather than sequentially.

Example:

Consider a 4-bit CLA:

- Inputs: A = 1010, B = 1101

- Generate (G) and Propagate (P) signals are calculated for each bit position.

- Carry bits** are determined using the carry look ahead logic.

Diagram:

While I can't create visual images directly, here's a simplified textual representation:

A: 1010

B: 1101

G: 1001 (Generate)

P: 1110 (Propagate)

C: 0111 (Carry)

Advantages:

1. Speed: Significantly faster than ripple-carry adders due to parallel carry calculation.

2. Efficiency: Reduces the propagation delay, making it suitable for high-speed arithmetic
operations.

Applications:

- Used in CPUs and other digital systems where fast arithmetic operations are crucial.

- Commonly found in ALUs (Arithmetic Logic Units) and other processing units.
6 ii). Divide (12)10 by (3)10

Let's convert the given decimal numbers to binary:

1. (12)10(12)_{10}(12)10 to
binary o 12 in decimal =
110021100_211002
2. (3)10(3)_{10}(3)10 to binary o
3 in decimal =
11211_2112

Now, perform binary division:

11002÷1121100_2 \div 11_211002÷112

Binary Division:

1. 11 (3 in decimal) goes into 110 (6 in decimal) twice (10 in binary).

2. Subtract: 110 - 110 = 0.
3. Bring down the last 0, making it 00.
4. 11 (3 in decimal) does not go into 00.

Thus, the quotient is 1002100_21002, which is 4104_{10}410 in decimal.

7. Point out how ALU performs division with flow chart and block diagram.

ALU Division Operation – Flowchart & Block Diagram

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs division using restoring or non-restoring
division algorithms, depending on the architecture. Below, I describe the basic restoring
division method, which is commonly used in ALUs.

1. Flowchart for Restoring Division in ALU

The division process follows these steps:

1. Initialize:
o Load the dividend into the dividend
register. o Load the divisor into the
 divisor register. o Set the quotient
register to zero. o Clear the remainder
register.
2. Shift Left:
o Shift the remainder and the most significant bit (MSB) of the dividend left.
3. Subtract Divisor:
o Subtract the divisor from the remainder.
o If the result is negative, restore the previous remainder (by adding back the
divisor) and set quotient bit to 0.
o If the result is positive, keep the remainder and set quotient bit to 1.
4. Repeat:

o Repeat steps 2 and 3 for n iterations, where n is the number of bits in the
dividend.

5. End: o The quotient is stored in the quotient register.

o The remainder is stored in the remainder register.

Flowchart Representation:
Start
↓
Initialize Registers (Dividend, Divisor, Quotient, Remainder)
↓
Shift Left (Dividend + Remainder)
↓
Subtract Divisor from Remainder
↓
If Remainder < 0?
→ Yes: Restore Remainder (Add Back Divisor), Set Quotient Bit = 0
→ No: Keep Remainder, Set Quotient Bit = 1
↓
Repeat Steps for n Bits
↓
Store Quotient & Remainder
↓
End

2. Block Diagram for ALU Division Operation

The ALU uses several components to perform division:

1. Dividend Register – Stores the dividend.

2. Divisor Register – Stores the divisor.
3. Remainder Register – Stores intermediate subtraction results.
4. Quotient Register – Stores the final quotient.
5. Shift Unit – Shifts left during division.
6. Subtractor Unit – Performs subtraction of the divisor from the remainder.
7. Control Unit – Manages the sequence of operations.
Block Diagram Representation:
+----------------------------+
| Control Unit |
+------------
+---------------+
|
+------------+---------------+
| ALU Division Unit |
| +----------------------+ |
| | Shift Left Unit | |
| +----------------------+ |
| | Subtractor Unit | |
| +----------------------+ |
+------------
+---------------+
|
+------------+---------------+
| Registers: |
| - Dividend Register |
| - Divisor Register |
| - Quotient Register |
| - Remainder Register |
+----------------------------+

8. i).Examine with a neat block diagram how floating point addition is carried out in a
computer system.

Floating Point Addition in a Computer System

Floating-point addition in a computer system follows a structured approach to ensure

accuracy and efficiency. This operation is performed using IEEE 754 floating-point
representation, which consists of:

• Sign Bit (S) – Determines whether the number is positive (0) or negative (1).
• Exponent (E) – Represents the exponent using a biased notation.
• Mantissa (M or Fraction) – Stores the significant digits of the number.

Steps for Floating Point Addition

1. Extract the components o Extract the sign, exponent, and
mantissa of both operands.
2. Align the exponents o Adjust the smaller exponent by
shifting its mantissa right until both exponents match.
3. Add or subtract the mantissas o If the signs are the same
→ Add the mantissas.
o If the signs are different → Subtract the smaller mantissa from the larger
one.
4. Normalize the result o Adjust the result so that the
leading bit of the mantissa is 1 by shifting left or right.
 o Adjust the exponent accordingly.
5. Round the result o Apply IEEE 754 rounding rules (e.g.,
round to the nearest even).
6. Handle overflow/underflow o If the exponent
exceeds the maximum, handle overflow.
o If the exponent becomes too small, handle underflow.

Block Diagram for Floating Point Addition

Below is a simplified block diagram that represents floating-point addition in a computer
system:
+---------------------------+
| Extract Components |
+---------------------------+

|
v
+---------------------------+
| Align Exponents |
| (Shift smaller mantissa) |
+---------------------------+
|
v
+---------------------------+
| Add/Subtract Mantissas |
| (Depends on sign bits) |
+---------------------------+

|
v
+---------------------------+
| Normalize Result |
| (Shift & Adjust Exponent) |
+---------------------------+

|
v
+---------------------------+
| Round the Result |
+---------------------------+

|
v
+---------------------------+
| Handle Exceptions |
| (Overflow/Underflow) |
+---------------------------+
|
v
+---------------------------+
| Store Final Result |
+---------------------------+

8 ii).Give an example for a binary floating point addition?

We will add 5.75 (101.11₂) + 3.25 (11.01₂) using IEEE 754 single-precision format.

Step 1: Convert to IEEE 754 Representation

1. 5.75 in Binary (Normalized

Form) o Binary: 101.11₂
o Normalized: 1.0111 ×
2² o IEEE 754
Representation:
▪ Sign = 0 (positive)
▪ Exponent = 2 + 127 = 129 → 10000001₂
▪ Mantissa = 01110000000000000000000
▪ Final IEEE 754: 0 10000001 01110000000000000000000
2. 3.25 in Binary (Normalized
Form) o Binary: 11.01₂
o Normalized: 1.101 × 2¹
o IEEE 754
Representation:
▪ Sign = 0 (positive)
▪ Exponent = 1 + 127 = 128 → 10000000₂
▪ Mantissa = 10100000000000000000000
▪ Final IEEE 754: 0 10000000 10100000000000000000000

Step 2: Align Exponents

• The larger exponent is 129 (for 5.75), so we shift the mantissa of 3.25 right by 1 bit:

css

Copy Edit

1.101 → 0.1101 (after shifting right)

Step 3: Add Mantissas

 1.0111 (for 5.75)

+ 0.1101 (for shifted 3.25)

-------------------

10.0100 (result)

Since the sum 10.0100₂ exceeds 1.xxxxx , we normalize it to 1.001 × 2³.

Step 4: Adjust Exponent & Format Final Result

• New exponent = 3 + 127 = 130 → 10000010₂ • Mantissa =

00100000000000000000000
• Final IEEE 754 Representation:
0 10000010 00100000000000000000000

Final Answer: 9.00 (1001.00₂ in decimal)

9. Tabulate the IEEE 754 binary representation of the number-

0.7510 i).Single precision. ii).Double precision?
Here’s the IEEE 754 binary representation of 0.75 (decimal) in single-precision
(32-bit) and double-precision (64-bit) formats. Step 1: Convert 0.75 to Binary
• 0.75 in decimal → 0.11₂ in binary (Since 0.75 = ½ + ¼ =
0.11₂)
• Normalized Form:
1.1×2−11.1 \times 2^{-1}
(Shift decimal point one place to the right, exponent = -1)

Step 2: Compute IEEE 754 Fields

Componen
Single Precision (32- Double Precision (64-bit)
bit) t
Sign (1 bit) 0 (Positive number) 0 (Positive number)

Exponent
(8-bit for single, 11- 126 = 1022 = 01111111110₂ (Bias: 1023)
01111110₂ (Bias:
127
) bit for
double)

Mantissa
(23-bit for
1000000000000000000000
10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 single, 52-
0 00 bit for double)

Step 3: IEEE 754 Binary Representation

(i) Single Precision (32-bit)
0 01111110 10000000000000000000000
Hexadecimal Representation: 3F400000
(ii) Double Precision (64-bit)
0 01111111110 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
Hexadecimal Representation: 3FE8000000000000

Final IEEE 754 Table for 0.75

For Si Expone Final Binary
Mantissa
mat gn nt

Sing
le 0111111 0 01111110
0 10000000000000000000000 10000000000000000000000
(32- 0 (126)
bit)
For Si Expone
Mantissa Final Binary mat gn nt

Dou
0111111 0 01111111110
ble 1000000000000000000000000000000000
0 1110 1000000000000000000000000000000000
(64- 000000000000000000
(1022) 000000000000000000 bit)

10. i).Design an arithmetic element to perform the basic floating point

Operations?
Design of an Arithmetic Element for Floating-Point Operations
A floating-point arithmetic unit (FPU) is a specialized hardware unit designed to efficiently
perform floating-point operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division, following the IEEE 754 standard.
1. Components of a Floating-Point
Arithmetic Unit The FPU consists of the
following major components: i) Exponent
Processing Unit
• Aligns exponents before addition and subtraction.
• Performs exponent addition during multiplication.
• Handles bias adjustment (e.g., bias 127 for single-precision, 1023 for double-
precision).
ii) Mantissa Processing Unit

• Performs addition/subtraction after exponent alignment.

• Executes mantissa multiplication using shift-and-add logic.
• Handles normalization and rounding.
iii) Sign Bit Logic

• Determines the sign of the result based on the operands and the operation:
o Addition: If signs are the same, add mantissas; if different, subtract the smaller
from the larger.
o Multiplication/Division: Uses XOR of input signs.
iv) Normalization & Rounding Unit

• Ensures the result is in normalized form (1.xxxxx × 2^E).

• Rounds the result using IEEE 754 rounding modes (e.g., round-to-nearest).
2. Floating-Point Arithmetic Operations
i) Floating-Point Addition/Subtraction Algorithm

1. Extract sign, exponent, and mantissa from both numbers.

2. Align exponents by shifting the mantissa of the smaller number.

3. Perform addition/subtraction on aligned mantissas.

4. Normalize the result (shift left if necessary).

5. Adjust exponent accordingly.

6. Round the result to fit IEEE 754 precision.

7. Reassemble final floating-point number.

ii) Floating-Point Multiplication Algorithm

1. Extract sign, exponent, and mantissa.

2. Compute the new sign using XOR of input signs.

3. Add exponents and subtract bias.

4. Multiply mantissas (using shift-and-add logic).

 5. Normalize the result and adjust exponent.

6. Round and reassemble the final floating-point number.

iii) Floating-Point Division Algorithm 1. Extract sign, exponent, and mantissa.

2. Compute the new sign using XOR.

3. Subtract the exponents (adjust for bias).

4. Divide mantissas using shift-and-subtract division.

5. Normalize and round the result.

6. Reassemble the final floating-point representation.

3. Block Diagram of Floating-Point Arithmetic Unit

+--------------------------------+
| Floating Point ALU |
+--------------------------------+
| | |
+--------+ +-------+ +--------+
| Sign Unit | | Exp | | Mantissa |
+--------+ +-------+ +--------+
| | |
+--------------------------------+
| Normalization & Rounding Unit |
+--------------------------------+
|
+----------------+
| Final Result |
+----------------+
4 .Implementation in Hardware (FPGA/ASIC)
• Floating-Point Adders/Subtractors use barrel shifters for exponent alignment.
• Floating-Point Multipliers use Booth’s algorithm for efficient multiplication.
• Floating-Point Dividers use Newton-Raphson or Goldschmidt’s algorithm

ii) . Discuss sub word parallelism?

Sub-Word Parallelism (SWP)
Sub-word parallelism (SWP) is a technique used in modern processors to perform multiple
smaller operations within a single instruction. It is commonly used in SIMD (Single
Instruction, Multiple Data) architectures, allowing efficient parallel processing of data.

1. Concept of Sub-Word Parallelism

Traditional processors operate on word-sized data (e.g., 32-bit or 64-bit words). However,
many applications involve smaller data types, such as 8-bit characters or 16-bit integers.
Sub-word parallelism breaks a single word into multiple smaller units (sub-words) and
processes them in parallel.
For example, a 32-bit register can be split into:
• Four 8-bit integers (Byte-wise parallelism)
• Two 16-bit integers (Half-word parallelism)
This allows a single instruction to process multiple sub-words simultaneously, improving
performance.
2. Example of Sub-Word Parallelism in SIMD Execution

Consider adding two 32-bit registers, each containing four 8-bit values:
Without SWP (Scalar Execution)
Each 8-bit addition is done sequentially:
markdown
A = [10] [20] [30] [40] (4 bytes in 32-bit register)

B = [ 5] [ 5] [10] [10]

----------------------------
Result = [15] [25] [40] [50] (4 separate
additions) Time taken = 4 cycles (1 cycle per
addition).
With SWP (SIMD Execution)
Using SWP-based SIMD, a single instruction can add all four 8-bit values at once:
Copy Edit
A = [10] [20] [30] [40]

B = [ 5] [ 5] [10] [10]

----------------------------
Result = [15] [25] [40] [50] (All added in 1 cycle)
Time taken = 1 cycle (4 operations in
parallel). 4x Speedup!
3. Applications of Sub-Word Parallelism:

Sub-word parallelism is widely used in:

1. Multimedia Processing (Image/Video Processing)
o Example: Intel MMX, SSE, AVX, and ARM NEON instructions process
multiple pixels in parallel.
2. Cryptography o Parallel execution of encryption
algorithms like AES and SHA.
3. Signal Processing o Parallel processing of audio, radar, and

communication signals.
4. AI & Machine Learning o Used in matrix multiplications

for deep learning models.

11.i) Explain floating point addition algorithm with diagram?

Floating-Point Addition Algorithm with Diagram

Introduction:

Floating-point addition is used in computers to add numbers represented in the IEEE 754
format. Since floating-point numbers have separate sign, exponent, and mantissa, addition
is more complex than integer addition.

Steps of Floating-Point Addition Algorithm:

Let’s consider two floating-point numbers:

X=(−1)S1×M1×2E1X = (-1)^{S1} \times M1 \times 2^{E1} Y=(−1)S2×M2×2E2Y = (-1)^{S2} \

times M2 \times 2^{E2}

Step 1: Extract Components

• Extract sign (S), exponent (E), and mantissa (M) from both operands.
Step 2: Align Exponents

• Compare E1 and E2.

• Shift the mantissa of the smaller exponent to the right until both exponents match.
Step 3: Add/Subtract Mantissas
 • If signs are the same, add mantissas.
• If signs are different, subtract the smaller mantissa from the larger one.
Step 4: Normalize the Result

• Convert the sum to normalized form (1.xxxxx × 2^E).

• Adjust the exponent accordingly.
Step 5: Round the Result

• Apply IEEE 754 rounding modes (e.g., round-to-nearest).

Step 6: Reassemble the Final Floating-Point Number

• Combine sign, exponent, and mantissa into IEEE 754 format.

Example: Adding 5.75 + 3.25 in IEEE 754:

Convert to IEEE 754 Format:

Decimal Binary Normalized Form IEEE 754 Components

5.75 101.11₂ 1.0111 × 2² S=0, E=129 (10000001₂), M=01110000000000000000000

3.25 11.01₂ 1.101 × 2¹ S=0, E=128 (10000000₂), M=10100000000000000000000

Align Exponents:

• Larger exponent = 129, so shift M2 right by 1 bit:

• 1.101 → 0.1101 Add Mantissas:

1.0111 (5.75)

+ 0.1101 (shifted 3.25)

-------------

10.0100

Since the sum is 10.0100₂, we need to normalize.

Normalize the Result:

• Convert 10.0100₂ → 1.001 × 2³

• New Exponent = 130 (10000010₂)
Round the Result:

No rounding needed.

Final IEEE 754 Representation

Sign Exponent Mantissa

0 (Positive) 10000010 (130) 00100000000000000000000

Final IEEE 754 representation:

0 10000010 00100000000000000000000

Converted back to decimal, 5.75 + 3.25 = 9.0 .

Block Diagram of Floating-Point Addition:

+---------------------------------+

| Floating-Point Adder Unit |

+---------------------------------+

| | |

+-----+ +-----+ +------+

| Exp | | Sign | | Mantissa |

+-----+ +-----+ +------+

| | |

+---------------------------------+

| Exponent Alignment Unit |

+---------------------------------+

+---------------------------------+

| Mantissa Addition/Subtraction |

+---------------------------------+

+---------------------------------+

| Normalization & Rounding Unit |

+---------------------------------+

+----------------

| Final Result |

+----------------+
Advantages of Floating-Point Addition:

▪ Supports a wide range of values (small and large numbers).

▪ Handles precision well (IEEE 754 ensures accuracy).
Efficient for scientific calculations (used in AI, graphics, etc.).

11 ii).Assess the result of the numbers (0.5)10 and (0.4375)10 using binary Floating point
Addition algorithm?

Binary Floating-Point Addition of (0.5)₁₀ and (0.4375)₁₀

We will follow the IEEE 754 Floating-Point Addition Algorithm to add 0.5 (₁₀) + 0.4375 (₁₀).

Step 1: Convert Decimal to IEEE 754 Binary Representation

Convert 0.5₁₀ to IEEE 754 Format:

1. Convert to Binary:
0.5=0.120.5 = 0.1_2

2. Normalize:
1.0×2−11.0 × 2^{-1}

3. IEEE 754 Representation (Single Precision) o Sign (S) = 0 (positive) o

Exponent (E) = -1 (Bias 127 → -1 + 127 = 126) → 01111110₂
o Mantissa (M) = 00000000000000000000000 (remaining 23 bits)

Final IEEE 754 Representation (32-bit)

0 01111110 00000000000000000000000
Convert 0.4375₁₀ to IEEE 754 Format:

1. Convert to Binary:
0.4375=0.011120.4375 = 0.0111_2

2. Normalize:
1.11×2−21.11 × 2^{-2}

3. IEEE 754 Representation (Single Precision) o Sign (S) = 0 o Exponent (E) = -2

(Bias 127 → -2 + 127 = 125) → 01111101₂

o Mantissa (M) = 11000000000000000000000

Final IEEE 754 Representation (32-
bit) 0 01111101
11000000000000000000000 Step 2:
Align Exponents:
• Larger exponent = 126 (for 0.5).
• Shift the mantissa of 0.4375 right by 1 bit to match exponent 126:
1.11000000000000000000000 (0.4375, shifted right)

→ 0.11100000000000000000000
Step 3: Add Mantissas:
1.00000000000000000000000 (0.5)

+ 0.11100000000000000000000 (0.4375)

----------------------------------

1.11100000000000000000000

Step 4: Normalize the Result:

• The result 1.111 × 2⁻¹ is already normalized.

Step 5: Compute Final IEEE 754 Representation:

• Sign = 0
• Exponent = 126 (01111110₂)
• Mantissa = 11100000000000000000000 Final IEEE 754 Representation (32-
bit): 0 01111110 11100000000000000000000
Step 6: Convert Back to Decimal:

1.1112×2−1=0.96875101.111_2 × 2^{-1} = 0.96875_{10}

Final Answer:
0.5+0.4375=0.968750.5 + 0.4375 = 0.96875

12 .Calculate using single precision IEEE 754 representation?

i). 32.75 ii).18.125?

IEEE 754 Single Precision Representation (32-bit) Calculation

The IEEE 754 single precision format consists of:
 • 1-bit Sign (S)
• 8-bit Exponent (E) (with bias 127)
• 23-bit Mantissa (M)
i) Convert 32.75 (₁₀) to IEEE 754 Format
Step 1: Convert to Binary:

1. Convert integer part (32) → 100000₂

2. Convert fractional part (0.75) → 0.11₂

3. 32.75₁₀ = 100000.11₂
Step 2: Normalize the Binary Number:

We express it in scientific notation:

1.0000011×251.0000011 × 2^5

• Sign (S) = 0 (positive number)

• Exponent (E) = 5 (biased by 127): 127+5=132→100001002127 + 5 = 132 →
10000100₂
• Mantissa (M) = 00001100000000000000000 (drop the leading 1)
Step 3: IEEE 754 Representation:

S | E (8-bit) | M (23-bit)

--------------------------------------

0 | 10000100 | 00001100000000000000000

Final IEEE 754 Representation (Hexadecimal):

0x420C0000

Binary Representation:

0 10000100 00001100000000000000000

IEEE 754 (Single Precision) for 32.75 =

0x420C0000 ii) Convert 18.125 (₁₀) to IEEE 754
Format Step 1: Convert to Binary:

1. Convert integer part (18) → 10010₂

2. Convert fractional part (0.125) → 0.001₂

3. 18.125₁₀ = 10010.001₂
Step 2: Normalize the Binary Number:

1.0010001×241.0010001 × 2^4

• Sign (S) = 0 (positive number)

• Exponent (E) = 4 (biased by 127): 127+4=131→100000112127 + 4 = 131 →
10000011₂
• Mantissa (M) = 00100010000000000000000 (drop the leading 1)
Step 3: IEEE 754 Representation:

S | E (8-bit) | M (23-bit)

--------------------------------------

0 | 10000011 | 00100010000000000000000

Final IEEE 754 Representation (Hexadecimal):

0x41910000

Binary Representation:

0 10000011 00100010000000000000000 IEEE

754 (Single Precision) for 18.125 = 0x41910000
Final Answer:

Decimal Binary IEEE 754 (32-bit) Hexadecimal

32.75 0 10000100 00001100000000000000000 0x420C0000

18.125 0 10000011 00100010000000000000000 0x41910000

13 . Arrange the given number 0.0625?

i). Single precision.
ii). Double precision formats.

IEEE 754 Representation of 0.0625 in Single and Double Precision

The IEEE 754 format consists of:

• Single Precision (32-bit): 1-bit Sign, 8-bit Exponent, 23-bit
Mantissa
 • Double Precision (64-bit): 1-bit Sign, 11-bit Exponent, 52-bit
Mantissa

i) Single Precision (32-bit):

Step 1: Convert 0.0625 (₁₀) to Binary:

0.062510=0.000120.0625₁₀ = 0.0001₂0.062510=0.00012
Step 2: Normalize the Binary Number:

1.0×2−41.0 × 2^{-4}1.0×2−4

• Sign (S) = 0 (positive number)

• Exponent (E) = -4 (biased by 127):127+(−4)=123→011110112127 + (-4) = 123 →
01111011₂127+(−4)=123→011110112

• Mantissa (M) = 00000000000000000000000 (remaining bits after the leading 1)

Step 3: IEEE 754 Representation (Single Precision):

S | E (8-bit) | M (23-bit)
--------------------------------------
0 | 01111011 | 00000000000000000000000
Final IEEE 754 (Single Precision) Representation (Hexadecimal):

0x3D800000
Binary Representation:

0 01111011 00000000000000000000000
IEEE 754 (Single Precision) for 0.0625 =

0x3D800000 ii) Double Precision (64-bit)

Step 2: Normalize the Binary Number

1.0×2−41.0 × 2^{-4}1.0×2−4

• Sign (S) = 0 (positive number)

• Exponent (E) = -4 (biased by 1023):1023+(−4)=1019→0111111010121023 + (-4) =
1019 →
01111110101₂1023+(−4)=1019→011111101012

• Mantissa (M) = 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

(remaining bits after the leading 1)
Step 3: IEEE 754 Representation (Double Precision):

markdown
S | E (11-bit) | M (52-bit)
---------------------------------------------------
0 | 01111110101 | 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
Final IEEE 754 (Double Precision) Representation (Hexadecimal):

0x3F90000000000000
Binary Representation:

0 01111110101 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
IEEE 754 (Double Precision) for 0.0625 = 0x3F90000000000000

Final Answer:
Decimal Binary IEEE 754 Hexadecimal
0.0625
(Single) 0 01111011 00000000000000000000000 0x3D800000
0.0625 0 01111110101
0x3F90000000000000 (Double)
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

14. Solve using Floating point multiplication algorithm?

i). A = 1.1010x10^10 B-9.200XIO^-5 ii). 0.510 X 0.437510

Floating Point Multiplication Algorithm:

The IEEE 754 floating-point multiplication follows these steps:

1. Convert the numbers to IEEE 754 format

2. Multiply the signs (S)

3. Add the exponents (E) and subtract the bias

4. Multiply the mantissas (M)

5. Normalize the result

6. Round and store in IEEE 754 format

i) Solve A = 1.1010 × 10¹⁰ and B = 9.200 × 10⁻⁵

Step 1: Convert to Binary Scientific Notation:

• A = 1.1010 × 10¹⁰ o Convert 1.1010₂ to

decimal:1.10102=1.625101.1010₂ = 1.625_{10}1.10102=1.62510
 o IEEE exponent calculation:1010 (Convert to base-2
approximation)≈23310^{10} \text{
(Convert to base-2 approximation)} \approx 2^{33}1010 (Convert to base-
2 approximation)≈233Exponent=33+127=160(100000002)\text{Exponent}
= 33 + 127 = 160 \quad (10000000₂)Exponent=33+127=160(100000002) o
Mantissa: 10100000000000000000000

IEEE 754 Representation of A (Single Precision):

S = 0, E = 10000000, M = 10100000000000000000000
• B = 9.200 × 10⁻⁵

o Convert 9.200₁₀ to binary:9.210=1.0011100112×239.2₁₀ =

1.001110011₂ × 2³9.210 =1.0011100112×23
o IEEE exponent calculation:−5+127=122(011110102)-5 + 127 = 122 \
quad (01111010₂)−5+127=122(011110102) o Mantissa:
00111001100000000000000

IEEE 754 Representation of B (Single

Precision): S = 0, E = 01111010, M =

00111001100000000000000

Step 2: Multiply the Signs:

0×0=00 \times 0 = 00×0=0

Step 3: Add Exponents and Adjust Bias:

160+122−127=155(100110112)160 + 122 - 127 = 155 \quad

(10011011₂)160+122−127=155(100110112) Step 4: Multiply Mantissas:

(1.10102)×(1.0011100112)=1.10111101100112(1.1010₂) × (1.001110011₂) =
1.1011110110011₂(1.10102 )×(1.0011100112)=1.10111101100112
Step 5: Normalize the Result:

Already in normalized form:

1.1011110110011×21551.1011110110011 × 2^{155}1.1011110110011×2155

Final IEEE 754 Representation:

S = 0, E = 10011011, M = 10111101100110000000000
Result in IEEE 754 (Single Precision)
0 10011011 10111101100110000000000
ii) Solve 0.510 × 0.4375?

Step 1: Convert to IEEE 754 Format:

• 0.510 in IEEE 754 Single Precision

o Binary: 0.1000001100₂ o

Normalized: 1.000001100

× 2⁻¹ o Exponent: 126

(01111110₂) o Mantissa:

00000110000000000000000

• 0.4375 in IEEE 754 Single

Precision o Binary: 0.0111₂

o Normalized: 1.110 × 2⁻² o

Exponent: 125 (01111101₂) o

Mantissa:

11000000000000000000000

Step 2: Multiply the Signs

0×0=00 \times 0 = 00×0=0

Step 3: Add Exponents and Adjust Bias

126+125−127=124(011111002)126 + 125 - 127 = 124 \quad

(01111100₂)126+125−127=124(011111002) Step 4: Multiply Mantissas

(1.0000011002)×(1.1102)=1.1100011002(1.000001100₂) × (1.110₂) =
1.110001100₂(1.0000011002 )×(1.1102)=1.1100011002 Step 5: Normalize the Result:

Already in normalized form:

1.110001100×2−41.110001100 × 2^{-

4}1.110001100×2−4 Final IEEE 754 Representation:

S = 0, E = 01111100, M = 11000110000000000000000
Result in IEEE 754 (Single

Precision) 0 01111100

11000110000000000000000

Final Answers:

Multiplication IEEE 754 Representation (Binary)

0 10011011
1.1010 × 10¹⁰ × 9.200 × 10⁻⁵
10111101100110000000000

0 01111100
0.510 × 0.4375
11000110000000000000000

PART C

1. Create the logic circuit for CLA. What are the disadvantages of Ripple cany addition and
how it is overcome in cany look ahead adder?
Carry Look-Ahead Adder (CLA):
A Carry Look-Ahead Adder (CLA) is a high-speed adder that improves upon the Ripple
Carry Adder (RCA) by reducing carry propagation delay. Instead of waiting for each bit's
carry to propagate, CLA computes carries in advance using the Generate (G) and Propagate
(P) functions.
1. Logic Circuit for Carry Look-Ahead Adder (CLA)

CLA Basic Equations

For each bit in binary addition, we define:
• Propagate (P): Pi=Ai⊕BiP_i = A_i \oplus B_i (If P = 1, carry will propagate
from previous stage.)
• Generate (G): Gi=Ai⋅BiG_i = A_i \cdot B_i (If G = 1, a carry is generated at
that bit position.) Carry Computation:

C1=G0+(P0⋅C0)C_1 = G_0 + (P_0 \cdot C_0) C2=G1+(P1⋅C1)=G1+(P1⋅(G0+(P0⋅C0)))C_2

= G_1 +
(P_1 \cdot C_1) = G_1 + (P_1 \cdot (G_0 + (P_0 \cdot C_0))) C3=G2+(P2⋅C2)C_3 = G_2 +
(P_2 \cdot C_2) C4=G3+(P3⋅C3)C_4 = G_3 + (P_3 \cdot C_3)
Logic Circuit of CLA (4-bit
Adder) A 4-bit CLA Adder
consists of:
1. Four Full Adders (FA)

2. Carry Look-Ahead Logic for Fast Carry Computation

3. Logic gates (AND, OR, XOR) for computing P, G, and C Disadvantages of

Ripple Carry Adder (RCA):

The Ripple Carry Adder (RCA) works by computing each carry bit sequentially, causing a
delay. The major drawbacks are:
1. High Propagation Delay:
o Each bit must wait for the previous bit's carry to propagate.
o Worst-case delay is O(n) (linear time complexity).
2. Slow for Large Bit Additions:

o Performance decreases for 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit additions.

3. Inefficient for High-Speed Applications:

o Not suitable for processors that require fast arithmetic operations.

Advantages of CLA Over RCA:
1. Faster Computation:

o CLA precomputes carry values using P and G, making it O(1) (constant time
complexity).
2. Parallel Carry Calculation:

o Unlike RCA, CLA computes all carries simultaneously, reducing overall

delay.
3. Scalability for Large Bit Addition:

o Used in 32-bit and 64-bit processors for high-speed ALU operations.

Conclusion:
• The Ripple Carry Adder (RCA) suffers from high delay due to sequential carry
propagation.
• The Carry Look-Ahead Adder (CLA) solves this by precomputing carries in
parallel using Propagate (P) and Generate (G) logic.
• CLA is faster and more efficient, making it the preferred choice in modern CPU
architectures.
2 . Evaluate the sum of 2.6125 * 101 and 4.150390625 * 101 by hand, assuming A and B are
stored in the 16-bit half precision. Assume 1 guard, 1 round bit and 1 sticky bit and round to
the nearest even. Show all the steps?
Floating-Point Addition in 16-bit Half-Precision (IEEE 754
Format) We will evaluate the sum of:
A=2.6125×101A = 2.6125 \times 10^1 A=2.6125×101B=4.150390625×101B =
4.150390625
\times 10^1B=4.150390625×101
using IEEE 754 half-precision (16-bit) format with guard (G), round (R), and
sticky (S) bits, rounding to the nearest even.
Step 1: Convert Given Numbers to IEEE 754 Half-Precision
Format IEEE 754 16-bit half-precision format:
• 1-bit Sign (S)
• 5-bit Exponent (E) (biased by 15)
• 10-bit Mantissa (M)
Convert A=2.6125×101A = 2.6125 \times 10^1A=2.6125×101
1. Convert to Binary Form:
2.612510=10.100122.6125_{10} = 10.1001_22.612510=10.10012
A=10.10012×21⇒1.010012×22A = 10.1001_2 \times 2^1 \Rightarrow
1.01001_2 \times 2^2A=10.10012×21⇒1.010012×22 Exponent:
(2+15)=1710=100012(2 + 15) = 17_{10} =
10001_2(2+15)=1710=100012 Mantissa (10 bits): 0100100000 IEEE 754
Representation for A:
S=0,E=10001,M=0100100000S = 0, \quad E = 10001, \quad M =
0100100000S=0,E=10001,M=0100100000A=0100010100100000A = 0 10001
0100100000A=0100010100100000
Convert B=4.150390625×101B = 4.150390625 \times 10^1B=4.150390625×101
1. Convert to Binary Form:
4.15039062510=100.00100124.150390625_{10} =
100.001001_24.15039062510
=100.0010012B=100.0010012×22⇒1.000010012×23B = 100.001001_2 \
times 2^2 \Right arrow 1.00001001_2 \times
2^3B=100.0010012×22⇒1.000010012×23 Exponent:
 (3+15)=1810=100102(3 + 15) = 18_{10} =
10010_2(3+15)=1810=100102 Mantissa (10 bits): 0000100100 IEEE 754
Representation for B:
S=0,E=10010,M=0000100100S = 0, \quad E = 10010, \quad M =
0000100100S=0,E=10010,M=0000100100B=0100100000100100B = 0 10010
0000100100B=01001000001001
00 Step 2: Align the Exponents:
The exponents are:
• A:100012=17A: 10001_2 = 17A:100012=17
• B:100102=18B: 10010_2 = 18B:100102=18
• Since BBB has the larger exponent, shift AAA's mantissa right by one bit to match
BBB's exponent:

A′=0.10100100002A' = 0.1010010000_2A
′=0.10100100002 Now, both have exponent 18.
Step 3: Perform Mantissa Addition
A′=0.10100100002A' = 0.1010010000_2A′=0.10100100002B=1.00001001002B =
1.0000100100_2B=1.0000100100
2 Binary addition:
0.1010010000
+ 1.0000100100
-----------------------
1.1010110100
New Mantissa: 1.1010110100
(Unnormalized) Step 4: Normalize the Sum:
Since the sum is 1.1010110100, it's already normalized.
• Exponent remains 18.
• Mantissa: 1010110100.
Step 5: Apply Guard, Round, and Sticky Bits:
We extend to 13 bits for rounding (including G, R, S bits):
1.10101101000101.1010110100\mathbf{010}1.1010110100010
• Guard (G) = 0, Round (R) = 1, Sticky (S) = 0
• Since R = 1 and rounding is to nearest even, we round up.
 Rounded Mantissa:
1.101011011021.1010110110_21.10101101
102 Step 6: Store in IEEE 754 Format:
Final values:
• S=0
• E = 10010 (18)
• M = 1010110110

Step 7: Convert the Binary Mantissa to

Decimal Given:

1.1010110110_{2}×2 ^(
18−15) The binary mantissa is:
1.10101101102
Expanding it:
= 1+ 1/2 + 0/4 + 1/ 8 + 0/16 + 1/32 + 1/64 + 0/128 + 1/256 + 1/512+ 0/1024
= 1+ 0.5 + 0 + 0.125 + 0 + 0.03125 + 0.015625 + 0 + 0.00390625

+0.001953125 + 0 = 1.671875_ {10}

Apply the Exponent:

=1.671875 × 2 ^ (18−15)
=1.671875 × 2 ^ (3)
=1.671875 × 8
= 13.375_ {10}
= 13.375
3 . Summarize 4 bit numbers to save space, which implement the multiplication algorithm
for 00102 , 00112 with hardware design?
4-Bit Multiplication Using Hardware Design
We will implement 4-bit multiplication for binary numbers 0010₂ (2₁₀) and 0011₂ (3₁₀)
using the sequential multiplication algorithm.
Represent the Numbers:
Multiplicand=00102(210)\text{Multiplicand} = 0010_2
(2_{10})Multiplicand=00102(210 )Multiplier=00112(310)\text{Multiplier} = 0011_2
(3_{10})Multiplier=00112(310) Multiplication Process Using Shift-and-Add
Algorithm:
We use a 4-bit register for the multiplicand, multiplier, and a product register (initialized
to 0).

Step Multiplier Bit Action Product (4-bit)

1 1 (LSB) Add 0010 0010

2 1 Shift left & add 0010 0110

3 0 Shift left 1100
4 0 Shift left 11000
Final Product (Binary):
01102=6100110_2 = 6_{10}01102=610
Hardware Implementation:
The hardware design consists of:
1. Multiplicand Register (4-bit)

2. Multiplier Register (4-bit)

3. Accumulator (4-bit)

4. Shift Register (4-bit)

5. Control Logic for Iterations

6. Adder for Partial Product Addition The sequential hardware uses:

• AND gates for bitwise multiplication

• 4-bit adders for partial sums
• Shift registers to align results Conclusion:
• Binary multiplication is performed using shift-and-add.
• The final result is 6₁₀ (0110₂).
• The hardware design includes registers, adders, and control logic.
4 . Design 4 bit version of the algorithm to save pages, for dividing
000001112, by 00102, with hardware design?
4-Bit Division Algorithm (00000111₂ ÷ 0010₂) with Hardware
Design We will design a 4-bit division algorithm to
compute:
Represent the Numbers:
 • Dividend: 00000111₂ (7₁₀)
• Divisor: 0010₂ (2₁₀)
• Quotient (4-bit) & Remainder (4-bit): To be determined Restoring Division
Algorithm:
The restoring division method follows these steps:
1. Initialize:
o Dividend in the remainder register (R). o Divisor in

the divisor register.

o Quotient initialized to 0.
2. Steps of Restoring Division (4 Iterations for 4-bit quotient):

Shift Left (R, Subtract

Step Restore? Quotient Quotient) Divisor

0111 - 0010 = No
1 0111 0001
0101 Restore

1010 - 0010 = No
2 1010 0011
1000 Restore

0000 - 0010 =
3 0000 Restore 0110
1110

1100 - 0010 = No
4 1100 0111
1010 Restore

Final Quotient: 0011₂ (3₁₀)

Final Remainder: 0001₂ (1₁₀)
Hardware Components:
1. 4-bit Remainder Register (R)

2. 4-bit Divisor Register

3. 4-bit Quotient Register

4. 4-bit Subtractor (for Restoring)

5. Control Logic for Shift & Restore

6. Clock for Synchronization Working

 • Shift left R & Quotient.
• Subtract Divisor from R.
• If result is negative, restore (add back divisor).
• Set quotient bit based on subtraction result.
• Repeat for 4 iterations.
Conclusion:
Using the 4-bit restoring division method, we get:
17÷2=3 remainder 1
• Quotient (4-bit): 0011₂ (3₁₀)
• Remainder (4-bit): 0001₂ (1₁₀)
• Hardware design consists of registers, subtractor, control logic, and shift unit.

Part – A
1.Express the truth table for AND gate and OR gate.
Answer :
AND Gate:
A B Output
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
OR Gate:
A B Output
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
2.Define hazard. Give an example for data hazard.

Answer :

Define hazard:
A hazard is a situation where the normal flow of a program is disrupted due to a conflict in accessing resources.
Example for data hazard:
Consider the following instructions:
1. lw $t0, 0($t1)
2. add $t2, $t0, $t3
Data hazard occurs because the add instruction uses $t0 before it's loaded.

3.Recall pipeline bubble.

Answer :

Pipeline bubble.

A pipeline bubble is a stall introduced in the pipeline to resolve hazards.

4.List the state elements needed to store and access an instruction.

Answer :

State elements for instruction storage and access:

 Instruction Register (IR)

 Instruction Decode Register (IDR)
 Registers for operands

5.Describe the main idea of ILP.

Answer :

Main idea of ILP (Instruction-Level Parallelism):

Executing multiple instructions simultaneously to improve performance.

6.Distinguish the hazards with respect to processor function.

Answer :

. Distinguish hazards w.r.t processor function:

 Structural hazards: conflicts in accessing resources

 Data hazards: conflicts in accessing data
 Control hazards: conflicts in instruction flow

7.Name the use of different logic gates.

Answer :

Use of different logic gates:

 AND: implementing conditional statements

 OR: implementing conditional statements
 NOT: implementing negation

8.Evaluate branch taken and branch not taken in instruction execution.

Answer :
Branch taken: update PC with target address

Branch not taken: continue executing next instruction

9.State the ideal CPI of a pipelined processor.

Answer :

The ideal CPI (Cycles Per Instruction) of a pipelined processor is 1.

10.Design the instruction format for the jump instruction.

Answer :

A jump instruction format typically includes:

 Opcode: Specifies the jump operation.

 Address: Specifies the target address to jump to.

 Example(MIPS):

o | opcode(6 bits) | Address(26 bits) |

11.Classify the different types of hazards with examples.

Answer :

Data Hazards:

 Example: add $t1, $t2, $t3; sub $t4, $t1, $t5; (sub depends on the result of add).

Control Hazards:

 Example: beq $t1, $t2, target; (the next instruction depends on whether the branch is taken).

Structural Hazards:

 Example: If the memory unit can only perform one access per cycle, and both instruction fetch and data
access occur in the same cycle.

12.Illustrate the two steps that are common to implement any type of instruction.

Answer :

 Instruction Fetch (IF): Retrieve the instruction from memory.

 Instruction Decode (ID): Decode the instruction and read the required operands from registers.

13.Assess the methods to reduce the pipeline stall.

Answer :

 Forwarding (Data Bypassing): Passing results directly from one pipeline stage to another.

 Branch Prediction: Predicting whether a branch will be taken.

 Delayed Branches: Rearranging instructions to fill branch delay slots.

 Instruction Scheduling: Reordering instructions to minimize data hazards.

14.Tabulate the use of branch prediction buffer.

Answer :

 | Branch Prediction Buffer | Use | | :------------------------ | :----------------------------------------------- | |

Branch History Table (BHT)| Stores past branch outcomes to predict future ones. | | Branch Target
Buffer (BTB)| Stores target addresses to reduce branch latency. | | Correlating Predictors | Use the
history of multiple branches to predict. |

15.Show the 5 stages pipeline.

Answer :

1. Instruction Fetch (IF)

2. Instruction Decode (ID)

3. Execute (EX)

4. Memory Access (MEM)

5. Write Back (WB)

16.Point out the concept of exceptions. Give one example of MIPS exception.

Answer :

 An exception is an unexpected event that disrupts the normal flow of instruction execution.

 Example (MIPS):

o Overflow Exception: Occurs when an arithmetic operation produces a result that exceeds the
register's capacity.

17.What is pipelining?

Answer :

Pipelining is a technique to improve processor performance by overlapping the execution of multiple

instructions. It divides the instruction execution process into stages, allowing multiple instructions to be
processed concurrently.

18.Illustrate how to organize a multiple issue processor?

Answer :

Superscalar: Multiple instructions can be issued and executed in the same clock cycle.

 Uses multiple execution units.

 Issue logic determines which instructions can be issued concurrently.

VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word): The compiler packages multiple independent instructions into a single
long instruction word for concurrent execution.

 Simpler hardware compared to superscalar.

19.Neatly sketch three primary units of dynamically scheduled pipeline.

Answer :

+-------------------+
 | Instruction Queue |
+-------------------+
|
v
+------------------------+
| Reservation Stations |------> +------------+
+------------------------+ | Execution |
| | Units |
v +------------+
+------------------------+

| Common Data Bus (CDB) |

+------------------------+

 Instruction Queue: Holds instructions waiting to be issued.

 Reservation Stations: Buffer operands and instructions until they are ready to execute.

 Common Data Bus (CDB): Broadcasts results to reservation stations and registers.

20.Generalize Exception. Give one example for MIPS exception.

Answer :

An exception is an unscheduled event that disrupts the normal execution flow of a program. It can arise from
various sources, such as hardware failures, software errors, or program interrupts.

Example(MIPS):

 Address Error Exception: Occurs when a program attempts to access a memory address that is not
properly aligned or does not exist.

Part – B

1.Discuss the basics of logic design conventions.

Answer :

Basics of Logic Design Conventions

1. Introduction to Digital Logic:

Logic design is the art of creating circuits that perform specific functions based on binary inputs (logic
“0” and “1”). Its foundation is built on Boolean algebra—a mathematical system using binary variables and
operations (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) that model the behavior of digital components.
2. Boolean Algebra and Canonical Forms:

At the heart of digital circuit design is Boolean algebra. The two canonical forms often used are:

 Sum-of-Products (SOP): The logic function is expressed as a logical OR (sum) of multiple AND
(product) terms. This representation simplifies implementation using AND-OR gate networks.

 Product-of-Sums (POS): The function is represented as an AND (product) of several OR (sum) terms.
This form is particularly useful in designing NOR-logic based circuits.

For example, the Boolean function F = A·B + A′·C represents a typical SOP that can be directly
implemented using an AND-OR logic network.

3. Logic Gate Symbols and Drawing Conventions:

Standardized symbols ensure consistency and clarity in circuit diagrams. Some key conventions
include:

 AND Gate: Usually drawn with a flat left side and a curved right side.

 OR Gate: Designed with a curved input side that funnels together, ending in a pointed output.

 NOT Gate (Inverter): Represented as a triangle with a small circle (bubble) at the output, indicating
logical inversion.

 NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR Gates: These are variations where additional bubbles may be added or
shapes adjusted slightly to indicate their specific operation.

The use of bubbles on inputs or outputs also serves as a convention to denote active-low signals. If a gate input
is “active low,” a small circle is placed at that terminal, indicating that a low (logic 0) represents the active or
asserted state.

4. Timing and Signal Nomenclature:

Beyond static gate-level diagrams, logic design conventions extend to timing diagrams in sequential
circuits. Proper labelling of signals, clock edges, setup/hold times, and propagation delays is critical for ensuring
that the circuit works reliably under dynamic conditions. A consistent naming convention for signals and nets
helps in debugging, simulation, and later hierarchical integration.

5. Hierarchical and Modular Design:

Good practice in logic design involves breaking complex circuits into smaller, manageable blocks or
modules. Each module adheres to standard interface conventions—with clearly defined inputs, outputs, and
enable signals. This modular approach improves testability, reusability, and overall clarity of the design process.

Example Diagram

Below is an ASCII diagram representing a simple combinational logic circuit using these conventions. The
diagram shows the implementation of a function using SOP form:

A B C
| | |
| | +-----------+
| | |
| +----[ AND ]---|
| |
 +----[ AND ]-----|----[ OR ]---- F = (A AND B) OR (A' AND C)
(A, B) /
NOT --| /
A'
Explanation of the Diagram:

 The first AND gate takes inputs A and B.

 The second AND gate uses the inverted input A' (obtained from an inverter, shown by the bubble on
the NOT gate) along with input C.

 The outputs of both AND gates feed into an OR gate to produce the final output F.

This diagram illustrates key logic design conventions:

 Standard Gate Symbols are used (AND, OR, NOT).

 Inversion (active-low representation) is indicated by the bubble (even though text-based, the term
“NOT” and the label A' clearly denote inversion).

 Hierarchical Flow: The function F is clearly built by combining simpler logic blocks.

2. i)State the MIPS implementation in detail with necessary multiplexers and control
lines.
ii)Examine and draw a simple MIPS datapath with the control unit and the execution
of ALU instructions.
Answer :

i) MIPS Implementation with Multiplexers and Control Lines

The MIPS architecture is a Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) architecture. Its implementation involves
breaking down instructions into distinct stages: Instruction Fetch (IF), Instruction Decode (ID), Execute (EX),
Memory Access (MEM), and Write Back (WB). To handle the various instruction types and data flows, we need
multiplexers and control lines.

General Datapath Overview:

 Instruction Fetch (IF):
o The program counter (PC) holds the address of the next instruction.

o The instruction memory fetches the instruction at the PC's address.

o The PC is incremented (PC + 4) to prepare for the next instruction.

 Instruction Decode (ID):

o The instruction is decoded, and the register file is read to obtain the operands.

o Control signals are generated based on the instruction's opcode.

 Execute (EX):
o The ALU performs the operation specified by the instruction.

o Branch and jump addresses are calculated.

 Memory Access (MEM):

 o Data is read from or written to the data memory (for load and store instructions).

 Write Back (WB):

o The result from the ALU or memory is written back to the register file.

Multiplexers and Control Lines:

1. PC Multiplexer:
o Selects the next PC address.

o Inputs: PC + 4, branch target address, jump target address.

o Control: PCSource (determines which input to select).

2. ALU Operand Multiplexers (2):

o Selects the second operand for the ALU.

o Inputs: Register file output, sign-extended immediate value.

o Control: ALUSrc (determines which input to select).

3. Memory Write Data Multiplexer:

o Selects data to write to memory.

o Input: Register file output.

4. Register Write Data Multiplexer:

o Selects the data to write back to the register file.

o Inputs: ALU result, memory data.

o Control: MemtoReg (determines which input to select).

5. Register Write Address Multiplexer:

o Selects the destination register address.

o Inputs: rt field, rd field.

o Control: RegDst (determines which input to select).

Control Lines:
 RegDst: Determines the destination register for write-back.
 ALUSrc: Determines the second ALU operand.
 MemtoReg: Determines the data source for write-back.
 RegWrite: Enables writing to the register file.
 MemRead: Enables reading from data memory.
 MemWrite: Enables writing to data memory.
 Branch: Enables branching.
 ALUOp: Specifies the ALU operation.
 Jump: Enables Jump instruction.
 PCSource: Selects the next PC address.
ii) Simple MIPS Datapath with Control Unit and ALU Instructions

Now, let's focus on the datapath for ALU instructions, including the control unit.

+-----------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+

| Instruction | | Register File | | ALU | | Data Memory | | Register File |
| Memory |------>| (Read) |------>| |------>| |------>| (Write) |
+-----------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| | | +--ALUSrc---+ | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
| | +--RegDst--------+ | | | |
| | | | | |
| +--Read Data 1---------+ | | |
| +--Read Data 2---------+ | | |
| +--Write Data----------+ | | |
| +--Write Register------+ | | |
| | | | | |
| | +--ALUOp-----+ | |
| | +--ALUResult---+ |
| | +--MemtoReg---+
| | +--RegWrite---+
V V V
+---------+ +----------+
| Control |------------->| Sign |
| Unit | | Extend |
+---------+ +----------+
^
|Instruction[31:26]
Explanation:

1. Instruction Fetch:

o The instruction is fetched from instruction memory.

o The instruction bits [31:26] (opcode) are sent to the control unit.

2. Instruction Decode and Register Read:

o The control unit generates control signals based on the opcode.

o The register file reads the source registers (rs and rt).
 o The Sign extend unit extends the 16 bit immediate value to 32 bits.

3. ALU Execution:

o The ALU performs the operation specified by the ALUOp control signals.

o ALUSrc selects the second operand (either a register value or the sign-extended immediate).

4. Write Back:

o MemtoReg selects the ALU result.

o RegDst selects the destination register (rd or rt).

o RegWrite enables writing the result back to the register file.

Control Unit Function:

The control unit is the brain of the datapath. It generates the necessary control signals based on the instruction's
opcode. For ALU instructions:

 RegDst: 1 (select rd).

 ALUSrc: 0 (select register).

 MemtoReg: 0 (select ALU result).

 RegWrite: 1 (enable write).

 MemRead: 0.

 MemWrite: 0.

 Branch: 0.

 ALUOp: Determined by the function code (funct) field of the instruction.

3. i).Define parallelism and its types.

ii).List the main characteristics and limitations of Instruction level parallelism.
Answer :

Part (i): Define Parallelism and Its Types

Definition: Parallelism is the technique of performing multiple computations simultaneously, rather than
sequentially. Its purpose is to improve performance and throughput by taking advantage of multiple processing
elements that work concurrently. In computer architecture, parallelism is key to speeding up data processing and
achieving high computational performance.

Types of Parallelism:

1. Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP):

o What It Is: ILP refers to the ability of a processor to execute multiple instructions at the same
time.

o How It's Achieved: This is typically accomplished using techniques such as pipelining,
superscalar execution (multiple instructions issued per clock cycle), out-of-order execution,
and speculative processing.

2. Data-Level Parallelism (DLP) / SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data):

o What It Is: DLP involves performing the same operation on multiple data items concurrently.
 o How It's Achieved: Modern processors use vector units or specialized SIMD instructions that
work on arrays of data (for example, in multimedia processing or scientific computations).

3. Task-Level (or Thread-Level) Parallelism (TLP):

o What It Is: TLP involves executing different threads or processes concurrently.

o How It's Achieved: Multicore processors and multi-threaded software allow separate tasks
(which may be parts of a larger application) to run simultaneously on different cores or
hardware threads.

4. Bit-Level Parallelism:

o What It Is: Bit-level parallelism deals with the simultaneous processing of multiple bits
within a single machine word.

o How It's Achieved: By using wider words (for example, moving from 8-bit to 32-bit or 64-bit
processing), more bits are handled in a single operation, effectively processing data in parallel.

Diagram: Overview of Parallelism Types

plaintext

[Parallelism]

+---------------+---------------+

| | |

ILP Data-Level Parallelism Task/Thread-Level

| (SIMD Processing) (Multithreading)

Bit-Level Parallelism

(Wider Words & Bit-Slicing)

This diagram illustrates that while all types of parallelism share the goal of concurrent execution, they operate at
different levels—from individual bits and instructions up to entire tasks or threads.

Part (ii): Main Characteristics and Limitations of Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP)

Characteristics of ILP:

1. Pipelining:

o Concept: ILP often leverages pipelining to overlap the execution of various instruction stages
(fetch, decode, execute, memory access, write-back).

o Benefit: This overlaps independent instructions so that while one instruction is being decoded,
another can be fetched, and yet another can be executed.

2. Superscalar Execution:

o Concept: Many modern processors can issue and execute more than one instruction per clock
cycle by having multiple execution units.

o Benefit: Increases the number of instructions completed per cycle (IPC), thereby boosting
performance.
 3. Out-of-Order Execution:

o Concept: Instructions are allowed to execute as soon as their operands are available rather
than strictly in program order.

o Benefit: Improves resource utilization and minimizes stalls due to instruction dependencies.

4. Speculative Execution and Branch Prediction:

o Concept: Processors predict paths of branch instructions to avoid stalling the pipeline.
Speculative results are committed only if the predictions are correct.

o Benefit: Mitigates control hazards and improves ILP by reducing delays on branch
instructions.

5. Hardware Complexity:

o Design Note: Implementing ILP requires additional hardware (such as reservation stations,
reorder buffers, and complex scheduling logic), which adds to design complexity and power
consumption.

Limitations of ILP:

1. Data Hazards:

o Definition: Occur when instructions depend on the results of previous instructions (e.g.,
Read-after-Write hazards).

o Impact: These dependencies force the processor to delay execution, which can limit parallel
instruction throughput.

2. Control Hazards:

o Definition: Arises primarily from branch instructions.

o Impact: Mis-predicted branches lead to pipeline flushes and wasted cycles, which reduce the
benefits of ILP.

3. Limited Instruction Window:

o Definition: The amount of parallel execution is constrained to the number of instructions

available that have no interdependencies.

o Impact: Highly sequential code, with many dependencies, limits the number of instructions
that can be executed in parallel.

4. Memory Latency and Bandwidth Limitations:

o Definition: Memory operations are often slower than CPU operations.

o Impact: These delays can stall the execution pipeline, reducing effective ILP, even if there are
many independent instructions.

5. Diminishing Returns and Complexity:

o Definition: As more hardware is added to expose further ILP, the complexity and power
requirements increase.

o Impact: There is a practical limit (the "ILP wall") beyond which additional parallel execution
does not yield significant performance improvements due to overhead, dependencies, and
resource contention.

Diagram: A Simplified Pipeline Exploiting ILP

Below is an ASCII diagram representing a pipelined processor that executes multiple instructions concurrently.
The diagram shows how instructions in different stages can take advantage of ILP while also highlighting
potential hazards.

plaintext

Pipeline Stages

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

| Instruction 1 | Instruction 2 | Instruction 3 | Instruction 4 | Instruction 5 |

| IF / Fetch | IF / Fetch | IF / Fetch | IF / Fetch | IF / Fetch |

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

| Instruction 1 | Instruction 2 | Instruction 3 | Instruction 4 | Instruction 5 |

| ID / Decode & Reg | ID / Decode & Reg | ID / Decode & Reg | ID / Decode & Reg | ID / Decode & Reg |

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

| Instruction 1 | Instruction 2 | Instruction 3 | Instruction 4 | Instruction 5 |

| EX / Execute | EX / Execute | EX / Execute | EX / Execute | EX / Execute |

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

| Instruction 1 | Instruction 2 | Instruction 3 | Instruction 4 | Instruction 5 |

| MEM Access | MEM Access | MEM Access | MEM Access | MEM Access |

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

| Instruction 1 | Instruction 2 | Instruction 3 | Instruction 4 | Instruction 5 |

| WB / Write Back | WB / Write Back | WB / Write Back | WB / Write Back | WB / Write Back |

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

Explanation:

 Each column represents different instructions advancing through pipeline stages concurrently.

 ILP is achieved because multiple instructions are at different processing stages simultaneously.
  The diagram also implies that hazards (data or control) may force certain instructions to stall or require
forwarding, which limits the overall instruction throughput.

4 Design and develop an instruction pipeline working under various situations of

pipeline stall.
Answer :

1. Introduction to Instruction Pipeline

An instruction pipeline divides instruction processing into several consecutive stages. A typical RISC pipeline
has five stages:

 IF (Instruction Fetch): Retrieves an instruction from memory.

 ID (Instruction Decode/Register Read): Decodes the instruction and reads registers.

 EX (Execute): Performs arithmetic/logic operations in the ALU.

 MEM (Memory Access): Accesses data memory for load/store instructions.

 WB (Write Back): Writes results back to the register file.

By overlapping these stages—for example, while one instruction is in EX, another can be decoded
simultaneously—the processor improves throughput. However, simultaneous execution results in hazards that
force the pipeline to stall.

2. Hazards and Pipeline Stalls

Pipeline stalls (or bubbles) occur when hazards interrupt the normal flow of instructions. The main hazards
include:

 Structural Hazards: Occur when hardware resources are insufficient. For example, if an instruction in
MEM and one in IF both need the same memory port, one must wait.

 Data Hazards: Happen when an instruction depends on a result not yet available. For example, a load–
use hazard arises if the instruction in the ID stage must wait for a preceding load instruction still in the
EX/MEM stage.

 Control Hazards: Arise mainly from branch instructions. When the outcome of a branch is uncertain,
subsequent instructions may have to be flushed or stalled until branch resolution.

To handle these, modern pipeline designs include a hazard detection unit (HDU) plus techniques such as
forwarding (or bypassing) and stall insertion.

3. Pipeline Design Under Stall Conditions

A. Components to Handle Stalls

1. Hazard Detection Unit (HDU):

o Monitors instructions in the pipeline to detect conflicts (e.g., when a register needed in ID is
being produced in EX/MEM).

o Generates a stall signal if a hazard is detected.

2. Stall Control and Multiplexers:

o When a hazard is flagged:

 The Program Counter (PC) and IF/ID register are frozen so that no new
instruction is fetched.
  A bubble (NOP) is inserted into the pipeline at the ID/EX boundary.

o This controlled delay ensures that the dependent instruction waits until the correct data is
available.

3. Forwarding Unit (Optional):

o For many data hazards, the forwarding unit can reroute data from later stages (EX/MEM or
MEM/WB) back to the EX stage.

o This minimizes the number of required stalls, although some hazards (e.g., load–use) may still
force a stall.

B. Operation in a Stall Scenario

 Data Hazard Example: Suppose Instruction I1 loads data from memory, and Instruction I2 in the next
cycle needs that data. If I2 starts in the ID stage before I1’s data reaches the WB stage, the hazard
detection unit issues a stall. The PC and IF/ID register do not update, and a NOP is injected into the
pipeline to delay I2 until the data is available.

 Control Hazard Example: For a branch instruction, if the branch decision is not resolved early, the
instructions fetched after the branch may need to be canceled or stalled, wasting cycles.

4. Diagram: Simplified Instruction Pipeline with Stall Mechanism

Below is an ASCII diagram illustrating a five-stage pipeline along with the hazard detection and stall insertion
logic:

+------------------------+
| Instruction Memory |
| (Fetch Instruction) |
+-----------+------------+
|
v
+-----------------+
| IF Stage |
| (Fetch & PC MUX)|
+-----------------+
|
[IF/ID Pipeline Register]
|
v
+-----------------+
| ID Stage |
| (Decode & Reg |
| Read) |
+-----------------+
| ^
 | | Hazard
v | Detection Unit
+-----------------+ (Monitors reg dependencies)
| ID/EX Pipeline |
| Register |<--------- Stall Signal ----+
+-----------------+ |
| |
v | Freeze IF/ID
+--------------+ | & PC update
| EX Stage | |
| (Execute) | |
+--------------+ |
| |
+----------------+----------------+ |
| | | |
v v v |
+-------------+ +-------------+ +-------------+ |
| EX/MEM | | Control/ | | MEM | |
| Pipeline | | Status Unit | | Stage | |
| Register | +-------------+ | (Data Mem) | |
+-------------+ +-------------+ |
| ^ |
v | |
+-------------+ | |
| MEM/WB | | |
| Pipeline | | |
| Register | | |
+-------------+ | |
| | |
v | |
+-------------+ | |
| WB Stage | | |
| (Write Back)| | |
+-------------+ | |
| |
[Stall/Bubble Insertion] <-------+-----------+
Explanation:

 Normal Operation: Instructions flow from IF through ID, EX, MEM to WB using intermediate
pipeline registers.

 Hazard Detection: The hazard detection unit monitors instructions in the ID stage for dependencies
against those in later stages. When a hazard (for example, a load–use hazard) is detected, it sends a stall
signal.

 Stall Mechanism: On receiving the stall signal, control logic:

o Freezes the PC and the IF/ID register, thereby halting the pipeline fetch.

o Inserts a bubble (NOP) into the ID/EX register, delaying the execution of the dependent
instruction until the hazard is resolved.

5 i).What is data hazard?

ii). Explain stalls with neat diagrams and suitable examples.
Answer :
(i): What Is a Data Hazard?
A data hazard is a condition that occurs in a pipelined processor when an instruction
depends on the result of a previous instruction that has not yet been computed or written back
to the register file. Because the instructions in a pipeline overlap in time, the required operand
may still be in the process of being produced when the dependent instruction needs it.
Key Points
 Primary Type (RAW Hazard): The most common data hazard is the Read-After-
Write (RAW) hazard, where an instruction (say, I2) attempts to read a register before
a prior instruction (I1) has finished writing to it.
 Other Types (Less Common):
o Write-After-Read (WAR): Occurs when an instruction writes to a destination
before a previous instruction has read it.
o Write-After-Write (WAW): Occurs when two instructions write to the same
location, and the order is important.
Example of a Data Hazard
Consider the following sequence:
1. I1: lw R1, 0(R2) (Load word from memory into register R1)
2. I2: add R3, R1, R4 (Add R1 and R4, and write the result into R3)
In this case, I2 needs the value that I1 is loading into R1. Since I1 may still be in the process
of accessing memory or writing back its result when I2 has reached the stage where it
requires R1, a RAW hazard occurs.
(ii): Explain Stalls with Diagrams and Suitable Examples
When a data hazard is identified, a common method to preserve the correctness of execution
is the insertion of stalls (also known as bubbles) into the pipeline. A stall temporarily halts
the progress of one or more instructions so that data dependencies are resolved, ensuring that
the needed data becomes available before it is used.
How Do Stalls Work?
1. Hazard Detection: A dedicated hazard detection unit (HDU) monitors the pipeline.
When it detects a dependency (for example, the load-use hazard shown above), it
generates a stall signal.
2. Pipeline Freezing: On receipt of the stall signal, the control unit:
o Prevents the Program Counter (PC) and IF/ID pipeline register from
updating (i.e., no new instruction is fetched).
o Inserts a bubble (a no-operation, or NOP) in the subsequent stage (often the
ID/EX register). This bubble gives time for the earlier instruction to progress
sufficiently such that the data becomes available.
3. Resumption: Once the hazard is cleared—i.e., the required data is computed—the
pipeline resumes normal operation.
Example: Load-Use Hazard
Let’s revisit the earlier example:
 I1: lw R1, 0(R2)
 I2: add R3, R1, R4
Since I2 depends on R1 (loaded by I1), the hazard detection unit will stall I2. The stall allows
I1 to complete critical stages (especially memory access and write-back) before I2 proceeds
to its execution stage.
Diagram: Pipeline with a Stall Inserted
Below is an ASCII diagram of a simple 5-stage pipeline (IF, ID, EX, MEM, WB) showing
how a hazard causes a stall between two instructions.
plaintext
Pipeline Stages
-------------------------------------------------------
Cycle: 1 2 3 4 5 6
-------------------------------------------------------
I1: | IF | -> | ID | -> | EX | -> | MEM | -> | WB |
I2: | IF | -> | ID | -> | STALL | -> | EX | -> | MEM | -> | WB |
-------------------------------------------------------
Explanation:
 Cycle 1: I1 is in the Instruction Fetch (IF) stage.
 Cycle 2: I1 moves to Instruction Decode (ID) and I2 enters IF.
  Cycle 3: I1 is in Execute (EX). I2 is in ID but must now stall because its operand (R1)
is not yet available.
 Cycle 4: I1 enters Memory Access (MEM). The bubble (STALL) occupies the EX
stage for I2.
 Cycle 5: I1 completes with Write Back (WB). I2 proceeds to EX, now having the
required data ready.
 Cycle 6: I2 completes its execution stages (MEM and WB) normally.
Diagram: Pipeline with Detailed Stall Control
Here is a more detailed diagram showing how stall signals are integrated with hazard
detection:
plaintext
+--------------------------------+
| IF Stage |
| (Instruction Fetch & PC MUX) |
+--------------------------------+
|
v
+--------------------+
| IF/ID Register |
+--------------------+
|
v
+--------------------+ <-- Hazard Detection Unit monitors
| ID Stage | dependencies here.
| (Decode & Reg Read)|
+--------------------+
| \
| \ (Hazard Detected)
v \
+--------------------+ -------> Stall Signal
| ID/EX Register |
+--------------------+
|
 v
+--------------------+
| EX Stage | <--- Bubble inserted if stall is active.
+--------------------+
|
v
+--------------------+
| MEM Stage |
+--------------------+
|
v
+--------------------+
| WB Stage |
+--------------------+
Key Notes:
 The hazard detection unit checks if the instruction in the ID stage depends on a
result from the instruction in the EX or MEM stage.
 When a dependency is detected, the unit issues a stall signal.
 The stall freezes the IF/ID register and inserts a NOP (bubble) in the ID/EX register.
 This results in a controlled delay, ensuring that by the time the dependent instruction
executes, the required data is available from a previous instruction’s MEM or WB
stage.
6 i).Summarize the speculation scheme.
ii).Distinguish static and dynamic techniques for speculation.
Answer :
i)Summarize the Speculation Scheme
Overview: A speculation scheme allows a processor to improve its performance by
“guessing” the outcome of operations—most notably branches—and executing instructions
ahead of time. The key idea is to keep the pipeline busy even when the precise outcome of a
branch or operation is not yet known. If the prediction is correct, valuable cycles are saved; if
the prediction is wrong, the processor must flush the incorrect instructions and recover the
correct sequential state.
Key Elements of Speculation:
1. Branch (or Value) Prediction:
 o Purpose: Predict the outcome of branch instructions (e.g., whether a branch is
taken or not) or the predicted value of an operation.
o Mechanism: A branch prediction unit (BPU) uses historical data or simple
heuristics (e.g., “backward branches are usually taken”) to forecast the next
instruction address or operation outcome.
2. Speculative Execution:
o Operation: The processor fetches and executes instructions based on the
predicted outcome even before the actual branch is resolved.
o Resources: Speculative instructions are held in temporary buffers and
registers until they are confirmed.
3. Verification and Commitment:
o Once the branch or operation completes: The actual result is compared with
the prediction.
o Correct Prediction: The speculatively executed instructions become part of
the program’s committed state.
o Misprediction: The processor must flush the speculatively executed
instructions (i.e., clear the pipeline) and restart from the correct instruction
path. This recovery process introduces a penalty.
Diagram: Speculation Scheme in a Branching Pipeline
plaintext
+------------------------+
| Branch/Conditional |
| Instruction |
+-----------+------------+
|
v
+---------------------+
| Branch Prediction |
| Unit (BPU) |
+-----------+---------+
|
v
+---------------------+
 | Speculative Fetch & |
| Execution of Next |
| Instructions |
+-----+-----------+---+
| |
v v
+-------------------------+
| Verification/Commit | <-- Compare predicted outcome
| (actual vs prediction)|
+-----------+-------------+
|
+---------v----------+
| Misprediction? |
| Yes No |
+----+----------+----+
| |
Flush pipeline & Rollback Commit Speculative Results
Explanation:
 Prediction: The branch prediction unit takes a guess on the branch outcome.
 Speculative execution: The pipeline proceeds to fetch and execute instructions from
the predicted path.
 Verification: When the branch outcome is known, the speculation is either confirmed
or rejected.
 Recovery: In case of a misprediction, all speculative results are canceled, and the
pipeline is reloaded with the correct instructions.
(ii): Distinguish Static and Dynamic Techniques for Speculation
Speculation can be implemented using either static or dynamic techniques. Both aim to
reduce stalls in a pipelined processor, but they differ fundamentally in when and how the
decisions are made.
Static Speculation
 Definition: Speculation decisions are made at compile time. The compiler (or
assembler) uses predetermined heuristics or profile-guided information to decide
 which instructions to execute speculatively. The decision does not change during
runtime.
 Mechanism:
o The compiler reorders instructions (also known as instruction scheduling) to
hide latency.
o It may use techniques such as predicated execution, where conditional
instructions are always executed with a selector to determine whether the
result has an effect.
o Example: In a static branch prediction scheme, the compiler might assume
that backward branches (loops) are taken and forward branches are not taken.
 Advantages:
o Simpler hardware implementation (no extra runtime prediction hardware
required).
o Reduced complexity since the speculation strategy is embedded in the code.
 Disadvantages:
o Inflexible: Cannot adapt to dynamic changes in branch behavior during
runtime.
o May lead to suboptimal instruction scheduling if the compiler’s assumptions
are incorrect.
Dynamic Speculation
 Definition: Speculation decisions are made at runtime by hardware. Processors use
historical information and adaptive algorithms to predict branch outcomes and
schedule speculative execution dynamically.
 Mechanism:
o Hardware components such as branch target buffers (BTBs), two-level
adaptive branch predictors (using local/global history), and dynamic
scheduling units make real-time decisions.
o Techniques such as value prediction and out-of-order execution further
enhance dynamic speculation.
 Advantages:
o Highly adaptive to the actual behavior of the program.
o Generally more accurate in prediction; improves performance by better
exploiting available instruction-level parallelism.
 Disadvantages:
o Increased hardware complexity and power consumption.
 o Risk of performance penalties due to mispredictions and pipeline flush
overhead.
Comparison Table

Aspect Static Speculation Dynamic Speculation

Decision Time Compile time Runtime
Adaptability Inflexible—fixed at compile Highly adaptive—adjusts based on
time runtime behavior
Hardware Lower hardware overhead Requires extra hardware (BTB,
Complexity predictors, etc.)
Flexibility Uses compiler heuristics and Employs adaptive algorithms, e.g.,
fixed rules two-level history predictors
Example Code motion, instruction Branch target buffers, dynamic
Techniques scheduling, predicated scheduling, value prediction
execution
Performance Can be suboptimal if Typically higher accuracy and
Impact predictions are off improved throughput, but at cost of
complexity

Diagram: Static vs. Dynamic Speculation

plaintext
+------------------------+
| Speculation |
+------------------------+
/ \
/ \
/ \
+-----------+ +-----------+
| Static Speculation | Dynamic Speculation |
| (Compile-Time) | (Runtime) |
+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
| |
v v
 +-----------------------+ +-----------------------------+
| Compiler/Assembler | | Hardware Prediction Unit(s) |
| makes speculative | | uses branch target buffers, |
| scheduling decisions | | local/global history, etc. |
| (e.g., predicated | | to adaptively predict |
| instructions, reordering) | branch outcomes in real time|
+-----------------------+ +-----------------------------+
Explanation:
 Static: The speculative decisions (such as instruction reordering or predicated
execution) are embedded into the final machine code by the compiler.
 Dynamic: The processor hardware actively monitors execution, predicts branch
outcomes, and dynamically decides which instructions to fetch and execute
speculatively.
7 i).Differentiate sequential execution and pipelining.
ii). Explain the process of building single data path with neat diagram.
Answer:
(i): Differentiating Sequential Execution and Pipelining
Sequential Execution:
 Definition: Instructions are processed one after the other. Each instruction goes
through all the steps—fetch, decode, execute, memory access, and write-back—
before the next instruction begins.
 Characteristics:
o No Overlap: The entire datapath is used for one instruction at a time.
o Simplicity: The control logic and hardware are simpler since each instruction
completes its entire cycle before the next begins.
o Longer Latency per Instruction: Since there is no overlap, the cycle time per
instruction is the sum of all stages, resulting in lower throughput.
o Example: A processor that completes an “add” instruction and then starts a
“load” instruction.
Pipelining:
 Definition: The execution process is divided into distinct stages whereby multiple
instructions are overlapped. For example, while one instruction is in its decode stage,
another can be fetching, yet another executing, and so on.
  Characteristics:
o Overlap in Execution: The instruction cycle is divided into stages (such as IF,
ID, EX, MEM, WB), and different instructions are processed concurrently in
different stages.
o Higher Throughput: Once the pipeline is full, ideally one instruction
completes per clock cycle, substantially increasing instruction throughput.
o Complexity in Control: Additional hardware and control logic like pipeline
registers, hazard detection, and forwarding units are required to manage
dependencies and hazards.
o Example: A pipelined processor may have Instruction 1 in “Write Back,”
Instruction 2 in “Memory Access,” Instruction 3 in “Execute,” Instruction 4 in
“Instruction Decode,” and Instruction 5 in “Instruction Fetch” simultaneously.
Comparison Summary:

Aspect Sequential Execution Pipelining

Operation One instruction at a time; stages Multiple instructions concurrently;
execute sequentially. stages work in parallel.
Circuit Datapath components are idle Datapath stages are busy
Utilization while one instruction completes concurrently; improves hardware
all stages. utilization.
Throughput Lower – overall latency equals Higher – once filled, one instruction
the sum of all stages per can complete per clock cycle.
instruction.
Control Simpler control logic. More complex; requires handling
Complexity hazards and synchronization.
Performance Higher latency per instruction. Lower latency per instruction and
higher average instruction
throughput.

A straightforward diagram illustrating the difference:

plaintext
Sequential Execution: Pipelining:

[Instruction 1] [I1] [I2] [I3] [I4] [...]

IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB IF ->ID ->EX ->MEM ->WB
(All stages complete) (Different instructions in different stages)
Part (ii): Building a Single Datapath
Overview:
Constructing a single datapath involves integrating essential functional units so that each
instruction can be executed in a single cycle. The datapath includes components such as the
Program Counter (PC), Instruction Memory, Register File, ALU, Data Memory, and
necessary multiplexers.
Key Steps in Building a Single Datapath:
1. Instruction Fetch (IF):
o Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction.
o Instruction Memory: Retrieves the instruction using the PC.
o PC Update Unit: Adds 4 (or the instruction word length) to move to the next
instruction.
2. Instruction Decode (ID):
o Instruction Register: Holds the fetched 32-bit instruction.
o Register File Read: Decodes the instruction to determine source registers and
retrieves their data.
o Control Unit: Decodes the opcode and generates control signals for the
datapath components.
o Sign-Extension Unit: Extends the immediate field (if present) to 32 bits.
3. Execution (EX):
o ALU: Performs arithmetic or logic operations.
o Multiplexers:
 ALUSrc MUX: Chooses between the second register data or the
immediate value as the second ALU operand.
 Other control multiplexers (e.g., for selecting destination register).
4. Memory Access (MEM):
o Data Memory: For load/store instructions, the ALU result is used as the
address for accessing the data memory.
o Control Lines: Enable reading or writing as required.
5. Write Back (WB):
o Write Data MUX (MemtoReg): Chooses between the ALU result and data
from memory as the value to write back to the register file.
o Register File Write: Writes the result back to one of the registers.
Diagram: Single Datapath for a One-Cycle Implementation
Below is an ASCII diagram of a simple single datapath:
plaintext
+--------------------+
| Instruction Memory|
+---------+----------+
|
v
+-------------+
| IF |
| (Fetch Inst)|
+-------------+
|
v
+--------------------+
| Instruction |
| Register |
+---------+----------+
|
v
+-------------+
| ID |<------------+
| (Decode, | |
| Reg Read) | |
+------+------+ |
| |
| Immediate Field |
v |
+-------------+ |
 | Sign Extend | |
+-------------+ |
| |
| |
+-----------+----------+ |
| Register File | <------>|
+-----------+----------+ |
| |
v |
+-------------+ |
| ALUSrc |<-----+ |
| MUX | | |
+------+------+- | |
| | |
v | |
+-------------+ | |
| ALU | | |
+------+------+ | |
| | |
v | |
+-------------+ | |
| Data Memory| | |
+------+------+ | |
| ^ | |
+-------------+ | | |
| MEM/WB Reg | | |
| (Store/Write) | | |
+----+-----------+ | |
| | |
 v | |
+-------------+ | |
| Write Back | <-----------+-----+
| (Reg File) |
+-------------+
Explanation of the Diagram:
 Instruction Fetch (IF): The PC sends an address to the Instruction Memory. The
retrieved instruction is stored in the IF stage or a pipeline register (in single-cycle, this
happens implicitly).
 Instruction Decode (ID): The instruction is decoded from the Instruction Register.
The Register File provides operands, and the Sign Extend unit processes any
immediate value.
 Execution (EX): The ALUSrc multiplexer selects the appropriate second operand
(either register data or immediate). The ALU then processes the operation based on
control signals.
 Memory Access (MEM): For load/store operations, the ALU result is used to access
Data Memory.
 Write Back (WB): A multiplexer (often termed MemtoReg) selects whether the data
from Data Memory or the ALU result should be written back to the Register File.
This single datapath design is generally associated with a single-cycle processor where every
instruction completes in one clock cycle. In such systems, the clock period must be long
enough to accommodate the slowest instruction.
8.Recommend the techniques for
i).Dynamic branch prediction.
ii).Static branch prediction.
Answer :
Introduction
In pipelined processors, branch instructions can disrupt smooth execution by causing pipeline
flushes. To address this, processors employ branch prediction techniques that “guess” the
branch outcome before it is resolved. Two broad classes of branch prediction exist:
 Dynamic (Runtime) Branch Prediction: Uses hardware feedback based on past
behavior.
 Static Branch Prediction: Relies on compile-time or fixed heuristics to predict the
branch decision.
Each approach has its advantages and trade-offs. The following sections discuss
recommended techniques for both dynamic and static branch prediction.
Part (i): Recommended Techniques for Dynamic Branch Prediction
Overview: Dynamic branch prediction schemes rely on runtime information by analyzing the
history of branches to make accurate decisions. They typically use hardware structures that
update as the program executes.
Key Techniques
1. 2-Bit Saturating Counter Predictor:
o Concept: Each branch is associated with a 2-bit counter that increments or
decrements based on whether the branch was taken or not. The prediction is
“taken” if the counter is in one of its two higher states and “not taken”
otherwise.
o Benefits: It smooths out the noise from occasional mispredictions and avoids
rapid toggling.
2. Two-Level Adaptive Predictors:
o Local History Predictors: These use a Branch History Table (BHT) that
records the recent outcome history for each branch. The history is then used to
index into a pattern history table (PHT) of 2-bit counters.
o Global History Predictors (Gshare): Instead of keeping separate history for
each branch, they use a Global History Register (GHR) that captures the
outcomes of the most recent branches across the program. A combining
function (often an XOR) is applied to the GHR and branch address bits to
select a counter value.
o Benefits: Two-level adaptive predictors can capture correlation among
different branch outcomes, often reducing the misprediction rate significantly.
3. Branch Target Buffer (BTB):
o Concept: In addition to predicting the outcome (taken or not taken), it is
critical to quickly determine the branch target address. A BTB stores recently
computed branch addresses and their target addresses, thus helping to speed up
speculative fetching.
o Benefits: This enables the dynamic predictor to provide a complete fetch
address for next-cycle instruction fetch.
Diagram: Dynamic Branch Prediction Architecture
plaintext
+--------------------------------------+
| Dynamic Branch Predictor |
 +--------------------------------------+
| |
| +---------+ +--------------+ |
| | GHR |---->| PHT / 2-bit | |
| +---------+ | Counters | |
| ^ +--------------+ |
| | ^ |
Branch Inst --+ | | +--> Prediction (Taken/Not Taken)
Address -----------+ | |
| | |
| +-----------------+------------+
| | BTB: Branch Target Buffer|
| +------------------------------+
+--------------------------------------+
Explanation:
 The Global History Register (GHR) (or Local History Table in some designs)
collects branch outcomes.
 The history, possibly combined with part of the branch address, indexes a Pattern
History Table (PHT) that holds 2-bit saturating counters.
 The counter value is interpreted to predict the branch as taken or not taken.
 A Branch Target Buffer (BTB) provides the target instruction address if the branch
is predicted taken.
 The predictor is updated on branch resolution to refine future predictions.
Part (ii): Recommended Techniques for Static Branch Prediction
Overview: Static branch prediction methods make a prediction based on fixed, compile-time
information or simple heuristics. They do not change at runtime, making them simpler to
implement but less adaptive than dynamic methods.
Key Techniques
1. Always Taken / Always Not Taken:
o Always Taken: This simple heuristic predicts that every branch will be taken.
o Always Not Taken: Alternatively, predict that every branch is not taken.
 o Use Case: While simple, these methods are only effective if branch behavior
is strongly biased in one direction.
2. Backward-Taken, Forward-Not Taken (BTFNT):
o Concept: Often used because loops usually branch backward (toward the start
of the loop) and are taken, while most forward branches (like conditionals) are
not taken.
o Use Case: This heuristic works well for structured programs where loop
behavior dominates.
3. Profile-Guided Prediction:
o Concept: Here, the compiler uses profiling information gathered from
previous runs to annotate the binary with the most likely branch directions.
o Benefits: It can adapt to common cases well and improve overall prediction
accuracy over “always taken” or “fixed” heuristics.
Diagram: Static Branch Prediction Approaches
plaintext
+----------------------------+
| Static Branch Predictor |
+----------------------------+
/ \
/ \
/ \
+--------+ +--------------+
| Always Taken | Always Not Taken |
+--------+ +--------------+
\ /
+----------+-----------------+
|Backwards-Taken, Forward |
| Not Taken |
+----------+-----------------+
|
v
+--------------------------------------+
 | Optional: Profile-Guided Methods |
| (Compiler Inserts Prediction Flags) |
+--------------------------------------+
Explanation:
 The simplest methods use fixed rules—either “always taken” or “always not taken.”
 The Backward-Taken, Forward-Not-Taken (BTFNT) heuristic improves upon the
naive methods by recognizing that loops (backward branches) are usually taken.
 Profile-Guided Prediction introduces the notion of using offline profiling data to
fine-tune the prediction embedded in the compiled code.
9. Examine the approaches would you use to handle exceptions in MIPS.
Answer :
1. Overview of Exception Handling in MIPS
In MIPS, an exception is any event that alters the normal flow of instructions. Exceptions
include both synchronous events such as arithmetic overflow, system calls, invalid opcodes,
and asynchronous events such as external interrupts or bus errors. The overall approach is to
quickly save processor state, identify the cause, flush the pipeline appropriately, and then
branch to an exception handler using well‐defined hardware mechanisms.
2. Key Steps and Mechanisms for Handling Exceptions
A. Detection and Identification
 Detection: Exceptions are detected at various pipeline stages. For instance, arithmetic
units detect overflow during execution, while the memory access stage may detect bus
errors. The hazard detection or exception detection unit monitors these events.
 Identification: The processor designates the type of exception through exception
codes and sets relevant bits (in the Cause register). Particular care is taken when
exceptions occur in the branch delay slot (the instruction immediately following a
branch) to record accurate return addresses.
B. Saving the Context
 Register Save: When an exception occurs, the current Program Counter (PC) is saved
in the Exception Program Counter (EPC) register.
o For normal instructions: EPC holds the address of the instruction causing
the exception.
o For branch delay slot exceptions: EPC holds the address of the branch
instruction.
 Status and Cause Registers: The Status register is modified to disable further
interrupts (by setting an exception level bit) and to preserve processor state. The
 Cause register is updated with an exception code and additional information about the
exception reason.
C. Flushing the Pipeline
 Pipeline Flush: To ensure that no erroneous instructions continue to execute, the
pipeline is flushed. All instructions in-flight (or in delay slots) that follow the
offending instruction are canceled.
 Handling Delay Slots: For instructions in the branch delay slot, special handling
occurs so that the EPC reflects the correct location.
D. Branching to the Exception Handler
 Exception Vector: The processor uses a pre-determined exception vector (for
example, at address 0x80000180 for general exceptions or 0x80000080 depending on
the system) as the starting point of the exception handler routine.
 Transfer of Control: Once the context is saved and the pipeline is flushed, control is
transferred to the exception handler, which is responsible for addressing the error
(further diagnosing, servicing system calls, handling interrupts, etc.).
E. Restoration and Return
 ERET Instruction: After the exception routine completes its work, the handler
executes an ERET (Exception Return) instruction. This instruction restores the state
from the EPC (and status register) and resumes execution where the exception
occurred.
3. Diagram: Exception Handling Flow in a MIPS Pipeline
Below is an ASCII diagram illustrating how exceptions are detected and handled in a MIPS
pipelined processor:
plaintext
[MIPS Pipeline]
+-------------------------+
| Instruction Memory |
+-----------+-------------+
|
v
+------------------+
| IF Stage | <--- (Fetch)
+------------------+
|
 v
+------------------+
| IF/ID Reg |
+------------------+
|
v
+------------------+
| ID Stage | <--- (Decode, Register Read)
+------------------+
|
v
+------------------+
| EX Stage | <--- (Execution & Exception Detect)
+------------------+
| \
Exception? \ (No Exception)
| \
v v
+--------------------------+
| Exception Detection Unit|
+--------------------------+
|
(If exception detected) | Save Current PC into EPC,
| update Cause & Status regs,
v
+----------------------+
| EPC, Cause, |
| Status Registers |
+----------------------+
 |
v
+------------------------------+
| Flush Pipeline (NOPs) |
+------------------------------+
|
v
+----------------------------+
| Exception Vector Address |
| (e.g. 0x80000180) |
+----------------------------+
|
v
+----------------------------+
| Exception Handler Routine |
+----------------------------+
|
v
+----------------------------+
| Execute ERET |
| (Restore State & Resume) |
+----------------------------+
Diagram Explanation:
1. Normal Instruction Flow: Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed in
successive stages.
2. Exception Detection: At the execution (EX) stage, the exception detection unit
monitors for illegal operations or hazardous conditions.
3. Saving the Context: Upon an exception, the EPC is loaded with the correct PC value;
the Cause and Status registers are updated.
 4. Flushing & Branching: The pipeline is flushed (all in-flight instructions are
canceled), and control is transferred to the exception vector—where a dedicated
exception handler routine begins execution.
5. Return: After handling, the ERET instruction restores the processor state and
resumes normal execution at the saved EPC value.
10.i).Analyze the hazards caused by unconditional branching statements and pipelining
a processor using an example.
ii).Describe operand forwarding in a pipeline processor with a diagram.
Answer :
(i): Hazards Caused by Unconditional Branching in a Pipelined Processor
1. Nature of the Hazard
In a pipelined processor, instructions are overlapped in various stages (IF, ID, EX, MEM,
WB). An unconditional branch instruction (e.g., j label in MIPS) forces a change in the
control flow. Because the branch decision is typically determined only in a later stage (such
as the EX stage), the processor has already fetched and possibly even begun decoding
subsequent sequential instructions. This leads to a control hazard—a situation where the
pipeline must decide what to do with instructions that were speculatively fetched after the
branch.
2. Effects Illustrated by an Example
Example Scenario: Consider the following instructions in a MIPS-like ISA:
 I1: j Label – Unconditional branch
 I2: add R3, R1, R2 – Next sequential instruction
Hazard Analysis:
 Control Hazard: When I1 is fetched and enters the pipeline, the branch target is
unknown until I1 is resolved, so the processor continues to fetch I2. For an
unconditional branch, we know that the branch will be taken; however, because the
pipeline cannot confirm the branch condition early, I2 is fetched and may enter the
decode stage even though it should not be executed.
 Pipeline Flushing or Delay Slot Utilization: To handle this, designers generally have
two options:
o Flush the pipeline: Once the branch is resolved (in the EX stage), the
instructions in IF/ID that were wrongly fetched are canceled (turned into no-
operations).
o Utilize a Branch Delay Slot: In MIPS, the instruction immediately following
an unconditional branch is always executed regardless of the branch’s
outcome, so the compiler is tasked with placing an instruction in the delay slot
that is both useful and correct whether the branch is taken or not.
3. Diagram: Pipeline with an Unconditional Branch
Below is an ASCII timeline diagram that shows how an unconditional branch instruction
causes a control hazard and leads to either a pipeline flush or planning for a delay slot:
Pipeline Stages:
IF --> ID --> EX --> MEM --> WB
---------------------------------------------------
Cycle 1: I1(IF)
Cycle 2: I1(ID) I2(IF)
Cycle 3: I1(EX) I2(ID) ---> Hazard detected (branch in I1)
Cycle 4: I1(MEM) [Bubble/NOP] (I2 flushed or pre-scheduled in delay slot)
Cycle 5: I1(WB) I3(IF) (Fetch from target address "Label")
Explanation of the Diagram:
 Cycle 1–2: I1 (the branch) is fetched and decoded while I2 is also fetched.
 Cycle 3: I1 enters the EX stage where the branch target is resolved. At this point, the
hazard detection logic identifies that I2 should not continue along the normal
sequential path.
 Cycle 4: I2 is either flushed (replaced by a bubble/NOP) or, in a design with a branch
delay slot, I2 is a pre-scheduled, safe instruction.
 Cycle 5: The pipeline resumes fetching instructions from the branch target.
Part (ii): Operand Forwarding in a Pipeline Processor
1. Purpose of Operand Forwarding
Operand forwarding (or bypassing) is a technique to resolve data hazards that occur when
subsequent instructions need data that is still “in-flight” in the pipeline rather than waiting to
be written back to the register file. Instead of stalling the pipeline until an earlier instruction
completes (and its result is written back), the result is "forwarded" directly from a later stage
(typically EX/MEM or MEM/WB) to an earlier stage where it is needed (usually the ALU
input for the next instruction).
2. How Operand Forwarding Works
 Detection: The forwarding unit monitors the destination registers of instructions in
the EX, MEM, or WB stages.
 Decision: When the source operand of an instruction in the EX stage is the same as a
destination register of an instruction ahead in the pipeline, the forwarding unit
activates multiplexers to choose the most up-to-date value.
  Data Path Bypass: Instead of waiting for the register file update, the recently
computed result is routed (“bypassed”) directly to the ALU input of the dependent
instruction.
3. Diagram: Operand Forwarding in a Pipeline
Below is an ASCII diagram showing two instructions where the result from an earlier
instruction (I1) is forwarded to a dependent instruction (I2):
I1: Instruction producing a result
-----------------------------------
| IF | ID | EX | MEM | WB |
-----------------------------------
↓ ↑
| | (Forwarding path)
I2: Instruction consuming the result
------------------------------------------
| IF | ID | EX | MEM | WB |
------------------------------------------
^ ^
|---(MUX Select)--|

Legend:
- The forwarding unit detects that I2’s operand (in its EX stage) is the destination of I1.
- Data is forwarded from I1’s MEM stage (or EX, if available) to the ALU input for I2.
- Multiplexers at I2’s ALU input select between the register file output and the forwarded
result.
Detailed Explanation:
 I1 Execution: I1 calculates the result in its EX stage. Instead of waiting until WB to
write the result into the register file, the value can be used immediately.
 I2 Dependency: I2 enters its EX stage and requires the operand that I1 is about to
produce. The forwarding unit checks and identifies that I1’s result should be
forwarded.
 MUX Operation: A multiplexer at the ALU input of I2 selects the forwarded value
from I1 (coming from the EX/MEM pipeline register) rather than the stale value from
the register file.
  Impact: This bypassing minimizes stalls and increases throughput by keeping the
pipeline full and reducing wait cycles.
11. Express the simple data path with control unit and modified data path to
accommodate pipelined executions with a diagram
Answer :
1. Simple (Single‐Cycle) Datapath with Control Unit
In a simple single-cycle processor, an instruction is fetched, decoded, executed, and its result
written back in one clock cycle. All functional units work in a sequential “data‐path” that
directly reflects the instruction’s requirements. The main components include:
 Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction.
 Instruction Memory: Retrieves the instruction using the PC.
 Instruction Register (IR): Temporarily holds the fetched instruction.
 Control Unit: Decodes the instruction’s opcode (and other fields) to generate control
signals that steer the data—for example, to choose ALU inputs or select between
register file or immediate data.
 Register File: Contains the processor’s general registers. It supplies operands (using
read ports) and accepts the result (using write port).
 Sign-Extension Unit: Extends immediate fields (from 16 bits to 32 bits) when
needed.
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Performs arithmetic or logic operations.
 Data Memory: Accessed during load/store instructions; reads or writes data.
 Multiplexers (MUXes): Switch between alternative data sources (e.g., ALUSrc MUX
picks between a register operand and an immediate) or select the proper destination
register (RegDst MUX).
Diagram: Simple (Single-Cycle) Datapath
plaintext
+-----------------------------+
PC ------------>| Instruction Memory | <-- Fetch instruction
+--------------+--------------+
|
V
+----------------------+
| Instruction Reg |
 +----------------------+
|
V
+---------------------------------------+
| Control Unit |
| (Generates signals: RegDst, ALUSrc, |--+
| ALUOp, MemRead, MemWrite, MemtoReg, | | Control signals
| RegWrite, etc.) | |
+---------------------------------------+ |
| |
| |
+---------+---------+ |
| | |
V V V
+----------------------+ +----------------------+
| Register File |<--- read ports ---| Sign Extend Unit |
| (Read Registers Rs, | | (Immediate to 32-bit)|
| Rt; Write Rd) | +----------------------+
+---------+------------+
| \
read data1| \read data2
| \
| \
| +-------------+ +--------------------------------+
+----->| ALUSrc |<---------| Control signal ALUSrc |
| MUX | | (Selects second ALU operand) |
+------+------+ +--------------------------------+
|
V
 +-------+
| ALU | <--- ALUOp (arithmetic/logic control)
+---+---+
|
V
+---------+
| Data |
| Memory | <--- MemRead/MemWrite control signals
+---------+
|
V
+---------------+
| Write Back |<--- MUX selecting output: ALU result or
| (Register File| Data Memory output as per MemtoReg
| Write) | control signal.
+---------------+
Explanation:
 The PC supplies the address to the Instruction Memory, which returns an instruction;
that instruction is stored in the Instruction Register.
 The Control Unit decodes the instruction, generating signals that drive multiplexers
and direct operations in the ALU, Data Memory, and Register File.
 The Register File supplies operands to the ALU and receives write-back data.
 Multiplexers (such as the ALUSrc MUX and MemtoReg MUX) are used to select
alternative data paths according to the type of instruction.
 All operations complete in one clock cycle in this design.
2. Modified Datapath for Pipelined Execution
To increase throughput, the processor is modified into a pipelined design that overlaps the
execution of multiple instructions. The stages are generally divided into:
1. IF (Instruction Fetch)
2. ID (Instruction Decode / Register Read)
3. EX (Execution / Computation)
 4. MEM (Memory Access)
5. WB (Write Back)
Each stage is separated by pipeline registers that hold the intermediate values. The control
unit remains, but additional hazard detection, forwarding, and stall mechanisms may be used
(not shown in full detail in our diagram).
Key Modifications:
 Pipeline Registers: Insert registers between IF/ID, ID/EX, EX/MEM, and MEM/WB
stages. These hold the intermediate data (instruction fields, operand values, ALU
result, etc.).
 Stage-Specific Control: Control signals generated in one stage are passed along in
pipeline registers to ensure that each instruction carries the necessary control
information.
 Increased Complexity: The pipeline requires careful handling of hazards such as
data, control, and structural hazards through techniques like forwarding and stalling;
however, the basic concept is partitioning the datapath into distinct stages operating
concurrently.
Diagram: Pipelined Datapath with Pipeline Registers
plaintext
----------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------
-----------------------
| IF Stage | | ID Stage | | EX Stage | | MEM Stage |
----------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------
-----------------------
| Instruction Fetch | -->| Instruction Decode | -->| ALU Operation | -->| Data
Memory Access |
----------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------
-----------------------
| | | |
V V V V
+--------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+
| IF/ID Reg | ------------>| ID/EX Reg | ------------>| EX/MEM Reg | ------------>|
MEM/WB Reg |
+--------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+
(Holds control, (ALU result, & (Data from Mem or
 register data, etc.) forwarding signals) ALU result, etc.)
|
V
+--------------+
| WB Stage |
| (Write Back |
| to Reg File)|
+--------------+
Detailed Explanation:
 IF Stage: The Program Counter (PC) and Instruction Memory function as in the
simple design. The fetched instruction is stored in the IF/ID pipeline register.
 ID Stage: In this stage, the instruction is decoded and operands are read from the
Register File. Meanwhile, the Control Unit generates the control signals (which are
stored in the ID/EX pipeline register) along with the register read data.
 EX Stage: The ALU operates on the operands received (with possible modifications
from forwarding paths). The ALU result and any control signals are passed on to the
EX/MEM pipeline register.
 MEM Stage: For load and store instructions, the Data Memory is accessed. The
resulting data and/or the ALU result (for other instructions) are stored in the
MEM/WB pipeline register.
 WB Stage: Finally, the correct result is written back to the Register File.
The pipelined datapath allows concurrent execution of different parts of multiple instructions
—thus increasing throughput. However, extra logic like hazard detection units and
forwarding paths (not fully depicted here) are needed to handle dependencies between
instructions.

12.With a suitable set of sequence of instructions show what happens when the branch
is taken, assuming the pipeline is optimized for branches that are not taken and that we
moved the branch execution to the stage.
Answer :
1. Instruction Sequence Example
Consider the following (MIPS-like) sequence of instructions:

mips
I1: add $t0, $t1, $t2 ; Compute $t0 = $t1 + $t2
I2: beq $t0, $zero, L1 ; Branch to label L1 if $t0 == 0
I3: sub $t3, $t4, $t5 ; Instruction following branch (fetched speculatively)
...
L1: or $t6, $t7, $t8 ; Branch target instruction at label L1
Assumptions:
 The pipeline is optimized for branches that are not taken: By default, the hardware
predicts that branches will not be taken so that sequential instructions (like I3) are
fetched immediately.
 The branch decision (i.e., the branch “execution”) has been moved to an early stage
(typically EX) to minimize penalty when the branch is not taken.
 In this example, although the hardware predicts “not taken,” the branch is actually
taken because I2 finds that $t0 equals zero.
2. What Happens When the Branch Is Taken
1. Speculative Fetch under “Not Taken” Assumption:
o I1 is fetched and executed normally.
o I2 (the BEQ instruction) is fetched and starts its journey through the pipeline.
o Because the processor is optimized for “branch not taken,” the next sequential
instruction (I3) is fetched speculatively as if the branch will not occur.
2. Branch Evaluation in the EX Stage:
o When I2 reaches the EX stage, its branch condition (whether $t0 equals zero)
is evaluated.
o In our case, the condition is met—so the branch is taken.
o At this point, the branch target address (label L1) is computed.
3. Flushing Incorrectly Fetched Instructions:
o Because I3 was fetched under the wrong assumption (that the branch would
not be taken), it is now recognized as a mis-speculated instruction.
o The control logic flushes (or cancels) I3 (and any later instructions also
fetched along the wrong path).
o The PC is then updated to the branch target address (address of L1).
4. Resuming at the Correct Target:
o New instructions are fetched starting at label L1.
o The pipeline continues execution from the branch target.
3. Pipeline Timeline Diagram
Below is an ASCII timeline diagram that shows the progress of the instructions through a
classic five-stage pipeline (IF, ID, EX, MEM, WB). Assume that the branch decision is made
in the EX stage.
plaintext
Pipeline Stages: IF ID EX MEM WB

Cycle 1: I1: IF
-------------------------------
Cycle 2: I1: ID | I2: IF
-------------------------------
Cycle 3: I1: EX | I2: ID | I3: IF <-- I3 is speculatively fetched!
-------------------------------
Cycle 4: I1: MEM | I2: EX* | I3: ID <-- I2 EX: Branch decision is made:
------------------------------- condition true → branch taken.
(I3 is flushed since branch is taken)
Cycle 5: I1: WB | I2: MEM | L1: IF <-- Fetch from branch target address L1.
-------------------------------
Cycle 6: | I2: WB | L1: ID
-------------------------------
Cycle 7: | | L1: EX ... (and so on)
Notes on the Diagram:
 Cycle 2–3:
o I1 proceeds normally.
o I2 is fetched and decoded.
o I3 is fetched because the hardware assumes “branch not taken.”
 Cycle 4:
o I2 is in the EX stage and the branch condition is evaluated (marked with *).
o Since the branch is taken, I3 (which is in the ID stage) is no longer valid and
will be flushed.
  Cycle 5 onward:
o The pipeline begins fetching instructions from the correct branch target—L1
—as indicated by the updated PC.
o The instructions following the branch target (at L1) now enter the pipeline.

13 i) Define multiple issue.

ii) Differentiate static and dynamic multiple issues.
Answer :
i)Define Multiple Issue
Multiple Issue refers to an architecture in which a processor can issue—and ideally execute
—more than one instruction concurrently in a single clock cycle. In other words, the
processor is designed to exploit fine-grained instruction-level parallelism by using multiple
execution units. The key idea is to increase throughput (instructions per cycle) by overlapping
the execution of instructions as much as possible. Multiple issue can be implemented in two
broad ways:
 Superscalar (Dynamic) Multiple Issue: The hardware examines a window of
instructions at runtime and decides, dynamically, which ones to issue concurrently.
 Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) or Static Multiple Issue: The compiler
bundles several independent operations into one wide instruction word so that the
hardware can execute several operations in parallel without needing complex dynamic
scheduling.
(ii): Differentiate Static and Dynamic Multiple Issue
Static Multiple Issue
Definition: Static multiple issue (commonly associated with VLIW architectures) relies on
the compiler to determine at compile time which instructions can be executed concurrently.
The compiler groups independent operations together into a single “bundle” (or very long
instruction word), and the hardware simply issues all the operations in the bundle
simultaneously.
Characteristics:
 Compile-Time Scheduling: The compiler performs dependency analysis and
schedules instructions into bundles. This reduces the need for complex hardware, as
much of the hazard detection and scheduling work is done ahead of time.
 Simplicity of Hardware: Because the compiler has already arranged instructions for
parallel execution, the hardware does not need sophisticated dynamic scheduling logic
(e.g., reservation stations, reorder buffers). This can result in a simpler and potentially
more power-efficient design.
  Limitations:
o Static Nature: The success of parallel execution heavily depends on the
compiler’s ability to identify parallelism, which might be limited if runtime
behavior differs from compile-time assumptions.
o Binary Code Size: Bundling may sometimes lead to the inclusion of “no
operation” (NOP) slots if a bundle cannot be fully filled, reducing effective
parallelism.
Diagram: Static (VLIW) Multiple Issue
plaintext
+------------------------------------------------+
| Instruction Bundle |
| ------------------------------------------------ |
| | Inst1 | Inst2 | Inst3 | ... | InstN | |
| ------------------------------------------------ |
+------------------------------------------------+
| | |
V V V
[ Functional Unit 1 ]
[ Functional Unit 2 ]
[ Functional Unit 3 ]
...
Explanation:
 The compiler groups, for example, an ALU operation, a memory load, and a floating-
point operation into one wide instruction word.
 Each of these operations is directed to a different dedicated functional unit for parallel
execution.
Dynamic Multiple Issue
Definition: Dynamic multiple issue, often seen in superscalar processors, uses hardware
techniques to decide at runtime which instructions should be executed concurrently. The
processor has an instruction window (or buffer), and it dynamically checks for independent
instructions and issues those that do not conflict, sometimes reordering instructions out-of-
order to maximize parallel usage of available functional units.
Characteristics:
  Runtime Scheduling: The processor’s control logic—using components such as
reservation stations, scoreboards, and reorder buffers—detects dependencies between
instructions and decides dynamically how many and which instructions to issue
concurrently.
 Hardware Complexity: The need for clever algorithms and additional hardware for
hazard detection, dependency checking, instruction reordering, and result forwarding
increases design complexity.
 Adaptability: Dynamic issue can adapt to variations in branch behavior, data
dependencies, and resource availability, often leading to improved actual performance
over a wider range of applications.
 Overhead: The additional hardware may introduce extra power consumption and
larger chip area, and the dynamic scheduling logic has its own latency overhead.
Diagram: Dynamic (Superscalar) Multiple Issue
plaintext
+-------------------------------+
| Instruction Window |
| (Fetches multiple instructions)|
+---------------+---------------+
|
V
+-----------------------------------------+
| Dynamic Issue Logic |
| (Reservation Stations, Scoreboard, |
| Dependency & Hazard Detection Unit) |
+----------------+------------------------+
|
V
+---------------+---------+------------+
| Functional Unit 1 | Functional Unit 2 | Functional Unit 3 |
| (ALU/Integer) | (Load/Store) | (Floating-Point) |
+-------------------+------------------+---------------------+
Explanation:
  Multiple instructions are fetched into an instruction window.
 Hardware dynamically analyzes dependencies between instructions.
 Independent instructions are issued to various functional units concurrently as soon as
they are ready.
Summary Comparison Table

Aspect Static (VLIW) Multiple Dynamic (Superscalar) Multiple Issue

Issue
Scheduling At compile time (by the At runtime (by hardware logic)
compiler)
Hardware Simpler hardware; less More complex hardware; needs dynamic
Complexity dynamic control scheduling logic (e.g., reservation
stations, reorder buffers)
Flexibility and Less flexible; fixed More flexible; adapts to runtime
Adaptability parallelism conditions
Code Relies heavily on Relies on hardware to detect parallelism
Dependence advanced compiler
optimizations
Performance May suffer if bundles are Can dynamically optimize issue; potential
Efficiency not efficiently filled higher throughput

14.i).Explain single cycle and pipelined performance with examples.

ii).Point out the advantages of pipeline over single cycle and limitations of pipelining a
processor's datapath. Suggest the methods to overcome the later part.
Answer :
(i): Single-Cycle vs. Pipelined Performance
Single-Cycle Processor Performance
 Description: In a single-cycle processor, every instruction is executed in one clock
cycle. The clock period is set by the slowest instruction in the design (e.g., a load or
memory access may take the longest), so even simpler instructions use an entire cycle.
For example, if a load instruction requires 500 ps while an arithmetic instruction
ideally takes 300 ps, the clock cycle must be 500 ps to accommodate the load.
 Example: Suppose you have the following instructions:
o I1: add R1, R2, R3
o I2: lw R4, 0(R5)
 o I3: sub R6, R7, R8 In a single-cycle design, each instruction (even I1 and I3,
which could be faster) takes 500 ps. Thus, the throughput is one instruction per
500 ps.
 Performance Implication: While the single-cycle design is simple and has low
control overhead, it forces all instructions to run at the speed of the worst-case path.
Hence, overall throughput is limited.
Pipelined Processor Performance
 Description: A pipelined processor divides the execution process into discrete stages
—typically Instruction Fetch (IF), Instruction Decode (ID), Execute (EX), Memory
Access (MEM), and Write Back (WB). After filling the pipeline, ideally one
instruction completes each cycle, greatly increasing throughput even though each
individual instruction still takes several cycles to flow from start to finish.
 Example: Using the same instructions (I1, I2, I3) in a pipelined processor:
o In cycle 1, I1 is in IF.
o In cycle 2, I1 moves to ID and I2 enters IF.
o In cycle 3, I1 is in EX, I2 in ID, I3 in IF.
o Once the pipeline is full (after around 5 cycles), one instruction finishes on
every subsequent cycle.
 Diagram: Pipelined Execution Timeline
plaintext
Pipeline Stages: IF ID EX MEM WB

Cycle 1: I1: IF
Cycle 2: I1: ID | I2: IF
Cycle 3: I1: EX | I2: ID | I3: IF
Cycle 4: I1: MEM | I2: EX | I3: ID | I4: IF
Cycle 5: I1: WB | I2: MEM | I3: EX | I4: ID | I5: IF
Cycle 6: I2: WB | I3: MEM | I4: EX | I5: ID | I6: IF
Explanation:
o After the pipeline is full (from cycle 5 onward), one instruction is finished
every cycle, even though each instruction still takes 5 stages (or cycles,
ignoring pipeline overhead) to flow through.
o The clock cycle can be shorter (if each stage is optimized) than the worst-case
delay of the single-cycle design, and the overall throughput is higher.
  Performance Implication: The ideal throughput for a pipelined processor is near one
instruction per cycle. However, the actual performance can be reduced by hazards and
pipeline stall cycles.
Part (ii): Advantages and Limitations of Pipelining (with Overcoming Methods)
Advantages of Pipelining Over Single-Cycle
1. Increased Throughput:
o With overlapping instruction execution, a fully loaded pipeline ideally
completes one instruction per cycle.
2. Faster Clock Cycle:
o As the execution is divided into shorter stages, the clock period can be reduced
(since each stage performs a fraction of work).
3. Efficient Hardware Utilization:
o Functional units are continuously active as different instructions occupy
different stages.
4. Higher Performance Potential:
o Overall, pipelining leads to better instruction throughput compared to waiting
for long worst-case cycles in a single-cycle design.
Limitations of Pipelining a Processor’s Datapath
1. Pipeline Hazards:
o Data Hazards: Dependencies between instructions can cause stalls if an
instruction requires a result that isn’t yet available.
o Control Hazards: Branch instructions may lead to mispredicted paths and
require the pipeline to be flushed.
o Structural Hazards: Resource conflicts occur when hardware units needed
by different stages overlap.
2. Increased Complexity and Overhead:
o Additional pipeline registers and control logic (hazard detection, forwarding
logic, branch prediction, etc.) increase design complexity, power consumption,
and potential clock cycle overhead.
3. Pipeline Stalls and Bubbles:
o Hazards can cause idle cycles (stalls) that reduce the ideal throughput.
4. Difficulty in Handling Non-Uniform Instructions:
o Some instructions (e.g., memory operations) may have variable latency,
complicating pipeline balancing.
Methods to Overcome Limitations
1. Operand Forwarding and Bypassing:
o Forward data directly from one pipeline stage (e.g., EX/MEM) to an earlier
stage (e.g., EX), reducing data hazard stalls.
2. Hazard Detection Units:
o Implement hardware that detects potential hazards early and stalls the pipeline
only when necessary.
3. Branch Prediction and Delay Slot Scheduling:
o Use dynamic branch prediction to reduce control hazards. Alternatively,
restructure code to fill branch delay slots.
4. Superscalar and Out-of-Order Execution Techniques:
o With clever scheduling (dynamic issue), instructions can be reordered to avoid
stalls.
5. Pipeline Balancing and Optimization:
o Split stages evenly so that no stage becomes a bottleneck, and use pipeline
registers optimized for minimal overhead.
Diagram: Pipelined Datapath with Hazard Resolution Techniques
plaintext
+----------------------------------------------+
| Pipelined Datapath |
+----------------------------------------------+
| IF | ID | EX | MEM | WB |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+------+
| Inst | Control | ALU | Data | Write|
| Fetch | / Reg | Ops | Memory | Back |
+---------+---------+---------+---------+------+
| | | |
V V V V
+------------------------------------------------+
| Pipeline Registers (IF/ID, ID/EX, EX/MEM, |
| MEM/WB) with Hazard Detection |
 +------------------------------------------------+
| ^
| |-- Operand Forwarding Path
V
[ Hazard Detection Unit & Branch Predictor ]
Explanation of Diagram:
 The diagram shows a classic five-stage pipeline.
 Pipeline registers separate each stage and carry control information.
 The hazard detection unit monitors for data and control hazards and, along with
operand forwarding logic, minimizes stalls.
 A branch predictor is incorporated to reduce control hazards by guessing branch
behavior early.

PART -C
1.Assume the following sequence of instructions are executed on a 5 stage pipelined
processor
Or rl ,r2,r3
Or r2,rl ,r4
Or rl, r1, ,r2
i) Indicate dependences and their type.
ii) Assume there is no forwarding in this pipelined processor. Indicate hazards and
add NOP instructions to eliminate them.
iii) Assume there is a full forwarding .Indicate hazard and add NOP instructions to
eliminate them
Answer :
i): Data Dependences and Their Types
1. Between I1 and I2: • I1 writes to r1 in WB. • I2 reads r1 (as a source
operand) in its ID stage. → Hazard: Read‐After‐Write (RAW) on r1.
2. Between I2 and I3: • I2 writes to r2 in WB. • I3 reads r2 as a source
operand in its ID (and uses it in EX). → Hazard: RAW on r2.
3. Between I1 and I3: • I1 writes to r1 and I3 also reads r1 as a source operand.
→ Hazard: RAW on r1 (I3 depends on the original r1 value produced by I1, even
though I2 does not write r1).
Thus, the sequence has two independent RAW hazards:
  I1 → I2: Hazard on r1.
 I2 → I3: Hazard on r2.
 (And additionally, I3’s read of r1 depends on I1.)
Part (ii): No Forwarding Case – Hazards and NOP Insertion
Key Issue: Without forwarding, a consuming instruction must wait until the producer writes
its result to the register file in the WB stage. That is, the ID stage (which reads the operands)
must be delayed until after the WB of the instruction that produces the needed data.
Timing Requirements
 I1: • IF: Cycle 1 • ID: Cycle 2 • EX: Cycle 3 • MEM: Cycle 4 • WB: Cycle 5
→ The new value of r1 is written in cycle 5.
 I2 Dependency (on r1): I2 must read r1 in ID after cycle 5. → Its ID stage must be
scheduled at cycle 6 or later.
 I2 → I3 Dependency (on r2): Suppose we reschedule I2 so that its IF starts in cycle
5: • I2: IF=Cycle 5, ID=Cycle 6, EX=Cycle 7, MEM=Cycle 8, WB=Cycle 9 → The
new value of r2 will be available in cycle 9. I3 then must have its ID stage no earlier
than cycle 10.
Inserting NOPs
Without stalling, the processor would normally fetch instructions one per cycle. However, to
avoid the hazards we must delay I2 and I3 as follows:
 Between I1 and I2: In an unstalled pipeline, I2 would be fetched in cycle 2. To have
I2’s ID stage occur in cycle 6, we delay its IF to cycle 5. Thus, insert 3 NOPs after
I1.
 Between I2 and I3: With I2’s IF in cycle 5, I2’s WB is in cycle 9. To ensure I3’s ID is
after cycle 9, delay I3’s IF to cycle 9. Thus, insert 3 NOPs after I2.
Pipeline Timeline Without Forwarding
A simplified timeline is shown below:
With No Forwarding (NOPs inserted)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cycle: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ...
------------------------------------------------------------------------
I1: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
NOP: NOP -> NOP -> NOP (3 NOPs inserted)
I2: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
NOP: NOP -> NOP -> NOP (3 NOPs inserted)
I3: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
------------------------------------------------------------------------
  I1: Completes WB in cycle 5 so that I2’s ID in cycle 6 reads updated r1.
 I2: Completes WB in cycle 9 so that I3’s ID in cycle 10 reads updated r2 (and r1
from I1).
Total NOPs inserted: 3 between I1 and I2, and 3 between I2 and I3.
Part (iii): Full Forwarding Case – Hazards and Resolution
When full forwarding is available, the ALU result computed in the EX stage can be directly
forwarded to a subsequent instruction’s EX stage. Thus, the register file update (WB) delay is
masked by bypassing.
How Forwarding Resolves the Hazards
 I1 → I2 (on r1): I1 computes r1 in its EX stage (cycle 3) and the result is available
for forwarding. I2’s EX stage occurs in cycle 4 (if fetched in the normal order). With
forwarding, I2 receives the value immediately from I1’s EX or MEM stage. → No
stall is required.
 I2 → I3 (on r2): Similarly, I2 computes r2 in its EX stage (cycle 4 if I2 is fetched
immediately after I1) and can forward that result to I3’s EX stage (cycle 5). → No
stall is required.
 I1 → I3 (on r1): I3’s use of r1 is also handled by forwarding from I1’s EX stage if
needed. → No stall is required.
Ideal Pipeline Schedule with Full Forwarding
A typical schedule (assuming back-to-back fetch) is:
With Full Forwarding (No NOPs needed)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cycle: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
------------------------------------------------------------------------
I1: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
I2: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
I3: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
------------------------------------------------------------------------
In this ideal schedule:
 I2’s EX stage (cycle 4) gets the value of r1 forwarded from I1’s EX/MEM output.
 I3’s EX stage (cycle 5) gets the value of r2 forwarded from I2’s EX/MEM output (and
r1 from I1, if necessary).
Thus, with full forwarding, no NOPs (stalls) are required.
Final Answers Summary
1. Dependences and Types: – I1 → I2: RAW hazard on r1. – I2 → I3: RAW
hazard on r2. – I1 → I3: RAW hazard on r1.
2. No Forwarding: – To ensure that the ID stage for an instruction (which reads
operands) occurs only after the previous instruction’s WB stage, you must insert
stalls. • Insert 3 NOPs between I1 and I2 (delaying I2 so that its ID is in cycle
6, after I1’s WB in cycle 5). • Insert 3 NOPs between I2 and I3 (delaying I3 so
that its ID is after I2’s WB in cycle 9). – Total: 6 NOPs are needed.
3. Full Forwarding: – With a full forwarding mechanism, results computed in the EX
stage are immediately forwarded to the following instruction’s EX stage. – No
NOPs are required since all RAW hazards (I1→I2, I2→I3, and I1→I3) are resolved
by bypassing the data directly.
3. Consider the following code segment in C: A=b+e; c=b+f; Here (15) |BTL 5|
Evaluating is the generated MIPS code for this segment, assuming all variables
are in memory and are addressable as off sets from $t0:
1w $t1, 0($t0)
1w $t2, 4($t0)
add $t3, $t1, $t2
sw $t3, 12($t0)
1w $t4, 8($t0)
add $t5, $t1,St4
sw St5, 16($t0)
Find the hazards in the preceding code segment and reorder the instructions to
avoid any pipeline stalls.

Answer :
The Given Code Segment
The original MIPS code (with a slight interpretation of variable names) is:
lw $t1, 0($t0) # (I1) Load b
lw $t2, 4($t0) # (I2) Load e
add $t3, $t1, $t2 # (I3) Compute A = b + e
sw $t3, 12($t0) # (I4) Store result A
lw $t4, 8($t0) # (I5) Load f
add $t5, $t1, $t4 # (I6) Compute c = b + f
sw $t5, 16($t0) # (I7) Store result c
Variables interpretation: • b is at offset 0, e at offset 4, f at offset 8; • Result A (b + e)
is stored at offset 12; and • Result c (b + f) is stored at offset 16.
Part (i): Identify Data Dependences and Their Types
Examine each instruction for Read-After-Write (RAW) hazards:
1. I1 → I3: – I1 (lw $t1, 0($t0)) loads b into $t1. – I3 (add $t3, $t1, $t2) reads $t1. →
RAW hazard on $t1.
2. I2 → I3: – I2 (lw $t2, 4($t0)) loads e into $t2. – I3 uses $t2 as the second operand. →
RAW hazard on $t2.
3. I1 → I6: – I1 provides $t1 (b) and I6 (add $t5, $t1, $t4) uses $t1 as the first operand.
→ RAW hazard on $t1 (again).
4. I5 → I6: – I5 (lw $t4, 8($t0)) loads f into $t4. – I6 needs $t4 as its second operand.
→ RAW hazard on $t4.
In summary, dependencies exist between: • I1 and I3 (and I6) on $t1; • I2 and I3 on
$t2; and • I5 and I6 on $t4.
Part (ii): Reordering to Avoid Pipeline Stalls (No Forwarding Assumed)
In a simple 5‐stage non‐forwarding pipeline, a loaded value is not available for an
instruction using it until the WB stage. For example, a load instruction’s result (issued
in IF at cycle 1) writes its register in WB at cycle 5. If a subsequent instruction’s ID
occurs earlier than cycle 6, it reads the stale value.
In the original order, the add instructions (I3 and I6) occur too soon after the
corresponding loads (I1, I2, and I5).
A proven reordering technique is to “group” independent instructions together so that
the value–producing loads have enough time to complete before their values are
needed. Notice that both add instructions depend on $t1, and one add depends on $t2
while the other on $t4. Since these loads come from different memory locations, we
can perform all three loads first, then execute the arithmetic operations, and finally
perform the stores.
Reordered Code:
lw $t1, 0($t0) # Load b
lw $t2, 4($t0) # Load e
lw $t4, 8($t0) # Load f
add $t3, $t1, $t2 # Compute A = b + e
add $t5, $t1, $t4 # Compute c = b + f
sw $t3, 12($t0) # Store A
sw $t5, 16($t0) # Store c
Why This Works: – All loads are performed consecutively. By the time we reach the
add instructions, the values for $t1, $t2, and $t4 are already available (or at least are
scheduled far enough apart to avoid hazards in a no‐forwarding design). – No add
instruction immediately follows its corresponding load, so the pipeline has time to
write back the loaded values before they are used. – The stores occur after the
computations, naturally.
If one were to schedule the original instructions without reordering, NOPs (stall
cycles) would be needed. For instance, between lw $t1 and add $t3, at least two
cycles of delay might be necessary. Reordering eliminates the need for these stalls.
Part (iii): Diagram Illustrating the Reordered Sequence in the Pipeline
Below is an idealized pipeline timeline for the reordered code (assuming one
instruction is fetched per cycle):
Pipeline Stages: IF → ID → EX → MEM → WB
Reordered Code:
I1: lw $t1, 0($t0)
I2: lw $t2, 4($t0)
I3: lw $t4, 8($t0)
I4: add $t3, $t1, $t2
I5: add $t5, $t1, $t4
I6: sw $t3, 12($t0)
I7: sw $t5, 16($t0)

Timeline (each row is a cycle):

 Cycle: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
---------------------------------------------------------------
I1: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
I2: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
I3: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
I4: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
I5: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
I6: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
I7: IF -> ID -> EX -> MEM -> WB
Explanation of the Diagram:
 Cycles 1–3: The three load instructions (I1, I2, I3) are fetched in consecutive cycles.
By the time I4 (the first add) is in its ID stage, the loads have advanced further in the
pipeline; in a no‐forwarding design, the gap provided ensures that by the time the
add’s source registers are read, the WB stage of the corresponding loads has
completed.
 Cycles 4–5: I4 and I5 (the add instructions) are executed. They depend on values
from I1, I2, and I3, but the gap ensures that these registers contain the correct data.
 Cycles 6–7: Finally, the store instructions (I6, I7) are executed to store the computed
results.
Because of this reordering, all RAW hazards are naturally avoided without the
insertion of any NOPs.

3Consider the following loop:

Loop:
1wr1,0(r1)
and rl,rl,r2
1w r1,0(r1)
Iw,r1,0(r1) beq,r1,r0,loop
Assume that perfect branch prediction is used (no stalls) that there are no delay
slots, and that the pipeline has full forwarding support. Also assume that many
iterations of this loop are executed before the loop exits.
i).Assess a pipeline execution diagram for the third iteration of this loop.
ii).Show all instructions that are in the pipeline during these cycles (for all
iterations).

Answer :

Loop Instructions
1. lw r1, 0(r1) - Load word into r1 from memory
2. and r1, r1, r2 - Perform bitwise AND operation on r1 and r2
3. lw r1, 0(r1) - Load word into r1 from memory
4. lw r1, 0(r1) - Load word into r1 from memory
5. beq r1, r0, loop - Branch to loop if r1 equals r0
Pipeline Execution Diagram
For the third iteration:
 C Instr Instr Instr Instr Instr
y uctio uctio uctio uctio uctio
cl n1 n2 n3 n4 n5
e
1 IF
2 ID IF
3 EX ID IF
4 MEM EX ID IF
5 WB MEM EX ID IF
6 WB MEM EX ID
7 WB MEM EX
8 WB MEM
9 WB
In the above table:
 IF = Instruction Fetch
 ID = Instruction Decode
 EX = Execute
 MEM = Memory Access
 WB = Write Back
Instructions in the Pipeline During These Cycles
 During cycle 1, only the first instruction (lw r1, 0(r1)) is in the IF stage.
 During cycle 2, the first instruction is in the ID stage, and the second instruction (and
r1, r1, r2) is in the IF stage.
 During cycle 3, the first instruction moves to the EX stage, the second instruction is in
the ID stage, and the third instruction (lw r1, 0(r1)) is in the IF stage.
 And so on...
4. Plan the pipelining in MIPS architecture and generate the exceptions handled in
MIPS.
Answer :
MIPS Pipeline Overview
MIPS architecture uses a classic 5-stage pipeline:
1. IF (Instruction Fetch): Fetch the instruction from memory.
2. ID (Instruction Decode): Decode the instruction and read the registers.
3. EX (Execution): Perform the operation or calculate an address.
4. MEM (Memory Access): Access memory operand.
5. WB (Write Back): Write the result back into a register.
Planning the Pipelining
Each instruction moves through the stages one at a time, with one instruction entering
the pipeline at each clock cycle. Here's a simple representation for three instructions:

Cycle Instruction Instruction 2 Instruction 3

1
1 IF
2 ID IF
3 EX ID IF
4 MEM EX ID
5 WB MEM EX
6 WB MEM
7 WB
Exceptions Handled in MIPS
MIPS architecture handles a variety of exceptions. Here are 15 common exceptions:
1. Interrupt: External events that require immediate attention.
2. TLB (Translation Lookaside Buffer) Miss (Load or Store): Memory management
unit cannot find a virtual address in the TLB.
3. TLB Invalid (Load or Store): TLB entry is invalid.
4. TLB Modified: TLB entry has been modified.
5. Address Error (Load or Store): Misaligned memory access.
6. Bus Error (Fetch or Store): Invalid memory access.
7. Syscall: System call exception.
8. Breakpoint: Breakpoint exception for debugging.
9. Reserved Instruction: Illegal instruction.
10. Coprocessor Unusable: Attempt to use a disabled coprocessor.
11. Arithmetic Overflow: Integer operation overflow.
12. Trap: Instruction trap exception.
13. Floating-Point Exceptions: Errors related to floating-point operations.
14. Machine Check: Hardware malfunctions.
15. Watchpoint: Watchpoint set for debugging.
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND VLSI DESIGN AND
TECHNOLOGY
QUESTION BANK
SUBJECT : 22VLT402-COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND
ORGANIZATION SEM/YEAR: IV/II
UNIT IV- MEMORY AND 1/0 ORGANIZATION
Part A

1. Distinguish the types of locality of references.

 Temporal Locality: If a program accesses the same memory location

multiple times in a short period, it's called temporal locality.

For example, if a program uses the same variable in a loop.

 Spatial Locality: This happens when a program accesses nearby

memory locations.

For example, when you access consecutive elements in an array.

  Sequential Locality: A special case of spatial locality, where the

program accesses memory locations in a straight sequence, like

reading through a list from start to finish.

For example, if you have an array of numbers and you access each

number from the beginning to the end

2. Define the structure of memory hierarchy in a typical computer system and

draw its diagram.

The memory hierarchy in a computer is a system that arranges different

types of memory based on how fast they are and how much data they can

hold.

 Registers: Super fast, tiny memory inside the CPU.

 Cache: Fast memory near the CPU for

frequently used data.

 RAM: Bigger memory to store data in use.

 Hard Drive/SSD: Large, slower storage for files.

 Tertiary Storage: Very slow, used for backups.

3. Give how many total bits are required for a direct mapped cache with 16KB

of data and 4-word blocks, assuming a 32 bit address

Cache Size = 16 KB = 16,384 bytes

Block Size = 4 words = 16 bytes (since 1 word = 4 bytes)

Number of Blocks = 16,384 ÷ 16 = 1024 blocks

Address Breakdown (32-bit address)

 Offset (to locate a byte in a block) = 4 bits (since each block is 16 bytes)

 Index (to select a block) = 10 bits (since there are 1024 blocks)

 Tag = 32−(10+4)=1832 - (10 + 4) = 1832−(10+4)=18 bits

Total Storage Calculation

 Data storage = 16 KB = 131,072 bits

 Tag storage = 18 bits × 1024 blocks = 18,432 bits

 Valid bits = 1 bit × 1024 blocks = 1,024 bits

Total storage required = 131,072 + 18,432 + 1,024 = 147,008 bits.

✔ Final Answer: 147,008 bits.

4. Compare and contrast SRAM and DRAM

Feature SRAM (Static RAM) DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

Speed Faster Slower

Uses more power (needs

Power Use Uses less power
refreshing)

Uses 1 transistor + 1 capacitor

Memory Cell Uses 6 transistors per cell
per cell

Cost Expensive Cheaper

Storage
Lower (less dense) Higher (more dense)
Capacity

Holds data as long as power Needs constant refreshing to

Data Storage
is on hold data

Used In CPU cache, registers Main memory (RAM)

Simple Summary

 SRAM is fast, expensive, and used in small amounts (like cache

memory).

 DRAM is slower but cheaper and used for main memory (RAM) in

computers.

5. What is miss penalty?

  Miss penalty is the extra time needed to get data from RAM when it

is not found in the cache.

Why Does It Happen?

 The CPU checks the cache for data.

 If the data is not there (cache miss), it must be fetched from RAM.

 This process takes extra time, slowing down the system.

Example:

 Cache access time: 2 ns

 RAM access time: 50 ns

 Miss penalty = 50 ns (extra time to get data).

Key Point:

 A high miss penalty slows down performance, so caches help reduce it.

6. Describe Rotational Latency.

Rotational Latency

Rotational latency is the waiting time for a hard disk’s spinning platter to

rotate and bring the required data under the read/write head.
 How It Works?

1. A hard disk has spinning platters that store data.

2. The read/write head stays in place but waits for the correct sector to rotate

under it.

3. This waiting time is called rotational latency.

4.

Formula: Average Rotational Latency = Half of Rotation Time

Key Point:

Faster spinning disks have lower rotational latency, improving data access

speed.

7. State is direct-mapped cache.

A direct-mapped cache is a type of cache memory where each memory

block is mapped to only one specific cache location.

How It Works?

1. Main memory is divided into blocks.

2. Each block is assigned to a fixed cache line based on an index.

3. If two blocks map to the same cache line, the old block is replaced when

a new one is loaded.

Formula to Find Cache Line:

 Cache line number = (Main Memory Block Address) modulo (Total number

of lines in Cache)

Key Point:

✔ Fast and simple, but if two frequently used blocks map to the same line,

it causes more replacements (cache conflicts).

8. Evaluate Hit Ratios and Effective Access Times in cache

1. Hit Ratio

Hit Ratio = (Cache Hits) / (Total Accesses)

 If data is found in cache, it's a hit; otherwise, it's a miss.

 Miss Ratio = 1 - Hit Ratio

 A higher hit ratio means better cache performance.

2. Effective Access Time (EAT)

 EAT = (Hit Ratio × Cache Access Time) + (Miss Ratio × Miss Penalty)

 Cache Access Time → Time to fetch from cache

 Miss Penalty → Time to fetch from main memory if cache misses

Example Calculation
 Cache time = 10 ns

Memory time = 100 ns

Hit ratio = 0.9

EAT = (0.9*10) + (0.1*100) = 9+10 = 19 ns

Lower EAT = Faster system

Higher Hit Ratio = Better Performance

9. Formulate Fragmentation in virtual memory

Fragmentation happens when memory is not used efficiently. There are two

types:

 External fragmentation: When free memory is scattered into small

pieces, making it hard to allocate large chunks.

 Internal fragmentation: When memory is allocated in blocks that are

too big for what’s needed, wasting space inside each block

10.Analyze the writing strategies in cache memo

Two common writing strategies in cache:

  Write-through: When data is written to both the cache and main memory

at the same time.

 Write-back: Data is only written to the cache, and then later, when the

cache block is replaced, it is written to the main memory.

11.Integrate the functional steps required in an instruction cache miss

When the processor needs an instruction but it’s not in the cache:

 Miss Detected: The system realizes the instruction isn’t in the cache.

 Access Main Memory: It fetches the instruction from the main

memory.

 Store in Cache: The instruction is saved in the cache for future use.

 Use Instruction: The instruction is sent to the CPU for processing.

12. State hit rate and miss rate.

 Hit Rate: The percentage of memory accesses that result in a cache hit (i.e.,

the data is found in the cache).

 Miss Rate: The percentage of memory accesses that result in a cache miss

(i.e., the data is not found in the cache).

13.Summarize the various block placement schemes in cache memory.

Block placement in cache memory refers to how blocks of data are mapped

into the cache. The primary block placement schemes are:

 Direct-mapped: Each block of memory is mapped to exactly one cache

line.

 Fully associative: A block of memory can be placed in any cache line.

 Set-associative: The cache is divided into sets, and each block of

memory can be placed in any line within a specific set.

14.Identify the purpose of Dirty/Modified bit in Cache memory.

Purpose of the Dirty/Modified Bit

 The Dirty/Modified bit tells us if the data in the cache has been changed

after it was loaded from the main memory.

 If the bit is set to 1, it means the data in the cache has been modified, but

the change hasn't been written back to the main memory yet.

 If the bit is set to 0, the data in the cache is the same as in the main

memory, so no need to write it back.

15.Point out the use of parallel bus architecture?

 Parallel bus architecture is used to connect devices on a motherboard or

system when speed is important and the distance between devices is

short. It's also used to increase the throughput of data transfer between a

computer and its peripherals

16.Show the role of TLB in virtual memory.

The Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB) is a small, fast memory unit used to

cache recent virtual-to-physical address translations. Its role in virtual memory

is to speed up address translation by storing a subset of page table entries,

thereby reducing the time needed to access data from memory.

17.Illustrate the advantages of virtual memory.

Advantages of Virtual Memory:

1. Run More Programs: You can run more apps at the same time.

2. Keeps Programs Safe: Each program has its own memory, so they don’t

mess with each other.

3. Better Use of Memory: Virtual memory makes sure RAM is used wisely.

4. Handles Problems: It helps the system fix errors smoothly.

5. More Security: Programs can’t access each other’s memory.

6. Faster: Only the parts of programs needed are loaded, making things

quicker.
 7. Cheap: Virtual memory lets you do more with less physical memory.

18.Assess the use of Overlays in memory.

Overlays let large programs run on computers with limited memory by

loading only the parts of the program needed at any moment. It helps save

memory but can make memory management more complex.

19. Differentiate Paging and segmentation.

Paging and segmentation are both memory management techniques, but

they differ in:

 Paging: Divides memory into fixed-size pages and maps them to physical

memory, ensuring efficient and predictable memory allocation.

 Segmentation: Divides memory into variable-sized segments, typically

based on the logical structure of a program, such as code, data, and stack.

It allows for more flexible memory usage but can lead to fragmentation

20.Demonstrate the sequence of events involved in handling Direct

Memory Access.
DMA allows devices to directly read/write to memory without involving the

CPU. Here’s how it works:

1. The device asks for permission to access memory.

2. The CPU allows the DMA controller to take over.

3. The DMA controller moves the data between the device and memory.

4. When done, the DMA controller tells the CPU, and the CPU takes control

back

PART-B

1. i).Define parallelism and its types.

Parallelism is when a computer performs multiple tasks at the same time.

It helps the computer work faster by dividing a job into smaller parts and

doing them at the same time.

Types of Parallelism:

Data Parallelism

o What it is: The same task is done on different pieces of data at the

same time.

o Example: Adding 1 to every number in a list at once.

2. Task Parallelism

o What it is: Different tasks are done at the same time. Each task is

independent.

o Example: One task handles calculations, while another handles

saving files, all at the same time.

3. Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP)

o What it is: The CPU runs multiple instructions from a program at

the same time.

o Example: While one instruction is being processed, another can be

fetched or decoded.

4. Thread-Level Parallelism

o What it is: A program is divided into smaller parts (threads), and

each thread runs on a separate core of the CPU.

o Example: In a multi-core processor, one core can handle one part

of the program, while another core handles a different part.

5. Bit-Level Parallelism

o What it is: Operations are done on multiple bits at the same time.

o Example: A processor working on 64 bits of data at once instead of

just 1 bit.

6. Pipeline Parallelism

o What it is: A task is broken into stages, and each stage is worked

on at the same time by different parts of the system.

 o Example: In a processor, one part fetches the instruction, another

decodes it, and another executes it, all at the same time.

ii).List the main characteristics and limitations of Instruction level

parallelism.

Characteristics of ILP:

1. Multiple Instructions Simultaneously

ILP allows the CPU to run multiple instructions at the same time,

speeding up the process.

2. Pipelining

ILP lets different stages of instruction (fetch, decode, execute) happen at

the same time, like an assembly line.

3. Out-of-Order Execution

Instructions that don’t depend on each other can be executed out of order

to save time.

4. Superscalar Architecture

Modern CPUs can handle more than one instruction at a time using

multiple units inside the CPU.

5. Faster Processing

ILP increases the speed of the CPU by making it process more

instructions at once.
Limitations of ILP:

1. Data Dependency

If one instruction depends on another’s result, they can’t be executed

at the same time.

2. Branching

If the program has decisions (like if-else statements), it slows down

ILP because the next instruction can’t be decided right away.

3. Hardware Limits

The number of execution units in the CPU limits how many

instructions can be processed in parallel.

4. Resource Conflicts

If multiple instructions need the same resources (like registers or

execution units), they must wait, reducing parallelism.

5. Complex Scheduling

The system has to figure out which instructions can be run together,

which adds complexity.

6. Limited Improvement

As you try to run more instructions in parallel, the benefits may start

to decrease due to hardware and dependency issues.

2. i).Define virtual memory and its importance.

Virtual Memory is a memory management technique that creates the

illusion of a large, continuous memory space, even if the physical memory

(RAM) is limited. It allows a computer to use storage space (such as a hard

drive or SSD) as an extension of RAM. This means that a computer can run

larger programs or more applications than its physical memory would

normally allow.

In simple terms, virtual memory enables the system to swap data between

RAM and storage when needed, providing the illusion of more memory

than physically available.

Importance of Virtual Memory:

1. Enables Larger Programs to Run

Virtual memory allows programs to use more memory than the

computer's physical RAM can provide by temporarily swapping data

between RAM and storage.

2. Improved Multitasking

Virtual memory enables multiple applications to run simultaneously

 without running out of memory, as it provides an extended memory

space by using hard disk space.

3. Memory Isolation

It ensures that each process in the system operates in its own separate

memory space, preventing one program from interfering with another.

This improves system stability and security.

4. Efficient Use of RAM

By managing memory dynamically, virtual memory ensures that RAM is

used more efficiently, only loading parts of programs that are currently

needed into RAM.

5. Error Handling

Virtual memory allows the operating system to handle memory errors

more effectively. For instance, it can detect when there’s insufficient

memory and manage data swapping smoothly.

6. Cost-Effective

Virtual memory allows computers to handle large amounts of data and

run more applications without needing a large amount of physical RAM,

which is more expensive.

7. Security

Virtual memory isolates processes from each other, which prevents one
 process from accessing or damaging another’s memory. This improves

security and prevents data corruption.

ii).Examine TLB with necessary diagram .What is its use?

A Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB) is a small, fast cache used in computers to

speed up the translation of virtual addresses to physical addresses. When a

program accesses memory, the system needs to translate the virtual address

(used by the program) to a physical address (actual memory location). This

translation is usually done through a page table. The TLB stores recent address

translations to make this process quicker.

How TLB Works:

1. Virtual Address: The program generates a virtual address for accessing

memory.

2. TLB Check: The TLB is checked to see if the translation for that virtual

address is already stored (called a "TLB hit").

3. Page Table Check: If the translation is not in the TLB (a "TLB miss"), the

system has to look up the address in the page table.

4. Update TLB: If the page table lookup is successful, the translation is

stored in the TLB for future use.

Uses of TLB:

1. Faster Address Translation: The TLB reduces the time spent in translating

virtual addresses to physical addresses by storing recent translations.

2. Reduces Memory Access Time: By avoiding repeated page table lookups,

the TLB improves system performance.

3. Efficient Use of Virtual Memory: TLB helps manage large memory spaces

by quickly translating addresses without slowdowns.

Conclusion:
 The TLB is a key component in speeding up memory access by caching

recent virtual-to-physical address translations. This improves the overall

performance of the computer system.

3. i).List the various memory technologies and examine its relevance

in architecture design.

Memory technology plays a crucial role in computer architecture design. The

performance, speed, capacity, and energy efficiency of a system often depend

heavily on the memory technology it employs. Below is a list of various

memory technologies, followed by their relevance to architecture design:

Various Memory Technologies and Their Relevance in Architecture Design

1. SRAM (Static RAM):

o Description: A fast, volatile memory that does not require

refreshing to maintain data.

o Relevance: Used in cache memory due to its speed. It's crucial for

improving processor performance, but it is more expensive and

consumes more power than other memory types. It’s used in small

amounts to speed up data access.

2. DRAM (Dynamic RAM):

o Description: A slower, volatile memory that requires periodic

refreshing to maintain data.

o Relevance: Main memory (RAM) in computers. It is cheaper and

offers more storage compared to SRAM, but it is slower. The

memory hierarchy in architecture uses DRAM in combination with

faster caches (like SRAM) for efficient performance.

3. Flash Memory:

o Description: A non-volatile memory that retains data when power

is off.

o Relevance: Used for storage in devices like SSDs and USB drives.

Flash memory is slower than DRAM but cheaper, making it ideal

for large-scale storage in consumer electronics and data centers.

4. Phase-Change Memory (PCM):

o Description: A non-volatile memory that uses heat to change the

phase of a material and store data.

o Relevance: PCM could replace both DRAM and Flash due to its

combination of speed and non-volatility. It could act as both

memory and storage, improving system architecture by offering

faster data access while retaining data without power.

5. ReRAM (Resistive RAM):

o Description: Non-volatile memory that stores data by changing the

resistance in a material.

o Relevance: Offers faster access speeds and higher endurance than

Flash. It has the potential to replace both Flash and DRAM in

future systems, improving overall system performance with low

power consumption and fast data retrieval.

6. MRAM (Magnetoresistive RAM):

o Description: A non-volatile memory that uses magnetic states to

store data.

o Relevance: MRAM combines the speed of DRAM with the non-

volatility of Flash. It could be used in high-performance computing

systems for both fast memory and long-term data storage, reducing

the need for separate DRAM and Flash.

7. 3D XPoint:

o Description: A new type of non-volatile memory, faster than Flash

but slower than DRAM.

o Relevance: Positioned between storage and memory, it provides

high-speed data access with persistence. 3D XPoint could be used

 in future system designs as a memory tier, improving both data

storage and processing speed.

ii). Identify the characteristics of memory system.

 Capacity:

 Definition: The total amount of data a memory system can store,

measured in bytes (GB, TB).

 Relevance: A larger capacity allows for more data to be stored. However,

increasing capacity often comes with trade-offs in cost, speed, and power

consumption.

 Speed (Latency):
  Definition: The time it takes to access data from memory, typically

measured in nanoseconds.

 Relevance: Faster memory speeds lead to quicker data retrieval,

improving overall system performance. Different parts of the system

(e.g., cache vs. main memory) use different memory types to balance

speed and capacity.

 Volatility:

 Definition: Whether the memory retains data when the system is powered

off.

 Relevance: Volatile memory (like DRAM) loses data when power is off

and is used for temporary storage. Non-volatile memory (like Flash)

retains data and is used for long-term storage.

 Cost:

 Definition: The price per unit of memory (e.g., cost per GB).

 Relevance: Faster, higher-capacity memory tends to be more expensive.

System architecture needs to balance high-cost, fast memory (e.g.,

SRAM) with lower-cost, larger memory (e.g., DRAM, Flash).

 Power Consumption:
  Definition: The amount of power the memory consumes during

operation.

 Relevance: Lower power consumption is crucial for mobile devices and

laptops. Technologies like MRAM and ReRAM are designed for low

power usage, making them ideal for energy-efficient systems.

 Access Time:

 Definition: The time required for memory to respond to a request to

access data.

 Relevance: Faster access times (e.g., with SRAM) are important for tasks

requiring quick data retrieval, such as in cache memory. Slower access

time memory like DRAM is used for larger storage at lower costs.
4. Apply how Internal Communication Methodologies is useful in

developing computer architecture.

Internal Communication Methodologies in Computer Architecture

Internal communication in computer architecture refers to how different

components (like the CPU, memory, and I/O devices) exchange data within the

system. These communication methods play a crucial role in system

performance, scalability, and efficiency. Below is a simpler explanation of these

methodologies and how they help develop better computer architectures:

1. Bus Systems and Data Communication

 What it is: A bus is a shared path used for transferring data between

components like the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

 How it helps: Buses allow efficient data transfer between parts of the

computer. The width and speed of the bus (e.g., 32-bit or 64-bit) affect

how fast data can move, impacting overall performance.

 Example: A system bus helps move data and instructions quickly

between the processor and memory, improving the system’s speed.

2. Memory Hierarchy and Communication

 What it is: Memory hierarchy is the organization of different types of

memory, from fast but small (like cache) to slower but large (like hard

drives).

 How it helps: Efficient communication between these memory levels

ensures that frequently used data is accessed faster, reducing delays and

improving performance.

 Example: Cache memory stores frequently used data, and write-back or

write-through strategies help control how data is transferred between the

CPU and memory.

3. Interconnects and Network-on-

Chip (NoC)

 What it is: Interconnects are the

physical pathways (like wires) that

link different components.

Network-on-Chip (NoC) is a

newer method used in multi-core

processors to link the cores together.

 How it helps: NoC allows multiple cores to communicate without

overloading any single connection, improving performance and

bandwidth in multi-core systems.

 Example: In multi-core processors, NoC lets each core access memory

independently, preventing bottlenecks.

4. Parallelism and Synchronization

 What it is: Parallelism involves performing

multiple tasks at the same time, while

synchronization ensures tasks don’t interfere

with each other.

 How it helps: Communication methods allow processors to work

together on tasks while managing dependencies between them, improving

efficiency.

 Example: Mutexes and semaphores in multi-core systems help

synchronize tasks so that resources are shared without errors.

5. Communication Protocols

 What it is:

Communication

protocols define how

data is exchanged

between components (e.g., PCIe, AMBA).

 How it helps: They ensure that data is transmitted reliably and

consistently, affecting how well different parts of the system work

together.

 Example: PCIe is a fast communication protocol used to connect devices

like graphics cards to the CPU, enabling high-speed data transfer.

6. Scalability and System Expansion

 What it is: Scalability means a system can grow in size and capability

without losing performance.

 How it helps: Communication methods like NoC allow systems to

expand (e.g., adding more processors or memory) while maintaining

efficient data transfer.

 Example: Data centers and cloud systems use scalable interconnects to

add more components without slowing down communication.

7. Power Efficiency and Low Latency

 What it is: Power efficiency reduces energy consumption, while low

latency ensures data is transferred quickly.

 How it helps: As mobile devices need longer battery life, power-efficient

communication systems are essential. Low latency ensures that tasks, like

app usage, remain responsive.

 Example: Low-power communication in mobile processors helps

extend battery life while keeping the device fast and responsive.

8. Fault Tolerance and Error Handling

 What it is: Fault tolerance means the system can keep working even if

some parts fail. Error handling ensures any issues are detected and

corrected.

 How it helps: Communication methods incorporate error-checking

mechanisms, making systems more reliable, especially in critical

applications.

 Example: In distributed systems (e.g., cloud computing), error

detection ensures that data remains correct, even when failures occur.
5. i).Demonstrate the DMA controller. Discuss how it improves the

overall performance of the system.

Direct Memory Access (DMA) Controller and Its Impact on System

Performance

What is a DMA Controller?

A DMA (Direct Memory Access)

controller is a hardware component

that helps move data directly between

input/output (I/O) devices (like a hard

drive, keyboard, or printer) and the

memory (RAM) of the computer,

without involving the CPU. This

allows the CPU to focus on other tasks while data is being transferred.
How DMA Works:

1. The CPU tells the DMA controller where to move data (from an I/O

device to memory, or vice versa).

2. The DMA controller handles the data transfer on its own, without

involving the CPU.

3. Once the transfer is done, the DMA controller tells the CPU through an

interrupt.

How DMA Improves System Performance:

1. Reduces CPU Workload:

o Without DMA, the CPU would need to manage every data transfer,

which takes up time and resources.

o With DMA, the CPU doesn't have to worry about moving the data

and can focus on other tasks, making the system more efficient.

2. Faster Data Transfer:

o DMA transfers data directly between the I/O device and memory,

making data transfer faster.

o The CPU doesn’t need to be involved in each step, which speeds

up operations, especially for large data transfers like file copying or

video streaming.
 3. Better Use of System Resources:

o DMA allows the CPU and memory to be used more efficiently, as

data transfer happens in the background without taking up the

CPU’s time.

o This makes the whole system run more smoothly and faster.

4. Lower Latency:

o Data is moved more quickly because the DMA controller can

transfer large amounts of data in one go, reducing delays in the

system.

5. Allows More Tasks to Run at Once:

o Since the CPU isn't busy handling the data transfer, it can work on

other tasks at the same time, improving multitasking and overall

system performance.

Example:

Imagine you're copying a large file from a hard drive to memory. Without

DMA, the CPU would be involved in moving each bit of data, making

everything slower. With DMA, the DMA controller moves the data directly,

allowing the CPU to continue working on other tasks (like opening a web

browser), making the whole system faster.

Conclusion:

The DMA controller improves system performance by allowing data to be

transferred without involving the CPU, which speeds up data movement,

reduces the CPU workload, and makes the system more efficient. This is

especially important for tasks that require transferring large amounts of data,

like gaming, video streaming, or file transfers.

ii).Illustrate how DMA controller is used for direct data transfer

between memory and peripherals?

A Direct Memory Access (DMA) controller facilitates direct data transfer

between the memory and peripheral devices (such as hard drives, printers,

network interfaces) without involving the CPU. This process allows data to
move quickly and efficiently, freeing up the CPU to perform other tasks. Here's

how DMA works in detail:

Steps Involved in DMA Data Transfer:

1. Initialization by CPU:

o The CPU sets up the DMA controller by specifying:

 The source address (where the data is coming from, such as

a peripheral device).

 The destination address (where the data should be placed in

memory).

 The size of the data to be transferred.

 The direction of transfer (whether the data is being read

from or written to the peripheral).

2. DMA Request from Peripherals:

o Once the DMA controller is initialized, the peripheral device (like

a disk drive or network card) sends a DMA request to the

controller when it’s ready to send or receive data.

3. Data Transfer Process:

 o Once the DMA controller receives the request, it takes control of

the system bus to transfer data directly between the peripheral

and memory.

o The CPU is bypassed during this data transfer, meaning the CPU

doesn’t have to be involved in moving data byte-by-byte, saving

processing time.

4. Interrupt Notification:

o After the data transfer is completed, the DMA controller sends an

interrupt signal to the CPU, notifying it that the transfer has

finished.

o The CPU can now process the data that has been transferred or

perform other tasks.

Example of DMA Transfer:

For example, when you download a file from the internet, the data comes from

the network card (a peripheral device) and is stored in memory. The DMA

controller will handle transferring the data from the network card directly to

memory without needing the CPU to copy each piece of data.

Advantages of Using DMA for Direct Data Transfer:

 Speeds up data transfer: The DMA controller allows the direct

movement of data between peripherals and memory, which is much faster

than having the CPU manually move each piece of data.

 Reduces CPU workload: The CPU can focus on other tasks while DMA

handles data transfers.

 Efficient use of resources: DMA transfers data faster, reduces CPU

overhead, and enables the system to perform multiple operations at once.

Conclusion:

DMA allows peripherals and memory to communicate directly, bypassing the

CPU and making data transfers faster and more efficient. By handling data

transfer tasks, DMA increases the overall performance of the system,

particularly for operations that involve large amounts of data.

6. Point out the need for cache memory. Explain the following three

mapping methods with examples.

i). Direct.

ii).Associative. iii).Set

associative.

Need for Cache Memory:

Cache memory is a small, very fast memory that sits between the CPU and the

main memory (RAM). The main reason for using cache memory is to speed up

data access. Main memory (RAM) is slower compared to the CPU. When the

CPU needs data, it has to fetch it from RAM, which can take a lot of time.

However, many times, the CPU repeatedly needs the same data from memory.

Cache memory stores this frequently accessed data and instructions, allowing

the CPU to get them much faster.

 Why is cache memory needed?

o To reduce the time the CPU spends waiting for data from memory.

o To improve the overall performance of the system by providing

quick access to data.

There are three common ways to map data from the main memory to cache

memory:

1. Direct Mapping

2. Associative Mapping
 3. Set-Associative Mapping

1. Direct Mapping:

What it is: In direct mapping, each block of memory is mapped to exactly one

specific line in the cache. This means that there is a fixed location for each

memory block in the cache.

Tag Number of Cache Lines Byte Offset

Cache Line Number = Main Memory block Number % Number of Blocks in

Cache
2. Associative Mapping

In Associative Mapping, any block of memory can be placed in any

cache line. The cache checks all its lines to find the required data when

the CPU accesses memory.

Tag Byte Offset

3. Set-Associative Mapping

Set-Associative Mapping combines aspects of both Direct Mapping and

Associative Mapping. The cache is divided into sets, and each set has
 multiple cache lines. Each memory block is assigned to a specific set, but

within that set, the block can be stored in any of the cache lines.

Ta

g Set Number Byte Offset

Cache Set Number = Main Memory block number % Number of sets in cache
7.Evaluate the features of Bus Arbitration-Masters and Slaves.

Bus arbitration is a process used in systems where multiple devices (processors,

I/O devices, etc.) share the same communication bus. Since only one device can

use the bus at any time, arbitration ensures that each device gets access in a

fair and efficient manner.

In a bus system:

 Masters are devices that request the bus to send or receive data.

 Slaves are devices that respond to the master's requests but do not

initiate any communication.

Masters: Features

A master is a device that initiates a communication process. It is responsible for

requesting the bus and controlling the data flow.

Key Features of Masters:

  Initiates Communication: A master device requests the bus to transfer

data to or from memory or other devices.

 Controls the Bus: When the master has control over the bus, it can read

from or write to the memory or I/O devices.

 Arbitration Request: In a system with multiple masters, each master

competes for control of the bus. A bus arbitration mechanism determines

which master gets access.

 Decision-Maker: The master decides which device it wants to

communicate with (e.g., memory, I/O devices), what data to send, and the

type of operation (read/write).

 Examples: The CPU, a network interface card (NIC), or a hard disk

controller can act as masters.

Example:

In a computer system with a CPU and a disk controller, the CPU is a master

because it controls the data flow and requests access to memory. Similarly, the

disk controller may also be a master when it needs to read from or write to a

disk.

Slaves: Features
A slave is a device that responds to the master's requests but does not initiate

communication. It can only perform tasks when instructed by the master.

Key Features of Slaves:

 Responds to Requests: A slave device does not initiate communication.

It waits for commands from the master.

 Passive Role: The slave is passive; it does not request the bus. It only

performs actions when directed by the master.

 No Arbitration: Slaves do not compete for access to the bus. The

arbitration process only involves the masters.

 Fixed Tasks: Slaves usually have specific, predefined tasks (e.g., storing

data, transferring data to/from I/O devices).

 Examples: Memory modules (RAM), peripheral devices like printers,

hard drives, and other I/O devices are typically slaves.

Example:

In the same system, the RAM is a slave. The master (CPU) requests data from

the RAM, and the RAM only responds when asked by the CPU.

Types of Bus Arbitration

There are two main types of bus arbitration schemes that manage the conflict

when multiple masters request access to the bus:

1. Centralized Arbitration: In this method, one central arbiter controls the

access. It is responsible for deciding which master gets access to the bus

based on a predefined algorithm. This method can use priority-based or

round-robin schemes.

o Features: The arbiter decides who gets control of the bus based on

priorities or turn-taking. A typical example is the use of a bus

controller in older systems.

2. Distributed Arbitration: In this method, each master device participates

in the arbitration process. Instead of a central arbiter, the devices

themselves communicate and decide who gets access to the bus. A

common approach is a token-based scheme.

o Features: There is no single point of control. Devices cooperate to

decide the bus access, making it more fault-tolerant than

centralized arbitration.

Evaluation of Masters and Slaves

Feature Masters Slaves

Role Initiates communication and Responds to commands and

Feature Masters Slaves

controls the bus requests from masters

Masters control the bus when

Bus Control Slaves do not control the bus
they win arbitration

Actively participates in bus

Arbitration Not involved in arbitration
arbitration

Sends or receives data based Sends/receives data only

Communication
on instructions when commanded by a master

CPU, Disk Controller, RAM, I/O devices (e.g.,

Examples
Network Card printers, hard drives)

More complex, as they request Simpler, as they only respond

Complexity
the bus and control access to requests

Conclusion

Bus arbitration is essential in systems with multiple devices sharing the same

bus. It ensures that one device gets access to the bus at a time, preventing

conflicts and ensuring smooth data communication.

 Masters are devices that control the bus, initiate data transfers, and

actively participate in the arbitration process.

  Slaves are devices that respond to the master's requests but do not

control or initiate data transfers.

8 Generalize the Bus Structure, Protocol, and Control in Parallel Bus

Architecture

Bus Structure

The structure of a parallel bus typically consists of three main components:

1. Data Bus: Carries the actual data being transferred between devices.

2. Address Bus: Specifies the address location in memory or an I/O device.

3. Control Bus: Manages the flow of data by sending control signals, such

as read/write requests, interrupt signals, etc

Bus Protocol

The bus protocol defines the rules for communication between the devices on

the bus. It ensures that the devices can transfer data reliably and in the correct

sequence.

 Timing: Defines when the devices send and receive data, using signals

like clock signals in synchronous buses.

 Data transfer mode: Specifies whether data is transferred serially or in

parallel, and whether it’s a single or burst transfer.

 Error checking: Protocols often include error detection and correction

mechanisms, such as parity checks.

Bus Control

Bus control is responsible for managing the access to the bus, ensuring that only

one device uses it at a time. This is usually managed by the bus controller.

 Arbitration: Determines which device gets control of the bus when

multiple devices need it at the same time.

 Synchronization: Ensures that data is transferred in sync with the clock

signal (in synchronous buses).

 Signal Management: Manages control signals like read/write, interrupt,

and acknowledgment signals

8.Generalize the Bus Structure, Protocol, and Control in Parallel Bus

Architecture
Bus Structure

The bus structure refers to the physical and logical organization of the bus

system, which connects multiple devices (such as CPUs, memory, I/O devices)

in a system. It generally consists of the following parts:

 The bus is a communication channel.

 The characteristic of the bus is shared transmission media.

 The limitation of a bus is only one transmission at a time.

 A bus used to communicate between the major components of a computer

is called a System bus.

System bus contains 3 categories of lines used to provide the communication

between the CPU, memory and IO named as:

1. Address lines (AL)

2. Data lines (DL)

3. Control lines (CL)

1. Address Lines:

 Used to carry the address to memory and IO.

 Unidirectional.

 Based on the width of an address bus we can determine the capacity of a

main memory

Example:
2. Data Lines:

 Used to carry the binary data between the CPU, memory and IO.

 Bidirectional.

 Based on the width of a data bus we can determine the word length of a

CPU.

 Based on the word length we can determine the performance of a CPU.

Example:
3. Control Lines:

 Used to carry the control signals and timing signals

 Control signals indicate the type of operation.

 Timing Signals are used to synchronize the memory and IO operations with

a CPU clock.

 Typical Control Lines may include Memory Read/Write, IO Read/Write,

Bus Request/Grant, etc.

Bus Protocol

The bus protocol defines the rules for how devices communicate over the bus:

 Data Direction: Tells whether data is being read from or written to a

device.

 Handshake: Ensures both devices are ready before data is transferred.

 Arbitration: If multiple devices want to use the bus, this decides who

gets to use it.

Bus Control

Bus control is about managing the flow of data:

 Bus Controller: A component that manages when each device gets to use

the bus.

 Control Signals: These are signals that control operations, like whether

the data should be read or written, and timing signals that synchronize the

transfer.

In short:
 Bus Structure is the physical setup for transferring data.

 Bus Protocol is the set of rules for transferring data.

 Bus Control manages the timing and who gets to use the bus

9.i) Classify the Types of Memory Chip Organization

 Memory chip organization refers to how the data is stored and accessed in

a memory chip. The most common types of memory organization are:

1. ROM (Read-Only Memory): Data is stored permanently and can only

be read.

o Examples: PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.

2. RAM (Random Access Memory): Data can be both read from and

written to. It is volatile, meaning data is lost when the power is turned off.

o Types:

 SRAM (Static RAM): Faster and more expensive; does not

need refreshing.

 DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Slower, cheaper, and needs

periodic refreshing.

3. Cache Memory: A small, fast memory used to store frequently accessed

data for quicker retrieval.

o Types: L1, L2, and L3 cache, depending on where they are located

within the system (CPU, motherboard, etc.).

4. Flash Memory: Non-volatile memory used for storage in devices like

USB drives and SSDs

ii) Analyze the Advantages of Cache and Virtual Memory

Cache Memory:
 Faster Access: Cache memory stores frequently used data, which allows

the CPU to access it faster than retrieving it from main memory.

 Improved Performance: Reduces the time the CPU spends waiting for

data, improving overall system speed.

 Efficiency: By holding data closer to the CPU, cache reduces delays and

speeds up processing tasks.

Virtual Memory:

 Extended Memory Capacity: Virtual memory allows systems to run

programs larger than the available physical memory by swapping data to

and from the disk.

 Isolation: Virtual memory provides isolation between processes, meaning

one process cannot directly access the memory of another, providing

better security.

 Simplifies Memory Management: It abstracts physical memory

management, allowing the operating system to allocate memory

dynamically

10.Elaborate in Detail About Parallel Bus Architectures

A synchronous bus is a type of parallel bus system that uses a clock

signal to synchronize the transfer of data between devices, ensuring that

data is sent and received at regular intervals. The clock provides a timing

reference that keeps all devices connected to the bus operating in sync.
 Key Features of a Synchronous Bus:

 Timing: In synchronous data transfer, the data transfer is synchronized

with a common clock signal that is generated by the sending device and

used by both the sending and receiving devices. This ensures that both

devices are in sync and ready to receive or transmit data at the same time.

 Data Transfer Modes: Synchronous data transfer can be done using

either the parallel or serial mode of data transfer. In parallel data transfer,
 multiple bits of data are transferred simultaneously, while in serial data

transfer, data is transferred bit-by-bit using a single data line.

 Handshaking: Synchronous data transfer typically involves some form

of handshaking between the sending and receiving devices to ensure that

the data is transferred correctly. This can involve the use of signals such

as Acknowledge (ACK) and Ready (RDY), which indicate that the

receiving device is ready to receive or that the sending device has

completed the transfer.

 Data Rate: The data transfer rate in synchronous data transfer is typically

limited by the clock frequency and the number of bits that can be

transferred in a single clock cycle. However, synchronous data transfer

can be faster than asynchronous data transfer because there is no need to

add extra bits for synchronization.

 Transmission Line: In synchronous data transfer, the transmission line

used to transfer data must be properly designed and matched to the

impedance of the devices to ensure that data is not lost due to reflections.

Advantages of Synchronous Data Transfer

 The design procedure is easy. The master does not wait for any

acknowledgement signal from the slave, though the master waits for a

time equal to the slave’s response time.

 The slave does not generate an acknowledge signal, though it obeys the

timing rules as per the protocol set by the master or system designer.
 Disadvantages of Synchronous Data Transfer

 If a slow-speed unit is connected to a common bus, it can degrade the

overall rate of transfer in the system.

 If the slave operates at a slow speed, the master will be idle for some time

during data transfer and vice versa.

ii).The Asynchronous Bus

An asynchronous bus does not rely on a clock signal to synchronize data

transfer. Instead, it uses control signals to indicate when data is ready to

be sent or received. Data is transferred when both the sender and receiver

are ready, making this bus more flexible but potentially slower compared

to a synchronous bus.

Terminologies used in Asynchronous Data Transfer

 Sender: The machine or gadget that transfers the data.

 Receiver: A device or computer that receives data.

 Packet: A discrete unit of transmitted and received data.

 Buffer: A short-term location for storing incoming or departing data.

Classification of Asynchronous Data Transfer

 Strobe Control Method

 Handshaking Method

Strobe Control in Asynchronous Data Transfer

In asynchronous data transfer, devices communicate without a shared clock,

which can make it hard to know when to send or read data. Strobe control

helps solve this problem.

How Strobe Control Works:

1. Strobe Signal:

o The transmitting device sends a strobe signal along with the data.

o The receiving device waits for the strobe signal to know when the

data is ready to be read.

2. Leading and Trailing Strobe:

 o If the strobe signal is sent before the data, it’s called a leading

strobe.

o If the strobe signal is sent after the data, it’s called a trailing

strobe.

3. Why It’s Useful:

o It helps the receiving device know when to read the data, even if

the sender and receiver don’t have the same clock.

o This makes data transfer more flexible and reliable.

Handshaking Method For Data Transfer

In asynchronous data transfer, devices don’t have a shared clock, so they need

a way to make sure both are ready to send and receive data. Handshaking is

used to do this.
How Handshaking Works:

1. RTS (Request-to-Send):

o The sending device sends an RTS signal to let the receiving

device know it’s ready to send data.

2. CTS (Clear-to-Send):

o The receiving device responds with a CTS signal, saying it’s ready

to receive the data.

3. Data Transfer:

o After both signals (RTS and CTS), the data is sent.

4. ACK (Acknowledgment):

o After the data is received, the receiver sends an ACK signal to

confirm that the data was received correctly.

5. NAK (Negative Acknowledgment):

o If there was an error in receiving the data, the receiver sends a

NAK signal, asking the sender to try again.

Why It’s Important:

 Reliability: Handshaking ensures both devices are ready before data is

transferred.
 Flow Control: It also helps control how much data is sent, preventing the

receiver from getting overloaded

11.i).Give the advantages of cache.

Cache is a small, high-speed memory located between the CPU and main

memory (RAM) that stores frequently accessed data. It speeds up data

retrieval by reducing the time it takes for the CPU to access data.

Advantages of Cache:

1. Faster Data Access:

o Cache memory is much faster than main memory (RAM). When

the CPU needs data, it first checks the cache, which significantly

reduces the time taken to access data compared to accessing slower

RAM.

2. Improved Performance:

o By storing frequently used data, cache minimizes the CPU's wait

time, leading to faster execution of instructions and better overall

system performance.

3. Reduced Latency:

o Cache reduces the latency (delay) between the CPU and memory.

This results in quicker processing, especially for programs that

require rapid access to memory.

 4. Efficient Resource Use:

o It allows the CPU to focus on processing, rather than spending time

accessing slower memory, making the system more efficient in

utilizing its resources.

5. Reduces Memory Traffic:

o With cache handling repeated data requests, there is less frequent

access to the main memory, thus reducing memory traffic and

improving the efficiency of the overall system.

6. Energy Efficiency:

o Because the cache is faster, the CPU spends less time accessing the

main memory, which helps in reducing power consumption and

improving energy efficiency in devices.

ii).Identify the basic operations of cache in detail with diagram

Cache operation refers to how cache memory works to speed up data retrieval by

storing frequently used data. Cache memory is a small, fast memory located

close to the CPU, and it helps avoid slow access to the main memory (RAM).

Cache operations use two main principles to make the system faster: temporal

locality and spatial locality.

1. Temporal Locality:
  What it is: If a CPU accesses certain data, it is likely to need that same

data again soon.

 Cache operation: The data that was just accessed is stored in the cache

so that the CPU can quickly retrieve it again without needing to fetch it

from the slower main memory.

 Example: If you are working on a document and keep accessing the same

sentence, the cache will store that sentence, so next time you need it, it's

faster to access from the cache

2. Spatial Locality:

 What it is: If a CPU accesses a specific memory location, it is likely that

nearby memory locations will be accessed soon as well.

  Cache operation: When the CPU accesses data, not only is that data

stored in the cache, but also nearby data locations, anticipating future

needs.

 Example: If you're reading a list of items, once the cache stores the

current item, it may also store the next few items in the list to speed up

access when you get to them.

Cache Performance

Cache performance is measured by how often the CPU finds data in the cache

(cache hit) vs. how often it has to go to the slower main memory (cache miss).

This is represented by the hit ratio.

  Cache Hit: When the data is found in the cache, it's called a hit, and this

is faster.

 Cache Miss: When the data is not found in the cache, it's called a miss,

and the data has to be fetched from the main memory, which is slower.

Hit Ratio:

The hit ratio is a percentage of how often the CPU finds data in the cache. A

higher hit ratio means better performance.

Hit Ratio = Hits

Hits + Misses

Miss Ratio:

The miss ratio is the opposite, showing how often the data was not in the cache.

Miss Ratio= Misses

Hits + Misses

Average Access Time (Tavg)

This is the average time it takes for the CPU to access data, considering both

cache and main memory:

 Simultaneous Access: If the CPU can access both cache and memory at

the same time, the average time is:

12. Describe the principle approaches of Serial Bus Architectures with

necessary diagrams.

Serial bus architecture is a communication method that uses a single wire or

fiber to send data one bit at a time. Serial buses can be used to connect devices

to a computer

How does serial bus architecture work?

 A host device, like a PC, sends a token packet to the device it wants to

communicate with.

 The device responds with a data packet that contains the requested information.

 The host and device exchange handshakes to end the transaction

Examples of serial buses:

 USB: A low-voltage differential pair serial bus that connects devices to a

PC. USB is standardized by the USB Implementers Forum.

 RS-232: A serial bus that defines standards for serial binary communication.

 RS-422 and RS-485: Use differential signaling to allow longer distances and

higher speeds.

1. Point-to-Point (P2P) Serial Bus Architecture

In a Point-to-Point (P2P) configuration, two devices are directly connected, and

data is transmitted between them without any intermediate devices. This type of

bus architecture is often used for simpler, faster, and more reliable
communication.

Characteristics of Point-to-Point Architecture:

 Direct Connection: Data flows directly between two devices.

 Simple: Generally used for direct communication between devices, such

as connecting a CPU to memory or a peripheral.

 High-Speed: Because there are fewer devices involved, it can support

faster data transmission.

 Lower Latency: No additional devices or connections introduce delays in

communication.
Example: USB (Universal Serial Bus)

 USB connections often follow a point-to-point architecture where one

host device (like a computer) is connected to one or more peripherals

(such as a keyboard or mouse).

2.USB (Universal Serial Bus)

The USB is another form of serial bus that is commonly used for connecting

peripherals (keyboards, mice, storage devices, etc.) to computers. USB supports

both point-to-point (one-to-one connection) and multipoint configurations (one-

to-many connection).
Characteristics of USB:

 Hot-Swappable: Devices can be added or removed without turning off the

system.

 Host-Device Architecture: The host (usually a computer) controls the bus

and communicates with connected devices.

 Data Transfer Modes: USB supports several transfer types: control, bulk,

interrupt, and isochronous

Multipoint Serial Bus Architecture

In Multipoint Serial Bus Architecture, multiple devices (nodes) are connected over

a single bus, allowing communication between any two or more devices on the

network. The bus typically involves a shared data line, meaning all connected

devices can access the bus to send or receive data.

Characteristics of Multipoint Architecture:

 Multiple Devices: Multiple devices share the same communication path.

 Bus Arbitration: Since several devices are connected, bus arbitration

protocols (such as token passing or polling) are used to determine which

device can transmit data at a given time.

 Cost-effective: Uses fewer wires and can easily expand by adding more

devices.

 Scalability: Additional devices can be connected to the bus.

Example: I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) or SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface)

 I2C allows multiple peripherals to communicate with a microcontroller on

a single shared bus, while SPI allows multiple slave devices but requires

an individual chip select (CS) for each device

3. Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Bus

The SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) is a synchronous serial communication bus

commonly used for connecting microcontrollers to peripherals, such as sensors,

displays, and memory devices.

Characteristics of SPI:

 Master-Slave Configuration: One master device controls the communication

with one or more slave devices.

  Full-Duplex Communication: Data can be transmitted and received

simultaneously on different lines (MISO, MOSI).

 Clock-based Synchronization: The master provides a clock signal to

synchronize data transmission.

13.Illustrate the following in detail

1). Magnetic Disks (5)

ii). Magnetic Tape (4)

iii). Optical Disks (4)

1) Magnetic Disks (5 Marks)

Magnetic disks store data using a rotating disk coated with a magnetic material.

Common examples include hard drives (HDDs) and older floppy disks.

 Structure: They have circular platters that spin, and a read/write head

moves above them to access data.

 Data Access: Data is accessed randomly, meaning you can directly get

any data quickly.

 Storage Capacity: Modern hard drives can hold a lot of data, from

hundreds of gigabytes to several terabytes.

  Speed: They can access data quickly, but the speed depends on the disk's

rotation speed (RPM) and seek time.

 Durability: Magnetic disks can be damaged by physical shocks or wear

over time.

 Advantages:-

These are economical memory

Easy and direct access to data is possible.

It can store large amounts of data.

It has a better data transfer rate than magnetic tapes.

It has less prone to corruption of data as compared to tapes.

 Disadvantages:-

These are less expensive than RAM but more expensive than magnetic

tape memories.

It needs a clean and dust-free environment to store.

These are not suitable for sequential access.

2.Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape stores data on a long, thin tape coated with magnetic

material. It is mainly used for backups and long-term storage.

 Structure: The tape is wound in a reel and stores data in a sequence.

 Data Access: You must access data sequentially, meaning you have to go

through the tape to find specific information.

 Storage Capacity: Magnetic tapes can store large amounts of data, often

in the range of terabytes.

 Cost: Magnetic tapes are cheaper per gigabyte than many other storage

options, making them good for backups.

Advantages :

1. These are inexpensive, i.e., low cost memories.

2. It provides backup or archival storage.

3. It can be used for large files.

4. It can be used for copying from disk files.

5. It is a reusable memory.

6. It is compact and easy to store on racks.

Disadvantages :

1. Sequential access is the disadvantage, means it does not allow access

randomly or directly.

2. It requires caring to store, i.e., vulnerable humidity, dust free, and suitable

environment.
 3. It stored data cannot be easily updated or modified, i.e., difficult to make

updates on data.

3.Optical Disks

 Structure: The disk has tiny pits and flat areas that the laser reads to find

the data.

Key Features:

 Data Storage: Optical disks store data as tiny pits and lands on their

surface. A laser is used to read these patterns, which represent binary data

(1s and 0s).

 Types:

o CDs hold around 700 MB (good for music or small files).

o DVDs hold about 4.7 GB (used for movies and larger data).

o Blu-ray Discs hold 25 GB or more (used for high-definition

movies).

 Data Access: They are usually slower than magnetic disks and data is

accessed sequentially.
  Durability: They are resistant to magnetic interference but can be

scratched if not handled properly.

An Optical Disk is a storage medium that uses laser technology to read and

write data. It is a flat, circular disk made from materials like polycarbonate, with

a reflective surface. Optical disks are commonly used for storing and sharing

data, as they have a longer lifespan and higher capacity than older technologies

like floppy disks.

Applications:

 Data Storage & Backup: Used for storing and securing data, often for

businesses or personal backups.

 Entertainment: Commonly used for distributing movies, music, and

games.

 Medical Imaging: Used to store X-rays, CT scans, and other medical

data.

 Software Distribution: A reliable way to distribute large programs and

files.

Advantages:
  High Storage Capacity: Much more than older technologies like floppy

disks.

 Durability: Can last for decades with proper care.

 Scratch Resistance: Resistant to minor scratches, making them more

reliable for storage.

Disadvantages:

 Slower Speeds: Optical disks have slower access speeds compared to

newer technologies like SSDs.

 Vulnerable to Damage: Can be damaged by scratches, dust, or extreme

temperatures.

 Limited Rewrite Ability: Some disks can only be written once (e.g., CD-

R, DVD-R).

 Special Hardware Required: You need an optical drive to read/write

data.
14.Discuss the following in detail

1). Input Devices.

ii). Output Devices.

1) Input Devices (7 Marks)

Input devices are hardware devices that allow users to interact with a computer

and provide data or instructions for processing. They serve as the interface

between the user and the computer, allowing users to input text, commands,

audio, video, and more. Here are the key input devices:

1. Keyboard:
 o The keyboard is one of the most widely used input devices. It is

made up of a set of keys (letters, numbers, and special function

keys) that are pressed to input data into the computer.

o Types: Mechanical keyboards (provide tactile feedback),

membrane keyboards (quiet and affordable), and virtual keyboards

(on-screen, used with touch interfaces).

o Uses: Used for typing documents, programming, and issuing

commands.

2. Mouse:

o The mouse is a pointing device that moves the cursor on the screen,

allowing users to interact with graphical elements (e.g., icons,

buttons).

o Functionality: It detects movement on a surface and translates it to

movement on the screen, allowing for precise control.

o Types: Wired and wireless mice, optical mice (use light to detect

movement), and laser mice (more precise, used for higher-end

applications).

o Uses: Navigating the computer's operating system, selecting items,

and playing games.

3. Scanner:
 o A scanner is used to digitize physical documents, images, and other

visuals into digital format, which can then be stored and processed

by the computer.

o Functionality: It uses light sensors to scan the document, and the

reflected light is converted into digital data.

o Types: Flatbed scanners (used for scanning photos, books, and

documents), handheld scanners (portable and for scanning smaller

areas).

o Uses: Digitizing physical documents for storage or editing, barcode

scanning.

4. Microphone:

o A microphone captures sound, usually in the form of speech or

environmental sounds, and converts it into an electrical signal that

can be processed by the computer.

o Types: Condenser microphones (high-quality audio), dynamic

microphones (durable), and USB microphones (plug directly into

the computer).

o Uses: Audio recording, voice commands, video conferencing, and

voice recognition applications.

5. Touchscreen:
 o A touchscreen is an input device that allows users to interact

directly with a display by touching it. It combines the functionality

of a mouse and keyboard into one device.

o Functionality: Detects touch gestures like tapping, swiping, and

pinching to navigate and interact with the device.

o Types: Capacitive (more sensitive, used in smartphones and

tablets) and resistive touchscreens (less expensive, used in older

devices).

o Uses: Smartphones, tablets, ATMs, and kiosks.

6. Joystick/Gamepad:

o Joysticks and gamepads are used primarily for interactive

applications like video games.

o Functionality: Joysticks control movement in three-dimensional

spaces, while gamepads have buttons and directional pads for

controlling characters in games.

o Uses: Video games, simulations, and VR systems.

7. Digital Camera/Webcam:
 o Digital cameras and webcams are used to capture images and

videos, which are then sent to a computer for processing, storage,

or streaming.

o Functionality: Webcams usually capture video in real-time for

video calls or online streaming, while digital cameras capture still

images.

o Uses: Video conferencing, image capture for media, online content

creation.

Conclusion on Input Devices:

 Input devices are essential for user interaction with a computer. They

allow data to be entered in various forms (text, audio, visual), making

them versatile for different applications, from everyday tasks like typing

and clicking to specialized tasks like scanning documents and recording

audio.

ii) Output Devices (6 Marks)

Output devices are hardware components that display, play, or convey the

processed data from a computer to the user in a form that can be perceived, such

as visual, audio, or tactile feedback. They are crucial for users to receive results

from their interactions with a computer.

1. Monitor:

o A monitor is the most common output device, used to display

visual information like text, images, and videos.

o Functionality: It takes digital data from the computer's graphics

card and converts it into a visible image using pixels on the screen.

o Types: Includes CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitors, LCD (Liquid

Crystal Display), LED (Light Emitting Diode), and OLED

(Organic Light Emitting Diode) displays.

o Uses: Displaying the user interface, watching videos, editing

images, playing games, etc.

2. Printer:

o A printer is used to produce physical copies (hard copies) of

documents or images stored on a computer.

o Functionality: Printers convert digital data into physical ink or

toner marks on paper.

o Types: Inkjet printers (good for photos), laser printers (fast and

efficient for text), dot matrix printers (less common, used for

impact printing).
 o Uses: Printing documents, photos, and graphics for personal or

professional use.

3. Speakers/Headphones:

o These output devices convert digital audio signals from the

computer into sound, allowing users to hear music, notifications, or

any other audio content.

o Functionality: Speakers use electrical signals to produce sound

waves, while headphones serve the same function but provide

sound directly to the user’s ears.

o Types: Built-in speakers, external speakers, wired headphones,

wireless headphones.

o Uses: Listening to music, watching videos, video conferencing,

gaming, etc.

4. Projector:

o A projector is an output device that displays images or videos onto

a larger screen or surface for a broader audience to view.

o Functionality: It uses light to project the image or video from the

computer to a wall or screen.

o Types: LCD projectors, DLP projectors, and LED projectors.

 o Uses: Used in presentations, classrooms, conferences, and home

theaters.

5. Plotter:

o A plotter is used for producing high-quality, large-scale prints,

typically for technical drawings and designs.

o Functionality: It uses pens or other markers to draw lines or

shapes on paper, allowing precise and continuous drawing.

o Types: Includes flatbed plotters and drum plotters.

o Uses: Architectural designs, engineering blueprints, and CAD

(computer-aided design) systems.

6. Haptic Devices:

o Haptic devices provide feedback through the sense of touch,

typically using vibrations or force feedback to simulate physical

sensations.

o Functionality: These devices use motors or actuators to simulate

textures, motion, or force feedback, allowing the user to "feel"

virtual objects.

o Uses: Common in virtual reality (VR) systems, gaming controllers,

and robotics.
Conclusion on Output Devices:

 Output devices are essential for presenting the results of computer

processing to the user in a format they can perceive, such as through

visual, auditory, or tactile output. These devices play a crucial role in

making the computing experience interactive and engaging, whether for

viewing, listening, or physically feeling the output.

 PART C

1. Generalize the merits and demerits of Parallel Bus Architectures, Bridge-

Based Bus Architectures and Serial Bus Architectures.

Parallel Bus Architecture

Parallel Bus Architecture uses multiple data lines to transfer multiple

bits of data simultaneously across the bus. It allows for high-speed data

transmission by leveraging several parallel channels, where each channel

is responsible for sending one bit of data at a time.

Merits:

1. High-Speed Data Transfer:

 o Since parallel buses transmit multiple bits simultaneously, they

provide high-speed data transfer, which is especially useful for

applications requiring large data bandwidth (e.g., memory access).

2. Low Latency:

o Due to simultaneous data transfer, the response time is lower,

making parallel buses efficient for tasks where quick access to data

is essential.

3. Well-Suited for Short Distances:

o Ideal for communication between devices close to each other, such

as between the CPU and memory on a motherboard, as the data

doesn't have to travel over long distances.

4. Simpler Design:

o Easier to implement compared to more advanced architectures like

serial buses and bridge-based systems, since multiple data lines are

used in parallel.

5. High Data Bandwidth:

o The ability to transfer multiple bits at once provides high data

throughput, which is essential for high-performance computing

applications.

Demerits:

1. Signal Integrity Issues:

 o As the number of parallel lines increases, crosstalk (interference

between the lines) and signal degradation become problematic,

especially at higher data transfer rates.

2. Physical Space Constraints:

o Parallel buses require more physical space for wiring and

connectors, which can be inefficient for compact systems like

mobile devices or laptops.

3. Scalability Limitations:

o Increasing the number of parallel lines to accommodate more

devices or higher speeds can be challenging due to space

constraints, signal interference, and complexity in managing the

data paths.

4. Cost:

o More lines and complex routing lead to higher costs for

manufacturing and implementation.

5. Electromagnetic Interference:

o Parallel buses are more susceptible to electromagnetic interference

(EMI), which can cause data corruption, especially over long

distances.

Bridge-Based Bus Architecture

 Bridge-Based Bus Architecture involves the use of bridges (also known

as bus controllers) that connect different bus segments and manage the

data flow between them. This architecture typically splits the system into

multiple bus segments, allowing different devices to communicate over

different paths, all managed by a bridge.

Merits:

1. Flexibility and Modularity:

o By connecting different buses through bridges, this architecture is

flexible and modular, allowing the system to handle a variety of

different devices and communication standards (e.g., memory, I/O

devices).

2. Improved Bandwidth Management:

o Data traffic is distributed across different bus segments, allowing

better bandwidth utilization and reducing congestion on a single

bus.

3. Scalability:

o The system can be easily scaled by adding more buses or bridges to

accommodate more devices, which is essential for complex

systems like servers or workstations with multiple peripherals.

4. Traffic Segmentation:

o Bridge-based architectures can separate traffic types, such as I/O

traffic and memory traffic, ensuring that high-priority data (e.g.,

 from the CPU to memory) doesn’t compete with lower-priority

data (e.g., peripheral devices).

5. Fault Isolation:

o If a particular bus segment or device malfunctions, the bridges can

help isolate the fault, preventing it from affecting the entire system.

Demerits:

1. Increased Complexity:

o This architecture adds complexity in terms of hardware design,

management of traffic, and addressing. Each bridge must be

carefully designed to ensure smooth data flow and avoid

bottlenecks.

2. Potential Bottlenecks:

o If too much traffic is routed through a single bridge or a segment

becomes overloaded, it can cause bottlenecks, reducing overall

system performance.

3. Latency:

o As data passes through multiple bridges, each introduces latency,

which can slow down the overall data transfer rate, especially if the

bridges are not efficiently designed.

4. Cost:

o The additional hardware and complexity of the system add to the

cost of implementation and maintenance.

5. Compatibility Issues:

o Ensuring compatibility between different bus types and the various

devices connected to each bus can be challenging, requiring

additional components like translators or adapters.

3. Serial Bus Architecture

Serial Bus Architecture uses a single or few data lines to transmit data

one bit at a time. In contrast to parallel buses, serial buses are designed

for long-distance communication and provide a more efficient method of

transferring data over a single channel.

Merits:

1. Compact and Space-Efficient:

o Serial buses require fewer physical lines, reducing the space and

number of pins required, which makes them ideal for compact

devices like smartphones, tablets, and laptops.

2. Long-Distance Communication:

o Serial communication is less prone to signal degradation and

interference over long distances, making it suitable for connecting

devices that are far apart.

3. Reduced Complexity:
 o Fewer lines make serial buses simpler to design and implement

compared to parallel systems, which require many wires and

complex routing.

4. Lower Cost:

o With fewer components and simpler designs, serial buses are

generally cheaper to manufacture and maintain compared to

parallel buses or bridge-based architectures.

5. High-Speed Versions Available:

o Modern serial buses (e.g., USB 3.0, PCIe, Thunderbolt) can

achieve very high speeds, making them suitable for a wide range of

applications, from peripheral connections to data centers.

Demerits:

1. Lower Data Transfer Rates (Historically):

o Earlier serial buses had slower data transfer rates compared to

parallel buses. Although modern serial technologies have closed

this gap, some legacy systems may still experience slower speeds.

2. Higher Latency:

o Because data is transmitted one bit at a time, serial buses tend to

have higher latency compared to parallel systems that can send

multiple bits simultaneously.

3. Limited Bandwidth:
 o Despite advancements in technology, serial buses may still offer

lower overall bandwidth than parallel buses, especially when high

throughput is required.

4. Timing Synchronization Challenges:

o In high-speed serial buses, precise timing is crucial for data

transmission, requiring advanced synchronization mechanisms to

avoid data loss or corruption.

5. Dependency on Specific Hardware:

o Serial buses typically require specific hardware (controllers,

drivers) to operate efficiently, and their performance is often tied to

the hardware capabilities of both the transmitting and receiving

devices.

2. For a direct mapped cache design with a 32 bit address, the following

bits of the address are used to access the cache. Tag : 31-10 Index: 9-5

Offset: 4-0

i). Judge what is the cache block size?

ii).Decide how many entries does the cache have?

iii).Assess what is the ratio between total bits required for such a cache

implementation over the data storage bits?

Given Information:

 Address size: 32 bits

 Tag: 22 bits (from 31 to 10)

 Index: 5 bits (from 9 to 5)

 Offset: 5 bits (from 4 to 0)

i) Cache Block Size

The Offset tells us how many bits are used to find the data inside a block.

Here, the Offset is 5 bits.

 Block size = 25=322^5 = 3225=32 bytes

So, the cache block size is 32 bytes.

ii) Number of Cache Entries

The Index tells us how many lines or entries the cache has. Here, the

Index is 5 bits.

 Number of entries = 25=322^5 = 3225=32

So, the cache has 32 entries.

iii) Ratio of Total Bits to Data Storage Bits

 Now, we calculate the total bits used by the cache and the data storage

bits:

1. Total bits required for cache (each entry includes tag, valid bit, and

data):

o Tag bits = 22 bits

o Valid bit = 1 bit

o Data = 32 bytes = 256 bits

So, for each cache entry:

o Total bits per entry = 22+1+256=27922 + 1 + 256 =

27922+1+256=279 bits

Since there are 32 entries in the cache:

o Total bits for the cache = 32×279=892832 \times 279 =

892832×279=8928 bits

2. Data storage bits: Each cache entry stores 32 bytes of data, so:

o Data storage = 32×32×8=819232 \times 32 \times 8 =

819232×32×8=8192 bits

3. Ratio:

Ratio=89288192≈1.09\text{Ratio} = \frac{8928}{8192} \approx

1.09Ratio=81928928≈1.09

So, the ratio of total bits to data storage bits is 1.09.

Final Answers:
1. Cache block size: 32 bytes

2. Number of cache entries: 32 entries

3. Ratio: 1.09

3.Develop methods to constructing large RAMS from small RAMS

and commercial memory modules

Constructing Large RAMs from Small RAMs and Commercial

Memory Modules

When building large RAM systems, small individual RAM chips or

commercial memory modules (like DIMMs) are combined to create a

system with more memory. Here's how we can do that in an easy way:

1. Memory Bank Configuration

What is it?

 A memory bank is like a "storage unit" where multiple RAM chips are

grouped together. By organizing small RAM modules into banks, we can

create a larger memory system.

 How does it work?

 Divide the total memory required into smaller parts (small RAM

modules).

 Group these small modules into different banks (like multiple storage

shelves).

 A memory controller helps manage which bank to access based on the

address.

Example: If we need 4GB of memory, we can use 16 RAM modules of

256MB each. These can be grouped into 4 memory banks (each with 4

modules).

Advantages:

 Easy to increase memory by adding more banks.

 Faster memory access because data can be retrieved from multiple banks

at once.

2. Memory Interleaving

What is it?

 Memory interleaving spreads the memory across multiple RAM modules.

Instead of accessing one module at a time, we access different parts of the

memory at once, which speeds up the process.

How does it work?

 Break the memory into blocks and assign each block to a different RAM

module.

 A memory controller then manages how to access these blocks in

parallel, which increases memory speed.

Example: Imagine you have 4 RAM modules of 1GB each. Interleaving

splits the total memory into 4 blocks, and the memory system accesses

them in parallel.

Advantages:

 Faster access speed because the data is accessed in parallel from

different modules.

 Increased bandwidth, allowing the computer to handle more tasks at

once.

3. Cascading RAMs (Chaining)

What is it?

 Cascading or chaining connects multiple RAM modules in a sequence.

When one module is full, the next one is used automatically.

How does it work?

 Connect smaller RAM modules in a chain (like links in a chain).

 A memory controller makes sure data is stored in the correct module and

switches between them when needed.

 Example: If you need 8GB of memory and have four 2GB RAM

modules, cascading allows you to access them one after the other when

the first module is full.

Advantages:

 Easy to add more memory by simply chaining additional modules.

 Cost-effective since you can use small, inexpensive RAM modules.

Disadvantages:

 Can introduce delays when switching between modules.

 Slower for random access because data isn't stored in one place.

Using Commercial Memory Modules (DIMMs, SODIMMs)

Commercial memory modules are pre-made, standardized RAM units

like DIMMs (Dual Inline Memory Modules) and SODIMMs (Small

Outline DIMMs). These are easy to add to systems like laptops,

desktops, and servers.

How does it work?

 Simply install these ready-to-use modules into the available memory slots

on the motherboard.

 Each module might be 4GB, 8GB, or 16GB in size, depending on your

needs.

 Memory controllers on the motherboard handle the installation and

management of multiple modules.

 Example: A desktop might have 4 memory slots. By adding four 8GB

DIMMs, you can create a total of 32GB of RAM.

Advantages:

 Simple and fast to add memory.

 Standardized for easy upgrading in most computers.

Conclusion

In simple terms, to build large RAMs from small RAMs, you can:

1. Group them into memory banks for better organization and access.

2. Use memory interleaving to access data from multiple modules at the

same time, making things faster.

3. Chain the RAMs together to extend memory when one module is full.

4. Use commercial memory modules (DIMMs) which are easy to install

and expand.
 4.Summarize the virtual memory organization followed in digital

computers.

Virtual Memory Organization in Digital Computers Virtual memory

is a memory management technique that allows a computer to

compensate for physical memory shortages, temporarily transferring data

from RAM to disk storage. This process enables programs to access more

memory than what is physically available in the system, providing an

illusion of a large and continuous memory space. Let’s break it down in

an easy-to-understand way.

1. What is Virtual Memory?

Virtual memory allows a computer to use more memory than the physical

RAM by using a portion of the hard drive or SSD as if it were additional

RAM. The operating system manages how data is transferred between

physical memory (RAM) and the storage disk. This ensures programs can

run even if there’s not enough RAM available.

2. Key Components of Virtual Memory:

a. Virtual Address Space

 Every program running on a computer is given its own virtual address

space.

 This virtual address space is much larger than the physical RAM

available.
 The program accesses memory using virtual addresses, which are then

mapped to actual physical memory (RAM).

b. Physical Address Space

 This refers to the actual RAM in the computer.

 Physical memory is smaller compared to virtual memory and is divided

into fixed-sized blocks called page frames.

 Physical addresses are used to access data stored in RAM.

c. Pages and Page Frames

 Pages: Virtual memory is divided into small blocks called pages

(typically 4KB).

 Page Frames: Physical memory (RAM) is divided into equal-sized

blocks called page frames, where each page from virtual memory is

mapped.

3. How Virtual Memory Works:

a. Page Table

 A page table keeps track of the mapping between virtual memory pages

and physical memory page frames.

 When a program requests data from virtual memory, the memory

management unit (MMU) looks up the virtual address in the page table

and translates it into a physical address.

b. Address Translation

 Virtual Address: The address generated by a program.

 Physical Address: The actual address in the computer’s RAM where data

is stored.

 The MMU (Memory Management Unit) is responsible for translating

virtual addresses to physical addresses using the page table.

c. Page Faults and Swapping

 If a program tries to access a page not currently in RAM, a page fault

occurs.

 The operating system then retrieves the required page from the hard drive

(swap space) and loads it into RAM.

 If RAM is full, the operating system may swap out less-used pages to the

disk, freeing up space for new data.

4. Paging Mechanism (How Virtual Memory Manages Data):

 Paging: Virtual memory is divided into pages, and physical memory is

divided into page frames. When a program needs more memory than

available in RAM, the operating system moves pages between RAM and

disk storage.

 The page table maps virtual pages to physical page frames.

 If a page needed by a program is not in RAM, a page fault happens, and

the required page is loaded from disk storage.

Page Fault Example:

1. The program tries to access a virtual address.

2. The MMU checks the page table and sees the page isn’t in RAM.
3. A page fault occurs, and the operating system fetches the required page

from the disk and loads it into RAM.

5. Benefits of Virtual Memory:

 Large Address Space: Virtual memory allows programs to use more

memory than what is physically available in RAM.

 Memory Isolation and Protection: Each program runs in its own virtual

address space, preventing one program from accessing or corrupting

another program's memory.

 Efficient Memory Use: Virtual memory allows the operating system to

use RAM more effectively by swapping less-used pages to the disk.

 Convenience: Virtual memory provides an easier way for programs to

run on machines with limited physical memory.

6. Virtual Memory Organization Process:

1. Program Request: When a program runs, it uses virtual addresses to

request memory.

2. Address Translation: The MMU translates the virtual address to a

physical address using the page table.

3. Page Fault (if needed): If the page is not in RAM, the operating system

handles a page fault and loads the required page from disk storage into

RAM.

4. Memory Swapping: The OS can swap pages between RAM and disk as

needed to ensure that there’s always enough space in physical memory.

 7. Advantages of Virtual Memory:

 Increased Flexibility: Virtual memory allows larger programs to run on

computers with limited RAM.

 Better Resource Allocation: The operating system can allocate memory

more efficiently by managing which pages to load into RAM and which

ones to swap out.

 Program Protection: Virtual memory ensures that each program runs in

its own isolated memory space, preventing one program from affecting

another.

8. Disadvantages of Virtual Memory:

 Slower Performance: If too many pages are swapped in and out of RAM

(called paging thrashing), system performance can decrease because

accessing data from the hard disk is slower than accessing RAM.

 Disk Space Usage: Virtual memory requires disk space (swap space) for

storing data that doesn’t fit into RAM. Using too much disk space can fill

up the storage and slow down the system.

Conclusion:

Virtual memory is a powerful concept in modern computing that allows

programs to operate as if they have more memory than what’s physically

available. By dividing memory into pages, using page tables for address

translation, and swapping data between RAM and disk storage, virtual

memory makes efficient use of limited resources. While it offers many

advantages like larger address spaces and improved memory

management, it can also slow down performance if not properly

managed.
 22VLT402-COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANIZATION
ANSWER KEY
UNIT V- ADVANCED COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

PART-A

1. Describe the main idea of Parallel processing architectures.

Parallel processing architectures improve computing performance by executing multiple tasks
simultaneously. They achieve this by dividing workloads among multiple processors,
reducing execution time. Common types include SIMD (same instruction on multiple data)
and MIMD (different instructions on different data), widely used in AI, big data, and
scientific computing.

2. Illustrate how to organize a clusters.

A cluster is a group of interconnected computers working together to enhance performance. It
consists of:
1. Head Node (Master Node) – Manages tasks and resources.
2. Worker Nodes – Execute assigned tasks.
3. Networking – Ensures fast communication.
4. Storage System – Shared or distributed data access.
5. Cluster Management Software – Controls workload and scheduling.
Clusters are widely used in supercomputing, AI, and big data processing for better speed and
reliability.

3. List the network topologies in parallel processor.

In parallel processing, different network topologies are used to connect multiple processors
for efficient communication. Common topologies include:
1. Bus Topology – All processors share a single communication line.
2. Ring Topology – Processors are connected in a circular manner, passing data in one
or both directions.
3. Star Topology – A central node connects all processors, managing communication.
4. Mesh Topology – Each processor is directly connected to multiple others, improving
fault tolerance.
5. Tree Topology – A hierarchical structure where nodes are connected in levels.
6. Hypercube Topology – Processors are connected in a multi-dimensional cube
structure for efficient data routing.
Each topology has different advantages based on scalability, speed, and fault tolerance.
 4. Analyze the main characteristics of SMT processor.
Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT) is a technique used in modern processors to improve
performance by allowing multiple threads to execute simultaneously within a single core. The
main characteristics of an SMT processor are:

 Executes multiple threads within a single core for better performance.

 Maximizes CPU resource utilization by sharing execution units.
 Increases throughput and improves multitasking efficiency.
 Used in modern processors like Intel Hyper-Threading and AMD SMT.

5. Quote the importance of Graphics Processing Units.

A Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is a specialized processor designed to handle graphics
rendering and parallel computing. GPUs are essential for fast computations, graphics, and
AI-driven tasks

The importance of Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) includes:

 High-Performance Computing – Accelerates complex calculations in AI, deep
learning, and simulations.
 Graphics Rendering – Enhances visual quality in gaming, animations, and video
editing.
 Parallel Processing – Executes multiple tasks simultaneously for faster performance.
 Scientific Applications – Used in medical imaging, weather forecasting, and research.
 Data Processing – Speeds up big data analytics and cryptocurrency mining.

6. Define multicore microprocessor

A multicore microprocessor is a single CPU chip with multiple processing cores, allowing it
to execute multiple tasks simultaneously. This improves performance, efficiency, and
multitasking in modern computing.

7. Express Warehouse scale computers.

Warehouse-Scale Computers are massive data centers designed to handle large-scale

computing workloads. They consist of thousands of interconnected servers working together
to provide cloud services, big data processing, and AI computations.
Key Features:
  Scalability – Can handle vast amounts of data and computing tasks.
 High Performance – Optimized for parallel processing and distributed computing.
 Energy Efficiency – Designed to minimize power consumption.
 Reliability – Redundant systems ensure minimal downtime.
WSCs power services like Google, Amazon, and Microsoft cloud computing platforms.

8. State the overall speedup if a webserver is to be enhanced with a new CPU which is
10 times faster on computation than an old CPU . The original CPU spent 40% of its
time processing and 60% of its time waiting for I/O

By using Amdahl’s Law,

The overall speedup is approximately 1.56 times

9. Differentiate between SIMD and MIMD

SIMD (Single Instruction, MIMD (Multiple Instruction,

Feature
Multiple Data) Multiple Data)

Execution Same instruction on multiple Different instructions on different

 SIMD (Single Instruction, MIMD (Multiple Instruction,
Feature
Multiple Data) Multiple Data)

data. data.

Parallelism Data-level parallelism. Task-level parallelism.

Processor
Synchronized execution. Independent execution.
Coordination

Examples GPUs, vector processors. Multi-core CPUs, cloud computing.

10. Show the performance of cluster organization

Performance of Cluster Organization:

 Scalability – Easily adds nodes to boost performance.
 Load Balancing – Distributes tasks efficiently.
 Parallel Processing – Multiple nodes work together for faster execution.
 Fault Tolerance – Redundant nodes ensure system reliability.

11. Compare SMT and hardware multithreading

SMT (Simultaneous
Feature Hardware Multithreading
Multithreading)

Runs multiple threads simultaneously Switches between threads to reduce

Execution
in a core. idle time.

Resource Use Shares CPU resources dynamically. Allocates resources in time slots.

Higher throughput, better CPU Reduces stalls but may be less

Performance
utilization. efficient.

Coarse-grained and fine-grained

Example Intel Hyper-Threading, AMD SMT.
multithreading.
12. Identify the Flynn classification and give an example for each class in Flynn's
classification.

Type Description Example

Traditional single-core processors (e.g., Intel

SISD Single instruction, single data stream.
8085).

Single instruction, multiple data GPUs, Vector Processors (e.g., NVIDIA

SIMD
streams. CUDA).

Multiple instructions, single data Fault-tolerant systems (e.g., Space Shuttle

MISD
stream (rare). control).

Multiple instructions, multiple data Multi-core CPUs, Cloud Computing (e.g.,

MIMD
streams. Intel Xeon).

13. Integrate the ideas of multistage network and cross bar network.

Integration of Multistage and Crossbar Networks:

 Crossbar networks provide fast, direct connections but are costly for large systems.
 Multistage networks reduce hardware complexity and improve scalability.
 A hybrid approach combines crossbar for local speed and multistage for large-scale
efficiency.
 Used in HPC, data centers, and supercomputers for optimized performance and cost
balance.

14. Discriminate UMA and NUMA.

NUMA (Non-Uniform Memory

Feature UMA (Uniform Memory Access)
Access)

Memory Access Same for all processors. Varies based on memory location.

Scalability Limited scalability. Highly scalable.

Usage Small multiprocessors. Large servers, HPC.

Example SMP systems. AMD EPYC, Intel Xeon.

15. Describe fine grained multithreading.

Fine-Grained Multithreading:
 Switches threads after every instruction cycle to reduce CPU stalls.
 Hides execution delays (e.g., memory latency) by continuously interleaving multiple
threads.
 Efficient for high-latency operations but may reduce single-thread performance.
 Used in GPU architectures and high-throughput processors.

16. Express the need for instruction level parallelism.

Need for Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP):

 Improves CPU performance by executing multiple instructions simultaneously.
 Reduces execution time and increases throughput.
 Utilizes processor resources efficiently, minimizing idle cycles.
 Enhances responsiveness in applications like gaming, AI, and multimedia processing.

17. Formulate the various approaches to hardware multithreading.

Approaches to Hardware Multithreading:

 Coarse-Grained – Switches threads on long-latency events (e.g., cache misses).
 Fine-Grained – Switches threads every cycle to keep execution units busy.
 Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT) – Executes multiple threads at the same time in a
single core.
 Hybrid – Combines coarse-grained and SMT for better efficiency.

18. Categorize the various multithreading options.

Type Description

Coarse-Grained Switches threads on long-latency events (e.g., cache misses).

Fine-Grained Switches threads every cycle to keep execution units busy.

Simultaneous
Executes multiple threads simultaneously in a single core.
(SMT)

Hybrid Combines coarse-grained and SMT for better efficiency.

19. Compare fine grained multithreading and coarse grained multithreading

Feature Fine-Grained Multithreading Coarse-Grained Multithreading

Only on long-latency events (e.g., cache

Thread Switching Every cycle
misses)

Moderate, reduces stalls but waits for

Latency Hiding High, as it switches frequently
events

CPU Utilization Keeps execution units busy May have idle cycles between switches

Performance Reduces single-thread

Better for workloads with long stalls
Impact performance

GPUs, high-throughput
Example Traditional multi-threaded CPUs
processors

20. Classify shared memory multiprocessor based on the memory access latency.

Type Description Example

UMA (Uniform Memory All processors have equal SMP (Symmetric

Access) memory access time. Multiprocessing) systems.

NUMA (Non-Uniform Memory access time varies Large-scale servers, AMD EPYC,
Memory Access) based on location. Intel Xeon.

COMA (Cache-Only No main memory, all Used in some distributed shared

Memory Architecture) memory is in caches. memory systems.

PART-B

1. i).Define parallelism and its types.

Parallelism:
Parallelism is the ability of a system to perform multiple operations or tasks simultaneously,
rather than sequentially, to enhance computational efficiency and performance. It is widely
used in modern computing architectures to maximize processing power and reduce execution
time. Parallelism is essential in high-performance computing, real-time processing, and large-
scale data analysis.
Parallelism is classified into different types based on the level at which tasks are executed
concurrently. The main types include Bit-level parallelism, Instruction-level parallelism,
Data-level parallelism, Task-level parallelism, and Thread-level parallelism.

Types of Parallelism:
1. Bit-Level Parallelism (BLP):
o Focuses on increasing the processor’s ability to process multiple bits in a
single clock cycle.
o By widening the data path, processors can perform operations on larger bit-
sized operands (e.g., 32-bit instead of 16-bit).
o Example: A 32-bit processor can process a 32-bit number in one cycle,
whereas a 16-bit processor would require two cycles.
2. Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP):
o Involves executing multiple instructions simultaneously within a single
processor.
o Achieved using techniques like pipelining, superscalar execution, out-of-order
execution, and speculative execution.
o Example: Modern CPUs fetch, decode, and execute multiple instructions in
parallel, reducing overall execution time.
3. Data-Level Parallelism (DLP):
o Executes the same operation on multiple data points at the same time.
o Commonly used in vector processing and SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple
Data) architectures.
o Example: Graphics processing units (GPUs) use DLP to process large sets of
pixel data concurrently.
4. Task-Level Parallelism (TLP):
o Different tasks or functions run in parallel, each performing a unique job
independently.
o Achieved in multi-core and distributed computing environments where
different cores or machines execute separate tasks.
o Example: A web browser rendering a webpage while simultaneously
downloading files in the background.
5. Thread-Level Parallelism (ThLP):
o Multiple threads of the same process execute concurrently, improving
application performance.
o Used in multi-threaded applications where different parts of a program run in
parallel.
o Example: In a multi-core processor, separate threads handle different aspects
of a game, such as physics simulation and AI processing.

ii).List the main characteristics and limitations of Instruction level parallelism.

Characteristics of ILP:
Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP) allows multiple instructions to be executed at the same
time within a single processor. This improves speed and efficiency.
1. Pipelining: Breaks instruction execution into stages so multiple instructions can be
processed at once.
2. Superscalar Execution: Executes multiple instructions in a single cycle using
multiple processing units.
3. Out-of-Order Execution: Runs instructions as soon as possible, instead of following
the original program order.
4. Speculative Execution: Predicts upcoming instructions and executes them early to
save time.
5. Branch Prediction: Guesses the result of conditional statements to keep execution
smooth.
6. Register Renaming: Avoids conflicts between instructions by dynamically renaming
registers.
7. Parallel Instruction Fetching: Fetches multiple instructions at the same time for
faster processing.
8. Instruction Scheduling: Organizes instruction execution to avoid delays and
conflicts.
9. Hardware and Compiler Optimization: Processors and compilers work together to
maximize parallel execution.

Limitations of ILP:
Despite its benefits, ILP has some challenges that limit its efficiency.
1. Data Hazards: Some instructions depend on the results of previous ones, causing
delays.
2. Control Hazards: Conditional statements (like if-else) can disrupt parallel execution.
3. Structural Hazards: Limited processing units and memory bandwidth can slow
execution.
4. Diminishing Returns: Adding more ILP techniques does not always lead to big
improvements.
5. Complex Hardware Design: ILP requires advanced processors, making them harder
to design and expensive.
6. Code Dependency Issues: Some programs are naturally difficult to parallelize.
7. Memory Latency: If memory access is slow, it can limit ILP efficiency.
8. High Power Consumption: More ILP features require more energy, increasing heat
and power use.
9. Compiler Challenges: Writing optimized code to take full advantage of ILP is
difficult.

Conclusion:
ILP helps processors run faster by executing multiple instructions at the same time. However,
it faces challenges like instruction dependencies, hardware limitations, and power
consumption. Despite these issues, ILP is widely used in modern processors to improve
performance.

2. i).Give the software and hardware techniques to achieve Instruction level parallelism.

Instruction Level Parallelism (ILP) refers to the ability of a processor to execute multiple
instructions simultaneously to improve performance. (ILP) can be achieved using various
software and hardware techniques. These techniques help improve CPU performance by
executing multiple instructions simultaneously.

Software Techniques for ILP:

Software techniques help optimize the instruction execution order to achieve

parallelism. These techniques are implemented at the compiler level to minimize
dependencies and improve performance.

1. Instruction Scheduling: Instruction scheduling is a compiler optimization technique

that reorders instructions to minimize stalls and maximize parallel execution while
maintaining correctness.

Example:
Before Scheduling (Stalls Present)
LOAD R1, A ; Load value from memory (takes time)
ADD R2, R1, R3 ; Must wait for LOAD to finish
STORE R2, B ; Store result in memory
 Problem: ADD depends on LOAD, causing a delay.

After Scheduling (Optimized)

LOAD R1, A ; Load value from memory
LOAD R3, C ; Load another value (independent instruction)
ADD R2, R1, R3 ; Now R1 is ready, perform addition
STORE R2, B ; Store result in memory
Improvement: The extra LOAD instruction runs in parallel, reducing wait time.
 2. Loop Unrolling:Loop unrolling reduces the overhead of loop control and increases
ILP by executing multiple iterations in a single cycle.
Example:
Without Loop Unrolling:
int sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < 8; i++) {
sum += array[i];
}

With Loop Unrolling:

int sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < 8; i += 4) {
sum += array[i] + array[i + 1] + array[i + 2] + array[i + 3];
}

3.Software Pipelining:

Software pipelining rearranges loops so that multiple iterations overlap.

 Instead of executing loop iterations sequentially, start new iterations before the
previous ones finish

 Example:
 Before Software Pipelining (Sequential Execution)
 LOOP:
 LOAD R1, 0(R2) ; Load
 ADD R3, R1, R4 ; Compute
 STORE R3, 0(R5) ; Store
 ADDI R2, R2, 4
 ADDI R5, R5, 4
 BNE R2, R6, LOOP
 Each iteration completes Load → Compute → Store before the next starts, causing
idle time.

 After Software Pipelining (Optimized Overlapping Execution)
 LOOP:
 LOAD R1, 0(R2) ; Load (Next Iteration)
  ADD R3, R7, R4 ; Compute (Current Iteration)
 STORE R3, 0(R5) ; Store (Previous Iteration)
 ADDI R2, R2, 4
 ADDI R5, R5, 4
 BNE R2, R6, LOOP

4. . Register Renaming
Eliminates false dependencies by renaming registers.

 Example:

Before Register Renaming (With False Dependency)

ADD R1, R2, R3 ; R1 is written here
SUB R1, R4, R5 ; False dependency on R1 (WAW hazard)
MUL R6, R1, R7 ; Stalled until R1 is updated
Issue: The second instruction overwrites R1 before the third instruction reads it, causing
unnecessary stalls.

After Register Renaming (Optimized Execution)

ADD R1, R2, R3 ; First instruction writes to R1
SUB R8, R4, R5 ; No conflict, uses R8 instead
MUL R6, R1, R7 ; R1 remains unchanged, no stall
Fix: Assign R8 instead of R1 in SUB, eliminating the false dependency.

5.Branch Prediction & If-Conversion:

Branch Prediction :The CPU guesses the outcome of a branch (if-else, loops) to avoid stalls.
Mispredictions cause performance penalties.
Example:
if (x > 0)
y = x * 2;
else
 y = x - 2;
If-Conversion: Replaces branches with conditional instructions to eliminate branch penalties.
Example:
y = (x > 0) ? x : -x; // No branching, executes faster

Hardware Techniques for ILP:

Hardware techniques improve ILP by enabling the processor to execute multiple instructions
simultaneously and efficiently.

1.Superscalar Execution:
Superscalar execution is a CPU architecture technique that allows multiple instructions to be
processed simultaneously, increasing performance by using multiple execution units within
the CPU.
Example: If a CPU has two arithmetic units, it can execute two arithmetic instructions at the
same time, effectively doubling the speed for those instructions.
1. ADD R1, R2, R3 (add contents of R2 and R3, store in R1)
2. SUB R4, R5, R6 (subtract R6 from R5, store in R4)
In a superscalar CPU with two arithmetic units, both instructions can be executed
simultaneously, boosting performance.

2. Out-of-Order Execution:

Out-of-order execution is a CPU technique that allows instructions to be executed as soon as

the required resources are available, rather than strictly following the original program
order.

Example:

1. LOAD R1, 100(R2) (load data from memory address 100 + R2 into R1)
2. ADD R3, R1, R4 (add the contents of R1 and R4, store the result in R3)
3. MUL R5, R6, R7 (multiply the contents of R6 and R7, store the result in R5)
The CPU can execute MUL R5, R6, R7 before ADD R3, R1, R4 if the resources for
multiplication are available, improving overall performance.
3.Register Renaming:Register renaming is a CPU technique that eliminates false data
dependencies by dynamically mapping logical registers to physical registers, allowing parallel
execution of instructions.

Example:

1. `ADD R1, R2, R3` becomes `ADD P1, R2, R3`

2. `MUL R1, R4, R5` becomes `MUL P2, R4, R5`

This way, both instructions can execute simultaneously, improving performance.

4. Branch Prediction:

Branch prediction is a CPU technique that guesses the outcome of conditional branches (like
`if` statements) to continue executing instructions without waiting for the branch to be
resolved.

Example:

1. `IF A > B THEN GOTO Label1`

2. CPU predicts the outcome (true or false).

3. Executes instructions based on the prediction.

Correct predictions improve performance; incorrect predictions cause a slight delay.

5.Speculative Execution:

Speculative execution is a CPU technique that executes instructions before it's certain
they're needed, based on predictions.

Example:

1. `IF A > B THEN GOTO Label1`

2. CPU predicts the outcome (true or false) and executes instructions based on that
prediction.

Correct predictions improve performance; incorrect predictions result in discarding the

speculative work.

These techniques, when combined, help maximize the CPU's ability to execute multiple
instructions in parallel, improving overall performance.
ii).Summarize the facts or challenges faced by parallel processing i] enhancing computer
architecture.

Challenges Faced by Parallel Processing in Enhancing Computer Architecture

1. Complexity in Design – Developing parallel architectures requires intricate hardware

and software design, making it difficult to optimize performance.
2. Synchronization Issues – Ensuring proper coordination between multiple processors
can be challenging, leading to bottlenecks and inefficiencies.
3. Data Dependency – Some tasks have inherent dependencies that limit parallel
execution, reducing efficiency gains.
4. Load Balancing – Distributing tasks evenly across processors is crucial; an imbalance
can lead to idle processors and wasted resources.
5. Memory Access Bottlenecks – Shared memory systems face contention issues when
multiple processors attempt to access the same data simultaneously.
6. Power Consumption – More processors require more energy, leading to heat
dissipation problems and increased cooling requirements.
7. Scalability Constraints – As the number of processors increases, communication
overhead and resource contention can limit performance improvements.
8. Programming Complexity – Writing efficient parallel programs is challenging due to
the need for specialized knowledge in parallel algorithms and debugging.
These challenges must be addressed through architectural advancements, efficient
algorithms, and improved software tools to maximize the benefits of parallel processing.

3.Express in detail about hardware multithreading.

Hardware multithreading:

Hardware multithreading is a technique used in modern processors to improve CPU

utilization and performance by allowing multiple threads to execute concurrently within a
single processor core. It helps in hiding latency caused by memory access delays, improving
throughput, and making efficient use of processor resources
(i)In a conventional processor, the instructions come from only one thread at a time.

(ii) In a multithreaded processor, instructions from multiple threads are interleaved, enabling
better CPU utilization.

Types of Hardware Multithreading:

Fine-Grained Multithreading: It is a multithreading technique where the processor switches

between threads every cycle to avoid stalls. If a thread is waiting for data (e.g., a cache miss),
the processor immediately switches to another thread instead of idling. This improves CPU
efficiency by keeping execution units busy.

Key Observations:

Each color represents a different thread.

  On the left side, the processor executes instructions from different threads in a fixed
order, switching every cycle.
 On the right side, one thread (marked as "Skip A") faces a delay (e.g., waiting for
data), so the processor skips it and executes instructions from another thread
instead.
It Prevents the processor from wasting time waiting for one thread to finish and Keeps the
CPU busy and efficient by switching to another thread when one is stalled also Improves
overall performance by reducing idle time.

Coarse-Grained Multithreading:

It is a multithreading technique where the processor switches to another thread only when
the current thread encounters a long stall (such as a cache miss or memory access delay).
Unlike fine-grained multithreading, which switches threads every cycle, CGM allows a thread
to execute continuously until it faces a significant delay.

Key Observations:

(i) Different colored blocks represent different threads (Red, Green, Yellow).

(ii) Each thread runs continuously until it hits a stall (represented by white blocks).

(iii) Once a stall occurs, the processor switches to the next available thread instead of
waiting.

(iv)This reduces idle time in the processor but may result in some overhead when switching
between threads.

It improves CPU efficiency by reducing idle cycles due to long stalls but does not switch
threads as frequently as fine-grained multithreading, which switches every cycle.
Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT):

Simultaneous Multithreading is a CPU architecture technique that allows multiple threads to

execute simultaneously within a single processor core. It improves processor utilization by
enabling multiple threads to share execution resources, reducing idle time and increasing
overall performance.

Key Observations:

(i) The colored blocks represent different threads running in parallel.

(ii) The label "Skip C" and "Skip A" indicate that certain execution slots are skipped due to
resource unavailability or dependency issues.

(iii) Unlike fine-grained or coarse-grained multithreading, where thread execution is either

switched per cycle or upon stalls, SMT allows multiple threads to share the execution units
at the same time.

Advantages of Hardware Multithreading:

1. Increased CPU Utilization:

 Keeps the processor busy by executing another thread when one thread stalls (e.g.,
waiting for memory access).
 Maximizes the use of execution units, reducing idle cycles.
2️. Improved Performance in Multitasking:

 Enables multiple threads to run efficiently on the same core, enhancing multitasking
capabilities.
  Reduces execution time for parallel workloads.
3️. Better System Responsiveness

 Helps in real-time and interactive applications by reducing delays.

 Ensures smoother performance in applications like gaming and media processing.

Hardware Multithreading Works:

Hardware multithreading works by adding extra mechanisms to a processor core to allow

it to hold and execute multiple threads at once. These mechanisms include:

 Multiple Registers: Each thread requires its own set of registers to store intermediate
results. The processor must support multiple sets of registers or a register renaming
mechanism to switch between threads quickly.
 Thread Contexts: A processor running multiple threads must manage the context of
each thread, which includes its instruction pointers, program counters, and other
state information.
 Execution Units: These are the components of the processor that perform
computations. In multithreading, multiple execution units may be used in parallel to
execute different threads concurrently.
 Instruction Pipeline: To execute multiple threads concurrently, processors need to
have deep pipelines, allowing them to fetch, decode, and execute multiple
instructions from multiple threads at the same time

Challenges of Hardware Multithreading:

1. Increased Complexity in Design:

o Implementing multiple execution contexts within a single core requires
additional hardware components like thread control logic, register files, and
cache structures.
2. Resource Contention:
o Multiple threads competing for shared resources (e.g., cache, memory
bandwidth, execution units) can lead to performance degradation instead of
improvement.
3. Cache Coherence and Contention:
o Threads sharing cache levels may suffer from cache thrashing, where
frequent context switching evicts useful data, leading to increased cache
misses.
4. Power and Thermal Management:
o More active execution units increase power consumption and heat
generation, requiring better cooling solutions and power-aware scheduling.

Applications:

1. High-Performance Computing (HPC) – AI, scientific simulations.

2. Operating Systems & Virtualization – Cloud computing, multitasking.
 3. Networking & Telecom – Data processing, 5G.
4. Gaming & Graphics – Game engines, real-time rendering.
5. Embedded Systems – Automotive, industrial automation.
6. Database & Web Servers – Fast query execution, handling multiple requests.
7. Big Data & AI – Machine learning, deep learning.

It is a crucial technology in modern processors, enabling efficient parallel execution and

maximizing computational performance. It plays a key role in multicore processors, cloud
computing, and high-performance computing (HPC) applications.

4. Apply your knowledge on graphics processing units and explain how it helps computer
to improve processor performance.

Graphics Processing Units (GPUs):

(i) A Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is a specialized electronic circuit designed to accelerate
the creation of images, animations, and video.

(ii) Initially designed for rendering graphics, GPUs are now used for general-purpose
computing (GPGPU), AI, and scientific simulations.

(iii) Modern GPUs are essential in gaming, AI, data science, machine learning, and high-
performance computing (HPC).

Key Components:

Cores:

GPUs consist of numerous smaller processing units called cores. These cores work
together to execute thousands of threads simultaneously, making GPUs highly
efficient for tasks involving large-scale computations.
Memory:

 GPUs have dedicated memory called Video RAM (VRAM), optimized for high-speed
access and data transfer. VRAM allows the GPU to store and quickly access the data
needed for rendering and computations.
Graphics Pipeline:

 The graphics pipeline is a series of stages that transform 3D models and scenes into
2D images displayed on the screen. Key stages include vertex processing, geometry
processing, rasterization, and fragment processing.
Shader Units:
  Shader units are programmable processors within the GPU that perform shading
calculations to determine the color, lighting, and texture of each pixel. Shaders
include vertex shaders, geometry shaders, and fragment shaders.

GPUs Improve Processor Performance

1. Parallel Processing

 Thousands of Cores: GPUs have many small cores optimized for handling multiple
tasks simultaneously.
 SIMD Architecture: Executes the same operation on multiple data points at once,
improving efficiency.
 High Throughput: Processes large datasets faster than CPUs, ideal for graphics and
computations.
2. Offloading Work from CPU

 Graphics Rendering: Takes over rendering, freeing CPU for logic and system tasks.
 AI & Machine Learning: Accelerates deep learning while CPU manages data flow.
 Scientific Computing: Handles simulations, physics calculations, and big data tasks.
3. Specialized Hardware for Performance

 Tensor Cores: Optimized for AI and deep learning computations.

 Ray Tracing Cores: Improve lighting, shadows, and reflections in real-time.
 CUDA & OpenCL: Allow general-purpose computing on GPUs (GPGPU).
4. High-Speed Memory (VRAM)

 GDDR & HBM Memory: Faster than system RAM, reducing memory bottlenecks.
 Memory Parallelism: Accesses thousands of memory locations simultaneously.
 Efficient Data Handling: Keeps textures, models, and computation data readily
available.
5. Gaming & Real-Time Rendering

 Ray Tracing & AI Upscaling: Enhances visuals without sacrificing performance.

 Higher FPS & Resolution: Handles 4K/8K gaming efficiently.
 Optimized Game Engines: Leverages GPU power for realistic graphics and smooth
gameplay.
6. Machine Learning & AI Acceleration

 Faster Model Training: Reduces training time from weeks to hours.

 Efficient Neural Networks: Performs matrix multiplications with dedicated AI
hardware.
 GPU-Accelerated Libraries: Uses TensorFlow, PyTorch, and CUDA for AI tasks.
7. Video Processing & Encoding

 Dedicated Video Encoders: NVENC (NVIDIA) and VCE (AMD) speed up video
rendering.
 Real-Time Streaming: Reduces CPU usage, improving stream quality.
  Efficient Video Editing: Accelerates rendering in software like Adobe Premiere.
8. Improves Overall System Performance

 Better Multitasking: Handles background processes efficiently.

 Energy Efficiency: Optimized for performance per watt, reducing CPU load.
 Enhanced Productivity: Speeds up creative and computational workloads.

Challenges of GPUs:

1. Power Consumption:

- High power usage can lead to increased energy costs and heat generation.

2. Resource Contention:

- Multiple tasks competing for GPU resources can lead to performance bottlenecks.

3. Complex Programming:

- Writing software to fully utilize GPU capabilities requires specialized knowledge and skills.

4. Cost:

- High-performance GPUs can be expensive, making them less accessible for some users.

5. Compatibility Issues:

- Some software applications may not be optimized to take full advantage of GPU
capabilities.

GPUs significantly improve computer processor performance by leveraging their parallel

processing power, specialized architecture, high throughput, and efficient resource
utilization. By offloading computationally intensive tasks from the CPU to the GPU, overall
system performance is enhanced, enabling faster execution of applications and better user
experiences.

5. Describe data level parallelism in (i)SMD (ii)MISD

Data-Level Parallelism (DLP):

 Definition: Data-Level Parallelism (DLP) refers to the simultaneous execution of the

same operation on multiple data elements. It improves computational efficiency by
processing multiple pieces of data in parallel, rather than sequentially. DLP in Single
 Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD) and Multiple Instruction Single Data (MISD)
architectures:
 Importance: It enhances performance by reducing execution time in applications like
graphics processing, scientific computing, and AI.

(i) DLP in SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data):

Definition:

SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) is a parallel processing technique in which a single
instruction operates on multiple data elements simultaneously. This approach enhances
computational efficiency, particularly in tasks that involve repetitive calculations on large
datasets.

 Instruction pool: Holds the single instruction that will be executed.

 Data pool: Contains multiple data elements to be processed.
 Vector unit: Executes the SIMD instruction.
 PU (Processing Units): Multiple identical processing units that execute the same
instruction on different data elements simultaneously.

Step-by-Step Working of SIMD:

1. Instruction Fetch & Dispatch:

o The Instruction Pool holds the instruction that needs to be executed.
o A single instruction is fetched and sent to all processing units (PUs) in the
Vector Unit.
2. Data Loading:
 oThe Data Pool contains multiple data elements.
oEach processing unit (PU) retrieves different data elements from the Data
Pool.
3. Parallel Execution:
o Each PU in the Vector Unit applies the same instruction to different data
elements simultaneously.
o For example, if the instruction is an addition operation (A + B), each PU
performs the addition on different sets of data at the same time.
4. Result Storage:
o Once computation is done, the processed data is stored back into memory or
used in the next step of computation.
Example:

 Suppose we have two arrays:

A = [1, 2, 3, 4]

B = [5, 6, 7, 8]

 We want to add corresponding elements of both arrays.

Traditional (Scalar) Processing:

 A standard CPU (without SIMD) would process these one by one:

1+5=6

2+6=8

3 + 7 = 10

4 + 8 = 12

 It takes 4 separate addition operations to complete.

SIMD Processing (Parallel Execution):

 With SIMD, multiple processing units (PU1, PU2, PU3, PU4) execute the same
instruction on multiple data elements simultaneously:

PU Data from A Data from B Result (A + B)

PU1 1 5 6

PU2 2 6 8

PU3 3 7 10

PU4 4 8 12

 All four additions happen at the same time instead of one by one.

Applications:
  Image & Video Processing – Speeds up filtering, compression, and transformations
in photo editing, video encoding, and streaming.
 Scientific Simulations – Used in weather modeling, fluid dynamics, and molecular
simulations for fast computations.
 Multimedia Applications – Enhances audio processing, speech recognition, and 3D
rendering by parallelizing data operations.
 Cryptography – Boosts encryption/decryption speeds for secure communication and
data protection.
 Machine Learning – Accelerates deep learning by optimizing matrix and vector
computations.

Faster, more efficient, and optimized for large-scale computations the SIMD is used

Advantages of SIMD in DLP:

 Higher Performance: SIMD improves computational speed by processing multiple

data points in parallel.
 Energy Efficiency: Reduces the number of instruction fetches and memory accesses,
lowering power consumption.
 Optimized for Vector Processing: Ideal for applications such as graphics rendering,
scientific simulations, and artificial intelligence.

(ii) DLP in MISD(Multiple Instruction, Single Data):

Definition:

MISD (Multiple Instruction, Single Data) is a parallel computing architecture where

multiple processing units execute different instructions on the same data stream
simultaneously. Unlike SIMD, where the same instruction is applied to multiple data
points, MISD applies multiple instructions to a single data point.
  Instructions (Arrows labeled "instructions") – Multiple sets of instructions being
sent to different CPUs.
 CPUs (Processing Units) – Four separate CPU units that process the instructions.
 Data (Shared Input) – A single data source that is fed into all CPUs for processing.

Step-by-Step Working of MISD:

1.Data Input Stage

 A single data stream is fed into the system.

 All processors (CPUs) receive the same data input.

2. Multiple Instructions Execution

 Each processor has its own instruction set, meaning they perform different
operations on the same data.
 For example:
o CPU 1 might perform error checking.
o CPU 2 might apply a mathematical transformation.
o CPU 3 might filter noise from the data.
o CPU 4 might perform encryption.

3. Parallel Processing

 All processors execute their unique instructions simultaneously on the same data.
 Unlike SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data), where all CPUs execute the same
operation, each processor in MISD does something different.
4. Output Stage

 The results from all processors can be:

o Combined into a single output.
o Used for further processing.
o Compared to check for faults/errors (in critical systems).

Examples:

1. Spacecraft Control (NASA, SpaceX):

o Same sensor data is processed by different algorithms to ensure fault
tolerance.
2. Aircraft Flight Control:
o Multiple processors analyse the same flight data for safety and redundancy.
3. Cryptography:
o A single message is encrypted using multiple encryption methods for security.
4. Radar & Sonar Processing:
o The same radar signal is filtered, tracked, and analyzed differently.

Advantages of MISD in DLP:

 Fault Tolerance: Used in mission-critical applications where error detection and

correction are essential.
 Pipeline Efficiency: Enables complex signal processing tasks where multiple
transformations are applied sequentially.
 Enhanced Security: Useful in cryptographic applications where multiple encryption
steps operate on the same data.

Comparison:

SIMD (Single Instruction, MISD (Multiple Instruction, Single

Feature
Multiple Data) Data)

Instruction Single instruction for all Different instructions for each

Type processing units processing unit

Multiple data elements

Data Type Single data input used across all units
processed simultaneously

Use Case Image processing, AI, gaming, Fault-tolerant computing, aerospace

cryptography systems, deep security encryption
 SIMD (Single Instruction, MISD (Multiple Instruction, Single
Feature
Multiple Data) Data)

Performance Highly efficient for vector Specialized use cases, not common in
Impact processing general-purpose computing

Data Level Parallelism in SIMD and MISD serves different computational needs. SIMD is
widely used in modern computing for accelerating parallel tasks in graphics, AI, and scientific
simulations, while MISD is limited to specialized domains like fault-tolerant systems and
signal processing. Understanding these architectures helps optimize performance for specific
applications.

6. i).Point out how will you classify shared memory multi-processor based on memory
access latency.

Shared memory multiprocessor:

A shared memory multiprocessor system consists of multiple processors that access a

common memory space. The efficiency and performance of these systems depend on
memory access latency, which refers to the time delay experienced by a processor while
accessing data from memory. Based on memory access latency, shared memory
multiprocessors can be classified into three main categories:

1. Uniform Memory Access (UMA)

2. Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA)
3. Cache-Only Memory Access (COMA)
Each of these architectures has distinct characteristics and is used in different computing
environments.

1. Uniform Memory Access (UMA):

Definition:

In a Uniform Memory Access (UMA) system, all processors share a single, centralized
memory, and each processor experiences equal latency when accessing any memory
location. This is commonly found in Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP) systems.
Step-by-Step Working of UMA:

1. Multiple Processors in the System

 The system consists of multiple processors (Processor 1, Processor 2, ..., Processor

n).
 These processors can work on different tasks simultaneously.
2. Shared Memory Architecture

 All processors share a common memory pool.

 Each processor can read from and write to the shared memory.
 The memory access time is the same for all processors.
3. Interconnect System

 Processors are connected to the memory and I/O devices via an Interconnect (Bus,
Crossbar, or Multistage Network).
 This interconnect manages communication between processors and memory.
 It ensures that data is consistently updated across all processors.
4. Fetching & Executing Instructions

 Each processor fetches instructions and data from shared memory.

 They process the data and write results back to memory.
 Since memory access time is uniform, there is no performance variation between
processors.
5. Managing Synchronization & Consistency

 Since multiple processors share the same memory, they must coordinate to avoid
conflicts.
 Techniques like locks, semaphores, and cache coherence protocols ensure that all
processors see the same updated data.
6. Handling Input/Output (I/O) Operations

 The system has I/O devices connected through the interconnect.

 Processors can access I/O devices just like they access memory.
Example:

Scenario: Running Multiple Applications

Suppose your computer has a quad-core processor (4 cores) and 8GB of RAM. You open
multiple application

1.Core 1 runs a web browser.

2.Core 2 runs a video editing software.

3.Core 3 runs an antivirus scan.

4.Core 4 processes background system tasks.

Each core (processor) fetches and stores data in the same 8GB RAM at equal access speed
because it follows Uniform Memory Access (UMA).

2. Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA):

Definition: (NUMA) systems use a distributed memory model where memory is divided
among multiple nodes, and access time varies depending on whether a processor is
accessing local or remote memory.

Key Components:

1. Processors – Multiple CPUs, each with its dedicated local memory.

2. Local Memory – Fast memory dedicated to a specific processor.
3. Remote Memory – Memory belonging to other processors, accessible via the
interconnect.
4. Interconnection Network – Connects processors and allows communication between
memory regions.
 5. Operating System Optimization – NUMA-aware OS schedules tasks and memory
allocation to minimize remote memory accesses.

Working:

1. Local Memory for Each Processor:

o Each processor has its own dedicated local memory.
o Accessing local memory is faster as it is directly attached to the processor.
2. Interconnection Network:
o Processors are connected via a high-speed interconnection network.
o This allows processors to access memory from other processors if required.
3. Remote Memory Access:
o If a processor needs data from another processor’s memory, it retrieves it
over the interconnection network.
o Accessing remote memory takes longer than accessing local memory.
4. NUMA-Aware Operating Systems & Software:
o To improve performance, modern operating systems and applications are
designed to optimize memory placement.
o They attempt to allocate data in a processor’s local memory to reduce slow
remote accesses.

Examples:

 Servers – Used in AMD EPYC & Intel Xeon multi-socket servers.

 Supercomputers – Found in Cray XC40, IBM Blue Gene.

Types of NUMA:
(A) Non-caching NUMA (B) Cache-Coherent NUMA

NC-NUMA (Non-Caching NUMA) Works:

1. Each CPU has its own local memory – Reduces contention for shared memory.
2. No cache coherence mechanism – CPUs directly access memory without caching
remote data.
3. MMU manages memory access – Requests to local memory are fast, while remote
memory access is slower via the system bus.
4. System bus connects multiple nodes – Enables inter-node communication but
increases latency for remote memory access.
5. Efficient for tasks with localized memory access – Not ideal for workloads requiring
frequent remote memory access.
Each CPU mainly uses its own memory, and if it needs data from another CPU's memory, it
takes longer to fetch it because there is no shared caching system.

Cache-Coherent NUMA Works:

 Each node has its own CPU and memory, connected via a local bus.
 CPUs access local memory quickly for faster performance.
 If data is not in local memory, the CPU retrieves it from another node via the
interconnection network.
 Directory-based system maintains cache coherence, ensuring all nodes have updated
data.
 Improves performance by balancing local memory speed with shared memory
access.
CC-NUMA ensures CPUs can efficiently share memory while keeping data consistent across
multiple caches. It balances fast local memory access with global shared memory
coordination.

3. Cache-Only Memory Access (COMA):

Definition:

Cache-Only Memory Access (COMA) is a type of Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA)

architecture where all memory is treated as a large cache instead of having a fixed home
location for data. In COMA systems, memory dynamically migrates and replicates based on
demand, improving access speed and reducing latency.
Components:
o Directory: This is a centralized or distributed component that keeps track of
the state of cached data. It helps manage coherence between caches in a
multiprocessor system.
o Cache: This is a smaller, faster memory that stores copies of data from
frequently used main memory locations. Each processor typically has its own
cache.
o Processor: This is the central processing unit (CPU) that performs
computations and executes instructions.
Working:
1. Distributed Memory Structure:
o In COMA, the main memory is divided into smaller portions, each associated
with a processor. These portions act as large caches, known as Attraction
Memory (AM).
o Each processor has its own local cache, but the entire memory system is
composed of these distributed caches. There is no central main memory;
instead, the memory is entirely cache-based.
2. Data Migration:
o Data in a COMA system is not fixed to a specific location. Instead, it can
migrate between the distributed caches based on access patterns.
o If a processor needs data that resides in another processor's cache, the data is
dynamically moved to the requesting processor's cache. This migration is
transparent to the programmer and handled by the hardware.
3. Cache Coherence:
o COMA systems maintain cache coherence to ensure that all processors have a
consistent view of the data. This is typically managed through a directory-
based protocol.
o The directory keeps track of which processor caches contain copies of specific
data blocks. When a processor updates a data block, the directory ensures that
all other caches holding that data are updated or invalidated.
4. Attraction Memory (AM):
o Each processor's local memory acts as a large cache, called Attraction
Memory. The AM attracts data that is frequently accessed by the processor,
reducing latency and improving performance.
 o The AM is managed similarly to a cache, with mechanisms for data
replacement (e.g., LRU - Least Recently Used) when the memory becomes
full.
5. Interconnection Network:
o The processors and their associated caches are connected via a high-speed
interconnection network. This network facilitates data migration and
coherence messages between the caches.
o The efficiency of the interconnection network is critical to the performance of
a COMA system, as it handles all communication between distributed caches.

The classification is based on how memory access latency varies depending on the system’s
architecture, and choosing the right system depends on the workload and memory access
patterns.

ii).Compare and contrast Fine grained, Coarse grained multithreading and

Simultaneous Multithreading

Fine grained Multithreading:

Fine multithreading is a processor technique where the CPU switches between multiple
threads at every instruction cycle. This prevents idle time by ensuring that the processor
remains active even if one thread encounters a delay, such as a memory stall. It improves
efficiency, maximizes pipeline utilization, and is commonly used in GPUs and high-
performance computing systems.

 The "Skip A" label suggests that the system skips a particular step (likely due to a
delay or stall) and moves forward to execute other instructions.
 Left Side: Sequential execution where delays (red blocks) cause stalls.
 Right Side: Fine-grained multithreading allows skipping over stalled operations,
keeping the processor active.
 Different colors represent different instructions or threads.
This concept is used in processors like GPUs and some CPUs to improve
efficiency and minimize idle cycles.

Fine Multithreading Works:

Fine multithreading addresses this issue by interleaving instructions from multiple threads,
thereby ensuring that execution continues without significant idle periods.
The working principle of fine multithreading involves:
1. Thread Scheduling: The processor maintains multiple threads in its execution queue
and selects the next thread to execute in a round-robin or priority-based manner.
2. Context Switching: The processor quickly switches from one thread to another at
each instruction cycle. This allows execution to continue even if a particular thread
encounters a delay.
3. Avoiding Pipeline Stalls: Since the processor does not wait for stalled instructions to
complete, pipeline utilization remains high, leading to improved overall performance.
4. Instruction Interleaving: The processor interleaves instructions from different
threads to ensure a smooth flow of execution.

Applications of Fine Multithreading

Fine multithreading is widely used in various computing domains, including:
 Graphics Processing Units (GPUs): GPUs rely on fine multithreading to manage
thousands of concurrent threads, ensuring high throughput for rendering and parallel
computations.
 High-Performance Computing (HPC): Supercomputers and parallel computing
systems use fine multithreading to optimize resource utilization and minimize
execution delays.
 Network Processors: These processors handle multiple network packets
simultaneously, benefiting from fine multithreading to maintain high data throughput.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Fine Multithreading:

Advantages
1. Increased Processor Utilization
o Keeps the CPU busy by switching threads at every cycle, preventing idle time.
2. Reduced Pipeline Stalls
o If one thread encounters a delay (e.g., memory access), the processor
immediately switches to another thread, improving efficiency.
3. Better Performance for High-Latency Applications
o Works well in applications with frequent memory accesses, such as GPUs,
networking, and parallel computing.
4. Efficient Resource Sharing
o Multiple threads share CPU resources efficiently, leading to better throughput
in multi-threaded applications.
 5. Minimized Wasted Cycles
o Keeps instruction pipelines full, preventing performance drops due to stalls.
Disadvantages
1. Increased Hardware Complexity
o Requires additional registers and scheduling logic to manage multiple threads
efficiently.
2. Higher Power Consumption
o Frequent thread switching increases power usage, which may not be ideal for
energy-efficient systems.
3. Thread Management Overhead
o Complex scheduling mechanisms are needed to ensure fair execution of all
threads without starvation.
4. Limited Performance Gains in Some Cases
o If all threads experience simultaneous stalls (e.g., waiting on memory),
performance improvement is minimal.
5. Potential Resource Contention
o Multiple threads competing for shared resources (cache, memory, etc.) can
lead to bottlenecks and reduced individual thread performance.

Fine multithreading is a powerful technique that improves processor efficiency by reducing

idle time and pipeline stalls. However, it comes with trade-offs such as increased complexity
and power consumption, making it suitable for specific high-performance applications like
GPUs and network processors.

Coarse-Grained Multithreading (CGMT):

Coarse-Grained Multithreading (CGMT) is a technique where a processor switches between
threads only during long-latency events (e.g., cache misses) to reduce idle time and improve
throughput. It executes one thread until a stall occurs, then switches to another thread,
making it simpler but less effective for short-term latency compared to fine-grained
multithreading.
Coarse Multithreading Works:
The image provided illustrates the concept of coarse multithreading. It shows how execution
proceeds in different threads, with long stalls occurring at certain points:
1. Thread Execution: A single thread runs continuously until it encounters a stall (e.g.,
memory access delay, cache miss, or dependency on another computation).
2. Stall Detection: When a stall is detected, the processor suspends execution of the
stalled thread.
3. Thread Switching: The processor switches to another ready thread that does not have
pending stalls.
4. Execution Resumption: Once the stalled thread’s delay is resolved, it is scheduled
for execution again after other threads complete their execution.
This approach ensures that the processor does not remain idle for extended periods while
waiting for stalled instructions to complete.

Advantages of Coarse Multithreading

1. Reduced Context Switching Overhead
o Unlike fine multithreading, which switches threads frequently, coarse
multithreading switches only when necessary, reducing the overhead of saving
and restoring thread states.
2. Better Cache Utilization
o Since a thread runs continuously until a stall, it benefits from cache locality,
leading to better performance for workloads with frequent data reuse.
3. Efficient for High-Latency Stalls
o Useful for applications where stalls due to memory access are long, such as
database queries and scientific computing.
4. Simpler Hardware Design
o Requires less hardware complexity compared to fine multithreading since
thread switching occurs less frequently.
Disadvantages of Coarse Multithreading
1. Increased Processor Idle Time
 o If all active threads experience simultaneous stalls, the processor may remain
idle, reducing overall efficiency.
2. Less Responsive to Short Stalls
o Short stalls (e.g., branch misprediction) do not trigger thread switching,
leading to wasted cycles compared to fine multithreading.
3. Potential Load Imbalance
o Some threads may experience longer execution times while others remain
stalled, leading to inefficient CPU resource distribution.
4. Lower Thread Throughput
o Fine multithreading allows multiple threads to make progress in parallel,
whereas coarse multithreading may keep a stalled thread idle for a long time
before switching.

Applications of Coarse Multithreading:

Coarse multithreading is useful in various scenarios where long execution stalls occur, such
as:
 Database Servers: Handling multiple queries that require memory-intensive
processing.
 Scientific Computing: Large computations that rely on memory accesses and
floating-point operations.
 Network Processing: Managing multiple network packets that may experience
unpredictable latencies.
 High-Performance Computing (HPC): Systems that execute long-running tasks
requiring large memory accesses.

Despite these limitations, coarse multithreading remains an essential approach in systems

where memory delays and long-latency operations dominate the execution time.

Simultaneous Multithreading:
Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT) is a CPU execution technique that allows multiple
threads to run in parallel within a single processor core. Unlike traditional multithreading,
which switches between threads base on stalls or availability, SMT enables different threads
to share execution resources at the same time.

each representing a different thread executing in parallel. The key observations from the
image include:
1. Parallel Thread Execution: Multiple threads (represented by different colors) are
running simultaneously within a single core.
2. Skipping Stalled Threads: When certain threads encounter stalls (e.g., waiting for
data from memory), the processor skips them (labeled as "Skip A" and "Skip C") and
continues executing instructions from other available threads.
3. Efficient CPU Utilization: Instead of allowing the processor to remain idle during
stalls, SMT ensures that execution units remain active by processing instructions from
other threads.

SMT Works:

1. Hardware Support for SMT

SMT requires hardware support at the CPU level. Modern processors, such as those
with Intel Hyper-Threading and AMD Simultaneous Multithreading, implement this
technique by enabling multiple threads to share a single physical core.
2. Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP) and Thread-Level Parallelism (TLP)
o ILP: The ability to execute multiple instructions from a single thread
simultaneously.
o TLP: The ability to execute instructions from multiple threads at the same
time. SMT enhances TLP by allowing different threads to use available
execution units in parallel.
3. Thread Scheduling in SMT
o The processor dynamically schedules instructions from multiple threads in the
execution pipeline.
 o If a thread encounters a stall (e.g., due to cache misses or branch
mispredictions), the processor prioritizes other threads that are ready for
execution.
o This minimizes delays and ensures that CPU resources are efficiently used.

Advantages of SMT
1. Increased CPU Utilization: By allowing multiple threads to share execution units,
SMT ensures that the CPU is always performing useful work.
2. Better Performance for Multithreaded Workloads: Applications designed for
multithreading, such as databases, web servers, and gaming engines, benefit
significantly from SMT.
3. Improved Responsiveness: Even if one thread is stalled, other threads can continue
execution, leading to better system responsiveness.
4. Energy Efficiency: SMT improves performance without requiring additional cores,
leading to better power efficiency compared to adding more physical cores.
Disadvantages of SMT
1. Resource Contention: Since multiple threads share CPU resources, contention can
occur, leading to performance degradation if too many threads compete for the same
resources.
2. Security Concerns: SMT can introduce security vulnerabilities, such as side-channel
attacks (e.g., Spectre and Meltdown), where one thread might infer data from another
thread running on the same core.
3. Not Always Beneficial: In workloads that are not optimized for multithreading, SMT
may not provide significant performance gains and can sometimes introduce
overhead.

Real-World Applications of SMT

1. Cloud Computing and Virtualization: SMT allows cloud servers to handle more
virtual machines efficiently by enabling multiple threads to share processing power.
2. Gaming and Graphics Processing: Many modern games utilize multithreading to
improve frame rates and performance.
3. AI and Machine Learning: SMT helps accelerate deep learning and AI workloads
by efficiently utilizing available execution resources.
4. Web Servers and Databases: High-performance servers benefit from SMT as it
allows them to process multiple user requests simultaneously.

these challenges, SMT remains a fundamental technology in improving CPU efficiency and
performance in various computing applications.

7. Evaluate the features of Multicore processors.

Multicore processors:
A multicore processor is a single computing component (a CPU) that has multiple
independent processing units called cores. Each core can execute instructions independently,
allowing for parallel processing,which improves performance, efficiency, and multitasking
capabilities

Multicore processors work:

1.Multiple Processors with Multiple Cores
 The image shows two processors: Processor 0 and Processor 1.
 Each processor contains two cores (Core 0, Core 1 in Processor 0, and Core 2, Core 3
in Processor 1).
 Each core is an independent processing unit capable of executing tasks.
2. Independent Execution in Cores
 Each core operates independently, meaning they can run different tasks
simultaneously.
 Instead of a single-core processor handling one task at a time, multiple cores divide
the workload, improving efficiency and performance.
3. Cache Memory for Faster Access
 Each core has L1 Cache (Level 1 Cache), which is dedicated to that specific core for
quick access to frequently used data.
 Each processor has a shared L2 Cache (Level 2 Cache), which helps in reducing
memory access latency.
4. System Bus Communication with RAM
 The System Bus connects the processors to Main Memory (RAM).
 When a core needs data, it first checks its L1 cache.
 If the data is not found, it checks the L2 cache.
 If the data is still not found, it accesses the main memory (RAM) through the system
bus.
5. Parallel Processing for Higher Efficiency
 Since multiple cores can execute instructions in parallel, tasks get completed faster
than in single-core processors.
  This reduces processing time and improves the system's ability to handle
multitasking.

Features of Multicore processors:

1. Multiple Processing Cores

 A multicore processor consists of two or more independent cores, such as dual-
core, quad-core, hexa-core, and octa-core processors.
 Each core functions as an individual CPU, handling separate tasks for better workload
distribution.
 Allows execution of multiple processes simultaneously (parallel processing).

2. Parallel Processing & Multitasking

 With multiple cores, the system can process several tasks at the same time, reducing
delays.
 Improves system responsiveness by efficiently managing multiple applications.
 Increases computing performance, especially for multi-threaded applications like
video rendering and gaming.

3. Shared and Dedicated Cache Memory

 Each core has its own L1 cache, ensuring quick access to frequently used data.
 Higher-level caches (L2 and L3) are shared among cores, optimizing memory access.
 Helps in reducing latency and improving overall execution speed.

4. Improved Performance and Speed

 Instead of increasing clock speed, adding more cores enhances processing power.
 Workload distribution ensures that each core handles a part of the task, improving
efficiency.
 Significant performance improvements in heavy computing tasks like artificial
intelligence (AI), 3D modeling, and big data processing.

5. Power Efficiency and Heat Management

 Consumes less power than single-core processors operating at higher clock speeds.
 Work is distributed among multiple cores, reducing overheating and improving
battery life in laptops and mobile devices.
 Efficient energy consumption makes multicore processors suitable for cloud
computing and data centers.
6. Compatibility with Multi-Threaded Software
 Software optimized for multi-threading can distribute tasks across multiple cores.
 Applications like Adobe Premiere Pro, AutoCAD, MATLAB, and modern game
engines utilize multiple cores for enhanced efficiency.
  More applications are being developed to leverage multicore technology for faster
execution.

7. Scalability for Future Technology

 Multicore processors are scalable, meaning more cores can be added to increase
processing power.
 Future advancements may lead to higher core counts, improved cache
management, and better energy efficiency.
 Essential for emerging technologies like cloud computing, IoT (Internet of Things),
and quantum computing.

Advantages:
 Enhanced computing power.
 Energy efficiency.
 Ideal for high-performance tasks like AI, gaming, and data processing.
Disadvantages:
 More complex programming required.
 Higher manufacturing costs.
 Some applications may not fully utilize all cores.

Applications of Multicore Processors

1. High-Performance Computing (HPC)
o Used in scientific simulations, weather forecasting, and data analysis where
large computations are required.
2. Gaming and Graphics Processing
o Modern gaming systems and GPUs rely on multicore processors for rendering
high-quality graphics and real-time physics simulations.
3. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML)
o AI models require parallel processing for training neural networks and running
deep learning algorithms efficiently.

Multicore processors have revolutionized computing by enhancing performance, efficiency,

and multitasking capabilities. Their ability to execute multiple instructions in parallel makes
them essential for modern applications, from AI to gaming and cloud computing.
8.) (i) Classify the types of multithreading.

Multithreading:
Multithreading is a programming technique that allows multiple threads (smallest units of a
process) to execute independently within a single process. It enables concurrent execution of
multiple tasks, improving performance, responsiveness, and resource utilization.
Types:

1. Pre-emptive Multithreading:
Explanation
Pre-emptive multithreading is controlled by the operating system (OS). The OS decides when
to switch between threads based on priority, time slices, or resource availability. Threads do
not have control over execution switching, ensuring fair CPU distribution.
Working
1. The OS assigns time slices (quantum) to each thread.
2. When a thread's time expires or it enters a waiting state, the OS preempts it and
switches to another thread.
3. This process continues, ensuring multitasking and system stability.
Example
 Modern operating systems (Windows, Linux) use preemptive multithreading for
process scheduling.
 Web browsers handle multiple tabs and background processes efficiently using this
technique.

2. Cooperative Multithreading
Explanation
Cooperative multithreading relies on threads voluntarily yielding control to allow other
threads to execute. If a thread does not yield control, it can monopolize CPU time, potentially
causing system slowdowns.
Working
1. A thread executes its task until it voluntarily releases the CPU.
2. Another thread is scheduled to run once the previous thread yields control.
3. If a thread does not yield, it can block other threads, leading to inefficiencies.
Example
 Early macOS versions used cooperative multithreading before adopting preemptive
scheduling.
 Single-threaded applications where tasks are manually scheduled by developers.

3. Concurrent Multithreading
Explanation
Concurrent multithreading allows multiple threads to execute independently within a single
process. However, threads may not execute simultaneously but rather take turns running in an
interleaved fashion.
Working
1. Multiple threads exist within a process and share resources.
2. The system switches between threads when one becomes idle or blocked.
3. This ensures efficiency without requiring multiple CPU cores.
Example
 Java's multithreading model (using Thread and Runnable interfaces) allows
concurrent execution.
 Music players run UI and playback threads concurrently.

4. Parallel Multithreading
Explanation
Parallel multithreading involves executing multiple threads simultaneously on different CPU
cores. It is used to fully utilize modern multicore processors, significantly improving
performance.
Working
1. Threads are assigned to different CPU cores.
2. Multiple threads execute at the same time without waiting.
3. This approach is ideal for high-performance computing (HPC) and real-time
applications.
Example
 Multicore processors handle AI computations using parallel execution.
 Gaming engines run physics, graphics, and AI logic in parallel for smooth gameplay.

Advantages of Multithreading
1. Efficient CPU Utilization
o Allows multiple threads to run simultaneously, keeping the CPU busy and
reducing idle time.
2. Improved Responsiveness
o Ensures smooth execution of applications, especially in GUIs and real-time
systems.
o Example: A web browser remains responsive while loading a webpage in the
background.
3. Faster Execution
o Tasks get executed concurrently, improving performance and reducing
execution time.
o Example: A gaming application running AI, physics, and graphics as separate
threads.
4. Better Resource Sharing
 o Threads share process memory and resources, reducing overhead compared to
multiple processes.
5. Parallel Processing Capability
o On multicore processors, threads can run truly in parallel, boosting speed for
complex computations.

Disadvantages of Multithreading
1. Complex Debugging and Synchronization Issues
o Managing multiple threads can lead to race conditions, deadlocks, and
resource conflicts.
o Requires proper synchronization (mutexes, semaphores) to prevent data
inconsistency.
2. Increased Resource Consumption
o Each thread requires CPU time and memory, which can lead to overhead if too
many threads are created.
3. Context Switching Overhead
o The CPU spends time switching between threads, which can slow down
performance in certain cases.
4. Security Risks
o Threads share the same memory space, so a bug in one thread can affect
others, leading to potential vulnerabilities.

Applications of Multithreading
1. Operating Systems
o Used for multitasking (running multiple applications at once).
o Example: Windows, Linux thread scheduling.
2. Web Browsers
o Handles multiple tabs, downloads, and rendering in parallel.
o Example: Google Chrome using separate threads for each tab.
3. Gaming and Graphics Processing
o Separate threads for rendering, physics calculations, and AI.
o Example: First-person shooter games with real-time effects.
4. Multimedia Applications
o Allows simultaneous audio/video playback and background processing.
o Example: Video players, music streaming services.
5. High-Performance Computing (HPC)
o Parallel processing for big data analysis, AI, and machine learning.
o Example: Scientific simulations, weather prediction models.
6. Networking Applications
o Servers handle multiple client requests simultaneously using multithreading.
o Example: Web servers like Apache, Nginx, and cloud computing platforms.

Multithreading is essential for modern computing, improving efficiency and performance

across various applications. However, it requires careful management to handle
synchronization issues and avoid excessive overhead.
ii).Analyze the advantages in multithreading.

Advantages of Multithreading
1. Efficient CPU Utilization
o Allows multiple threads to run simultaneously, keeping the CPU busy and
reducing idle time.
2. Improved Responsiveness
o Ensures smooth execution of applications, especially in GUIs and real-time
systems.
o Example: A web browser remains responsive while loading a webpage in the
background.
6. Faster Execution
o Tasks get executed concurrently, improving performance and reducing
execution time.
o Example: A gaming application running AI, physics, and graphics as separate
threads.
7. Better Resource Sharing
o Threads share process memory and resources, reducing overhead compared to
multiple processes.
8. Parallel Processing Capability
o On multicore processors, threads can run truly in parallel, boosting speed for
complex computations.

9. Formulate the classes in Flynn's Taxonomy of computer Architecture classification

with example.

Flynn's Taxonomy of computer Architecture:

Flynn's Taxonomy is a classification system for computer architectures based on how
instructions and data are processed. It was proposed by Michael J. Flynn in 1966 and remains
a fundamental model for understanding parallel computing. The taxonomy is divided into
four main classes: SISD, SIMD, MISD, and MIMD
1. Single Instruction, Single Data (SISD):
Definition:
SISD architecture consists of a single processor that executes a single instruction on a single
data stream. It follows a sequential execution model where each instruction is processed one
at a time.
Working:
 The processor fetches an instruction from the instruction pool.
 The instruction is executed on a single piece of data.
 The result is stored before moving to the next instruction.
 Execution occurs step-by-step, without parallel processing.
Why is SISD used?
 Used in traditional computing systems where parallelism is not needed.
 Best suited for basic tasks, simple calculations, and control-based applications.
 Ensures simplicity and ease of programming.
Examples
 at a Early computers like IBM 7090, Intel 8085.
 Single-core processors executing simple programs sequentially.
 A basic calculator processing one operation at a time.
Advantages
 Simple and easy to program.
 Low hardware cost.
  Reliable and efficient for basic computing.
Disadvantages
 Slow execution compared to parallel architectures.
 Not efficient for large-scale computations.

2. Single Instruction, Multiple Data (SIMD):

Definition:
SIMD architecture allows multiple processing units to execute the same instruction on
different data elements simultaneously. It is commonly used in data-parallel applications.
Working
 A single instruction is broadcasted from the instruction pool.
 Multiple processors execute the same operation on different data elements from the
data pool.
 Each processor works independently on its assigned data.
 Results are stored back in memory for further processing.
Why is SIMD used?
 Used for data-parallel processing, such as graphics rendering and multimedia
applications.
 Efficient for tasks requiring massive identical computations (e.g., matrix operations,
vector processing).
 Reduces instruction-fetch overhead, increasing throughput.
Examples
 Graphics Processing Units (GPUs), which execute the same operation on multiple
pixels simultaneously.
 Cray-1 supercomputer, used in scientific computations.
 Intel’s AVX (Advanced Vector Extensions) for multimedia applications.
Advantages
 High efficiency in processing large datasets.
 Faster execution of repetitive computations.
 Reduces instruction overhead.
Disadvantages
 Limited to applications that can be parallelized.
 Not suitable for general-purpose computing.

3. Multiple Instruction, Single Data (MISD)

Definition
MISD architecture features multiple processors executing different instructions on the same
data stream. This structure is rare and is primarily used in specialized computing applications.
Working
 A single data stream is fed to multiple processors.
 Each processor executes a different instruction on the same data.
 The processed results are combined or used for redundancy.
 Often used for fault tolerance and error detection.
Why is MISD used?
 Used in real-time control systems where fault tolerance is critical.
 Helps improve error detection and redundancy in aerospace and safety-critical
systems.
 Ensures continuous operation even if one processor fails.
Examples
 Fault-tolerant aerospace systems, such as those used in NASA’s space missions.
 Pipeline processors, where each stage of the pipeline processes the same data
differently.
 Neural networks, where different layers apply different transformations to the same
input.
Advantages
 High fault tolerance.
 Ensures data reliability.
 Provides computational redundancy.
Disadvantages
 Rarely used in general-purpose computing.
 Requires complex programming.
 Expensive to implement.

4. Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data (MIMD)

Definition
MIMD architecture consists of multiple processors executing different instructions on
different data sets simultaneously. This is the most general form of parallel computing used in
multi-core and distributed systems.
Working
 Multiple processors fetch different instructions from the instruction pool.
 Each processor operates on its own data from the data pool.
 Processors run independently and in parallel.
 Execution continues concurrently, making this model highly scalable.
Why is MIMD used?
 Best suited for multi-core processors and parallel computing.
 Used in high-performance computing, cloud computing, and distributed systems.
  Allows multiple tasks to be executed simultaneously, improving efficiency and speed.
Examples
 Multi-core processors (Intel Core i7, AMD Ryzen), where each core can execute
different threads.
 Supercomputers like IBM Blue Gene and Cray XC40.
 Distributed computing systems, such as Hadoop clusters.
Advantages
 Highly scalable and efficient.
 Supports complex and diverse computations.
 Maximizes system performance.
Disadvantages
 Complex programming required.
 High power consumption.
 Expensive hardware implementation.

Comparison of Flynn's Taxonomy

Flynn’s Class Instructions Data Parallelism Example

SISD Single Single None Intel 8085, basic calculators

SIMD Single Multiple Data-level GPUs, Cray-1, Intel AVX

MISD Multiple Single Instruction-level Aerospace systems, pipelines

MIMD Multiple Multiple Task-level Multi-core CPUs, supercomputers

10.Elaborate in detail about the following (i).SISD. (ii).MIMD

(i) Single Instruction, Single Data (SISD) Architecture:

Definition:
SISD is a computing architecture where a single processor executes a single instruction on a
single data stream at a time. This model follows a sequential execution method, making it the
simplest and most traditional form of computer architecture.
It is the basis of Von Neumann architecture, which is widely used in general-purpose
computers, simple control systems, and early computing devices.
Working Principle of SISD:
The working of SISD follows a fetch-decode-execute cycle, which is the foundation of
traditional CPU operations.
Step-by-step Execution Cycle
1. Instruction Fetch
o The CPU fetches an instruction from memory.
2. Instruction Decode
o The fetched instruction is decoded to determine the operation and required
operands.
3. Data Fetch
o If necessary, the processor retrieves the required data from the data memory.
4. Instruction Execution
o The operation is performed by the Processing Unit (PU).
5. Store Result
o The result of the computation is stored in memory or registers.
6. Repeat the Cycle
o The next instruction is fetched, and the cycle continues sequentially.

Why SISD is Implemented?

SISD is implemented due to its simplicity, reliability, and cost-effectiveness. Here’s why it is
widely used:
  Straightforward Design:
o The single control unit and processing unit make SISD systems easy to design
and implement.
 Reliability and Stability:
o No complex parallelism ensures stable execution without synchronization
issues.
 Efficient for Small-Scale Tasks:
o Works well for low-demand applications where parallelism is not required.
 Low Hardware Cost:
o Requires minimal components, reducing overall system costs.
 Simplicity in Programming:
o No need for complex parallel algorithms; conventional sequential
programming is sufficient.

Where SISD is Used?

SISD architecture is found in various computing systems and applications, including:
A. General-Purpose Computers
 Example: Early microprocessors like Intel 8085 and 8086.
 Use Case: Word processing, file management, and basic computing tasks.
B. Embedded Systems
 Example: Microcontrollers in washing machines, ATMs, and traffic light controllers.
 Use Case: Handling straightforward sequential processes efficiently.
C. Basic Arithmetic and Logical Operations
 Example: Simple calculators.
 Use Case: Performing arithmetic operations one step at a time.
D. Legacy Systems
 Example: Older single-core computers.
 Use Case: Running legacy software that doesn’t require parallel execution.

Real-World Example of SISD

Example: Intel 8086 Microprocessor
The Intel 8086 processor follows the SISD model:
 It processes one instruction at a time.
 Executes operations on a single data stream.
 Used in early personal computers for tasks like document editing and simple
calculations.

Advantages and Disadvantages of SISD:

Aspect Advantages Disadvantages

Slow execution for complex

Performance Suitable for simple tasks
computations

Not scalable for high-performance

Design Complexity Simple and easy to design
applications

Hardware Requires minimal components,

Limited by single-core processing
Requirements reducing cost

No need for complex Cannot execute multiple

Parallelism
synchronization instructions at once

 SISD is the foundation of classical computing, with a single control unit and
processing unit handling operations sequentially.
 It remains relevant in basic computing, embedded systems, and low-cost applications.
 However, with modern performance demands, more advanced architectures like
SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) and MIMD (Multiple Instruction, Multiple
Data) are widely used.

(ii) Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data (MIMD) Architecture

Definition:
MIMD (Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data) is an advanced computing architecture where
multiple processors execute different instructions on different data simultaneously. Unlike
SISD, where only one processor works on one instruction at a time, MIMD allows for true
parallel processing, making it highly efficient for complex computing tasks.
MIMD systems are widely used in modern multi-core CPUs, supercomputers, and cloud
computing to handle multiple independent tasks concurrently.
Working Principle of MIMD:
In MIMD, multiple processing units (PUs) execute different instructions independently. Each
processor can fetch its own instructions from memory, operate on separate data, and complete
different computations simultaneously.
Step-by-Step Execution Cycle
1. Instruction Fetch
o Each processor fetches its own instruction from the Instruction Pool.
2. Instruction Decode
o Each processor decodes the instruction to determine the operation and required
operands.
3. Data Fetch
o Each processor retrieves relevant data from the Data Pool.
4. Instruction Execution
o Each processor executes its own instruction on its respective data.
5. Result Storage
o The results of each computation are stored in memory or registers.
6. Parallel Processing Continues
o This cycle repeats for each processor independently, ensuring concurrent
execution of multiple tasks.
Characteristics of MIMD
 Multiple instruction streams: Each processor executes its own instructions
independently.
 Multiple data streams: Different processors handle different data sets simultaneously.
 Asynchronous execution: Each processor can operate at its own pace without waiting
for others.
 Parallelism: MIMD provides true parallel execution, improving efficiency.

Why MIMD is Implemented?

MIMD is implemented due to its ability to perform multiple computations at the same time,
making it ideal for high-performance applications. Some key reasons for its implementation
include:
A. Increased Computational Speed
 By executing multiple instructions simultaneously, MIMD systems provide faster
performance than SISD or SIMD.
B. Efficient Resource Utilization
 Multiple processors work independently, ensuring that computing resources are fully
utilized.
C. Scalability for Large Tasks
 Supercomputers and distributed computing systems use MIMD to process vast
amounts of data efficiently.
D. Ideal for Complex and Independent Tasks
 Unlike SIMD (which executes the same instruction across multiple data sets), MIMD is
suitable for multi-tasking applications where different processors need to perform
different operations.

Where MIMD is Used?

MIMD is widely used in areas where parallel computing and high-performance computation
are essential.
A. Multi-Core Processors
Example: Intel Core i9, AMD Ryzen, ARM processors
Use Case: Modern computers and smartphones use MIMD to run multiple
applications simultaneously.
B. Supercomputers
 Example: IBM Blue Gene, Cray Supercomputers
 Use Case: Used in scientific simulations, weather forecasting, and artificial
intelligence.
C. Distributed Computing and Cloud Computing
 Example: Google Cloud, AWS, Microsoft Azure
 Use Case: Cloud platforms use MIMD to distribute workloads across multiple servers.
D. Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning
 Example: NVIDIA GPUs, Tensor Processing Units (TPUs)
 Use Case: MIMD enables deep learning models to process massive datasets
simultaneously.
E. Parallel Databases
 Example: Oracle Parallel Server, Apache Hadoop
 Use Case: Used for big data processing in large-scale database systems.
Real-World Example of MIMD
Example: Intel Core i9 Multi-Core Processor
The Intel Core i9 processor is an example of MIMD architecture:
 It has multiple cores, each capable of executing different instructions on different
data.
 It runs multiple applications simultaneously, such as web browsing, gaming, and
video editing.
 It improves performance by distributing workloads across multiple cores.

Advantages and Disadvantages of MIMD:

Advantages
 Highly scalable and efficient.
 Supports complex and diverse computations.
 Maximizes system performance.
Disadvantages
 Complex programming required.
 High power consumption.
 Expensive hardware implementation.

It is widely used in supercomputers, cloud computing, AI, and high-performance computing

applications.Although MIMD requires advanced programming techniques, its benefits in
speed, efficiency, and scalability make it an essential architecture in computing today.

11.Explain simultaneous Multithreading with example.

simultaneous Multithreading:
Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT) is a technique used in modern processors to improve
CPU performance and efficiency. It allows multiple threads to execute simultaneously on a
single physical core by sharing resources more effectively. This results in better utilization of
CPU resources, improved parallelism, and enhanced throughput.
consists of a structured grid, where:
 Each small square represents an instruction.
 Different colors indicate different threads executing simultaneously.
 The "Skip" annotations highlight scenarios where certain instructions from a thread
cannot execute at a given cycle, often due to dependencies or resource constraints.

Working of SMT
SMT enhances CPU performance by enabling multiple threads to share execution resources
within a single core. The key working principles of SMT include:
1. Thread-Level Parallelism (TLP):
o The processor executes multiple threads simultaneously by sharing execution
units, registers, and caches.
o It dynamically allocates resources to different threads based on availability.
2. Instruction Dispatch and Scheduling:
o The CPU fetches instructions from different threads in parallel.
o A thread scheduler determines which instructions are executed based on
available execution units and dependencies.
o If an instruction in one thread is stalled due to memory latency or a
dependency, another thread’s instruction can be executed instead, reducing
idle time.
3. Pipeline Execution:
o SMT allows multiple threads to share the CPU pipeline, ensuring that no
pipeline stage remains idle.
o When a thread experiences a stall, other active threads can utilize the pipeline,
improving overall efficiency.
4. Register and Cache Sharing:
o Threads share resources like registers and caches to optimize execution.
o The CPU ensures fair allocation of cache memory among threads to prevent
one thread from monopolizing resources.
 5. Handling Resource Contention:
o If multiple threads compete for the same execution unit, the processor
schedules instructions efficiently to avoid bottlenecks.
o Prioritization mechanisms ensure critical instructions receive processing
priority.

Advantages of SMT
1. Improved CPU Utilization: SMT enables efficient use of processor execution units
by interleaving multiple threads.
2. Higher Throughput: More instructions per cycle can be completed compared to
single-threaded execution.
3. Reduced Execution Stalls: If one thread encounters a stall (e.g., memory access
latency), other threads can continue executing.
4. Power Efficiency: While SMT increases power consumption slightly, the
performance gains per watt are usually beneficial.
5. Better Performance in Multi-Tasking: Applications that use multiple threads (e.g.,
web servers, video rendering, and databases) benefit significantly.

Challenges of SMT
1. Resource Contention: Multiple threads share execution resources, potentially leading
to performance degradation if too many threads compete for the same resources.
2. Security Concerns: Side-channel attacks like Spectre and Meltdown exploit shared
resources in SMT architectures.
3. Performance Variability: Not all workloads benefit equally from SMT. Some single-
threaded applications may not see significant improvements.
4. Increased Power Consumption: While efficiency improves, SMT does require more
power than single-thread execution.

Real-World Applications of SMT

1. Cloud Computing and Virtualization: SMT allows cloud servers to handle more
virtual machines efficiently by enabling multiple threads to share processing power.
2. Gaming and Graphics Processing: Many modern games utilize multithreading to
improve frame rates and performance.
3. AI and Machine Learning: SMT helps accelerate deep learning and AI workloads
by efficiently utilizing available execution resources.
4. Web Servers and Databases: High-performance servers benefit from SMT as it
allows them to process multiple user requests simultaneously.

By leveraging SMT, modern processors achieve higher throughput and better responsiveness,
making it a crucial technology for multi-threaded workloads. Understanding its execution, as
depicted in the image, helps in optimizing applications for better performance.

12.)Describe the four principle approaches to multithreading with necessary diagrams.

Multithreading:

Multithreading is a technique that allows multiple threads to execute concurrently within a

processor. The four principal approaches to multithreading are:
1. Superscalar Execution
2. Coarse-Grained Multithreading (CGMT)
3. Fine-Grained Multithreading (FGMT)
4. Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT)

Each of these approaches differs in how they manage thread execution and resource
allocation. The provided diagram illustrates these methods using functional unit (FU)
utilization across processor cycles.

1. Superscalar Execution
Definition:
Superscalar execution is a technique where a single thread issues multiple instructions per
cycle, optimizing CPU performance by exploiting instruction-level parallelism (ILP).
Explanation:
 Superscalar processors have multiple execution units (FUs) allowing simultaneous
execution of independent instructions from the same thread.
 The efficiency depends on the ability to find independent instructions that can be
executed in parallel.
 Pipeline stalls due to data hazards or control dependencies can limit performance
gains.
Image illustrates:
  Represents a single-threaded execution model where multiple instructions from the
same thread are issued per cycle.
 The orange blocks show active execution units (FUs) being used, while the white
spaces indicate idle units due to stalls or dependencies.
 Inefficiencies arise due to stalls, limiting parallel execution.
Working:
1. Instructions from a single thread are fetched and decoded.
2. The processor identifies independent instructions.
3. These instructions are executed simultaneously across multiple execution units.
4. If dependencies exist, execution units may remain idle, causing stalls.
5. The next set of instructions is fetched and processed in the next cycle.
Advantages:
 Increased performance due to parallel execution.
 Efficient for single-threaded applications with high ILP.
 Low complexity compared to multithreading approaches.
Disadvantages:
 Limited by the availability of independent instructions.
 Poor utilization during stalls or dependencies.
 Not suitable for multi-threaded workloads.

2. Coarse-Grained Multithreading (CGMT)

Definition:
Coarse-Grained Multithreading (CGMT) switches between threads only when a long-latency
stall occurs, such as a cache miss.
Explanation:
 Unlike superscalar execution, CGMT introduces multithreading by switching threads
when the current thread encounters a delay.
 This prevents execution units from remaining idle for long periods.
 However, CGMT does not utilize resources efficiently when threads do not encounter
long stalls.
Image illustrates:
 Uses multiple threads but switches between them only when a long-latency stall
occurs (e.g., cache miss).
 Different colors (blue, green, yellow, orange) represent separate threads.
 A thread executes until it encounters a stall, after which the processor switches to a
different thread.
Working:
1. A single thread executes until a long-latency stall occurs.
2. The processor switches execution to another thread.
3. The new thread continues execution until it encounters a stall.
4. The processor cycles through available threads in a sequential manner.
 5. Once the stalled thread is ready, execution resumes.
Advantages:
 Reduces idle time due to long-latency stalls.
 Simple hardware implementation compared to other multithreading techniques.
 Effective for workloads with occasional stalls.
Disadvantages:
 Poor efficiency when thread switching is infrequent.
 Performance suffers if all threads experience stalls at the same time.
 Delays occur when switching threads, causing execution gaps.

3. Fine-Grained Multithreading (FGMT)

Definition:
Fine-Grained Multithreading (FGMT) switches between different threads every cycle to
ensure continuous execution.
Explanation:
 Unlike CGMT, FGMT does not wait for stalls; instead, it switches threads at every
cycle.
 This ensures high utilization of execution units and reduces idle time.
 However, frequent switching introduces additional overhead.
Image illustrates:
 Interleaves execution by switching between different threads every cycle to avoid
stalls.
 Each cycle runs a different thread, reducing the impact of execution stalls.
 Multiple colors alternating between cycles show rapid switching between threads..
Working:
1. The processor fetches an instruction from a different thread in each cycle.
2. It decodes and executes the instruction immediately.
3. The next cycle moves to another thread’s instruction, continuing execution.
4. This pattern continues, interleaving thread execution.
5. No single thread gets priority, ensuring balanced execution.
Advantages:
 Maximizes CPU resource utilization.
 Prevents pipeline stalls from affecting a single thread.
 Suitable for workloads with frequent small stalls.
Disadvantages:
 Higher hardware complexity compared to CGMT.
 Thread switching every cycle introduces overhead.
 Not efficient when the number of threads is low.
4. Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT)
Definition:
Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT) allows multiple threads to execute in parallel within the
same cycle, maximizing resource utilization.
Explanation:
 SMT is the most advanced form of multithreading, allowing multiple threads to share
execution units dynamically.
 Unlike FGMT and CGMT, SMT executes multiple threads in the same cycle rather
than switching between them.
 This approach fully utilizes available execution units, significantly improving
throughput.
Image illustrates:
 The most advanced form, allowing multiple threads to execute instructions
concurrently within the same cycle.
 Maximizes hardware resource utilization, as different colors appear in the same cycle.
 Unlike CGMT and FGMT, SMT does not fully dedicate cycles to a single thread but
executes multiple threads simultaneously.
Working:
1. Multiple threads issue instructions simultaneously.
2. The processor dynamically assigns execution units to different threads.
3. Available resources are allocated based on demand.
4. Threads execute concurrently, maximizing throughput.
5. The cycle repeats with optimal resource utilization.
Advantages:
 Maximizes CPU resource utilization by executing multiple threads concurrently.
 Reduces idle time and increases overall throughput.
 Ideal for multi-threaded applications with high parallelism.
Disadvantages:
 Very high hardware complexity.
 Requires advanced scheduling mechanisms.
 Performance can degrade if threads interfere with each other for shared resources.

Modern processors often combine Superscalar Execution, SMT, and CMP (Chip
Multiprocessing) to achieve the best balance between efficiency and performance.

13. Illustrate the following in detail (i) Clusters (ii) Wharehouse scale computers

(i)Clusters:
A cluster is a collection of interconnected computers (nodes) that work together as a single
system to enhance performance, scalability, and reliability. These systems are widely used in
high-performance computing (HPC), data centers, cloud computing, and parallel processing.
The computers in a cluster share resources and coordinate tasks to achieve higher efficiency
compared to standalone machines.

Working of Clusters:
Clusters function by distributing tasks among multiple computers (nodes) that work in
parallel. These nodes communicate with each other using high-speed network connections.
The process generally involves:
1. Task Assignment: A task is divided into smaller subtasks and assigned to different
nodes.
2. Processing: Each node processes its assigned task independently.
3. Communication: Nodes share intermediate results with each other or the master node.
4. Aggregation: The final result is compiled from all nodes and sent to the user.
Types of Clusters:
Clusters can be categorized based on their purpose and architecture:
a) High-Availability (HA) Clusters
 Designed to ensure continuous service availability.
 If one node fails, another node takes over (failover mechanism).
 Used in banking systems, e-commerce, and enterprise applications.
b) Load Balancing Clusters
 Distributes workload among nodes to optimize performance.
 Ensures no single node is overwhelmed.
 Commonly used in web servers and cloud computing.
c) High-Performance Computing (HPC) Clusters
 Used for computationally intensive tasks such as scientific simulations.
  Parallel processing helps speed up execution.
 Examples include supercomputers and research laboratories.
d) Storage Clusters
 Provides redundant and scalable data storage.
 Used in big data applications and enterprise storage solutions.
Components of a Cluster System
Clusters typically consist of the following components:
 Nodes: Individual computers that perform computations.
 Master Node (Root Node): Assigns tasks and aggregates results.
 Slave Nodes: Execute assigned tasks and send back results.
 Networking: High-speed interconnects (Ethernet, InfiniBand) for communication.
 Storage System: Shared or distributed storage for data handling.
Advantages of Clusters
1. Improved Performance: Parallel processing allows faster execution of tasks.
2. Scalability: Additional nodes can be added to meet growing demand.
3. Fault Tolerance: Redundant nodes prevent system failure.
4. Cost-Effectiveness: Uses commodity hardware instead of expensive mainframes.
5. Load Balancing: Distributes tasks evenly to prevent overloading any node.
Disadvantages of Clusters
1. Complex Configuration: Requires specialized knowledge to set up and maintain.
2. High Network Dependency: Performance depends on network speed and reliability.
3. Synchronization Issues: Coordinating tasks between nodes can be challenging.
4. Power Consumption: Running multiple nodes increases energy costs.
5. Security Risks: Interconnected systems are vulnerable to cyber threats.
Applications of Clusters
Clusters are used in various domains, including:
 Scientific Research: Weather forecasting, genetic sequencing, simulations.
 Finance: High-frequency trading, risk analysis.
 Big Data Analytics: Processing large-scale data in cloud environments.
 Gaming: Multiplayer online games requiring real-time synchronization.
 Enterprise IT: Running database servers, email systems, and web hosting.

Clusters play a crucial role in modern computing by providing enhanced processing power,
scalability, and reliability. Whether used for scientific research, cloud computing, or high-
availability systems, clusters are an essential technology driving innovation in various
industries.

(ii)Warehouse scale computers:

Warehouse-Scale Computers are massive data centers composed of interconnected servers
functioning as a single large-scale computing system. Unlike traditional data centers, WSCs
are optimized for distributed computing, enabling large-scale workloads such as big data
processing, cloud computing, and artificial intelligence (AI).

Architecture of Warehouse-Scale Computers

WSCs consist of multiple interconnected components structured in a hierarchical manner.
The key elements of a WSC include:
a) Cells
 The WSC is divided into several cells, each consisting of a group of racks.
 Each cell is managed as an independent unit, optimizing workload distribution.
 Cells enhance fault tolerance and reliability by isolating failures.
b) Racks
 Each cell contains multiple racks, which hold servers.
 A rack can contain anywhere from tens to hundreds of servers, depending on the
configuration.
 Racks are connected to networking switches, enabling communication between
servers.
c) Servers
 A server is the fundamental computing unit of a WSC.
 Servers in a rack work together to execute distributed computing tasks.
 These servers are optimized for specific workloads, such as database management,
machine learning, or data storage.
d) Networking Infrastructure
  High-speed networking components interconnect servers, racks, and cells.
 Ethernet and fiber-optic connections ensure low-latency and high-bandwidth
communication.
 A hierarchical topology, such as Clos or Fat-tree, is commonly used for efficient data
flow.
e) Storage Systems
 Distributed storage solutions, such as cloud storage and network-attached storage
(NAS), handle vast amounts of data.
 Data redundancy and replication techniques ensure reliability and prevent data loss.
f) Cooling and Power Management
 WSCs require robust cooling mechanisms, such as air and liquid cooling, to prevent
overheating.
 Energy-efficient designs help reduce power consumption, improving sustainability.

Working of Warehouse-Scale Computers (WSCs):

1. Hierarchy of Components:
o The topmost layer (WSC) represents the entire data center.
o It is divided into cells (Cell 1, Cell 2, ..., Cell n), which are subsets of the data
center handling specific workloads.
o Each cell consists of racks, which house multiple servers (represented as 1, 2,
3, etc. in the image).
2. Distributed Computing:
o Tasks are distributed across multiple servers within a cell.
o Load balancing is implemented to optimize performance and resource
utilization.
3. Networking:
o Servers within a rack are connected via high-speed network switches.
o Communication between racks and cells is handled using a data center-wide
network to enable fast data processing.
4. Scalability & Fault Tolerance:
o WSCs are designed for scalability by adding more servers or racks as needed.
o Redundancy and replication techniques ensure reliability and fault tolerance.

Advantages of WSCs
1. Scalability: Can handle vast amounts of data and scale easily as demand increases.
2. Cost Efficiency: Optimized resource management reduces operational costs.
3. High Performance: Parallel processing enables quick execution of complex tasks.
4. Reliability and Fault Tolerance: Built-in redundancy ensures continued operation
even in case of hardware failures.
5. Energy Efficiency: Advanced cooling and power management systems reduce energy
consumption.
6. Support for AI and Big Data: WSCs are essential for AI model training, big data
analytics, and large-scale simulations.
Disadvantages of WSCs
1. High Initial Investment: Setting up a WSC requires significant financial investment.
 2. Complex Management: Requires specialized skills to manage networking, storage,
and compute resources.
3. Security Concerns: Storing and processing vast amounts of data make WSCs a target
for cyber threats.
4. Latency Issues: Large-scale distributed systems may experience latency in data
transfer and processing.
5. Environmental Impact: High energy consumption can contribute to environmental
concerns if not managed efficiently.
Applications of WSCs
1. Cloud Computing Services: Used by Google Cloud, AWS, and Microsoft Azure for
hosting web applications.
2. Big Data Processing: Supports large-scale analytics using frameworks like Hadoop
and Spark.
3. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Enables deep learning model training
with GPUs and TPUs.
4. Social Media Platforms: Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn use WSCs to manage user
data and services.
5. E-Commerce: Amazon and other online retailers use WSCs for recommendation
engines and transaction processing.
6. Scientific Research: Used for climate modeling, genome sequencing, and simulations
in physics and chemistry.

This system enables efficient large-scale computing by combining multiple servers into a
single, powerful computational unit.
14. Discuss the multiprocessor network topologies in detail.

Multiprocessor Network Topologies:

Multiprocessor systems consist of multiple processing units that work together to execute
tasks. These processors need an efficient communication network to exchange data and
synchronize operations. The network topology defines how processors and memory units are
connected, impacting performance, scalability, and fault tolerance.
Multiprocessor networks are categorized into two main types:
1. Shared Memory Multiprocessors (Tightly Coupled)
2. Message-Passing Multiprocessors (Loosely Coupled)
Each of these types employs different network topologies, which can be classified into
Static (Direct) Topologies and Dynamic (Indirect) Topologies.

Network Topology Types with Diagrams:

Network topologies describe the ways in which the elements of a network are mapped. They
describe the physical and logical arrangement of the network nodes. The physical topology of
a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals.
Types of Network Topologies:

Bus Topology:
 A network topology where all devices are connected to a single central
communication cable (bus).All processors share a common communication bus.
 Simple and cost-effective but suffers from bus contention.Best suited for small-scale
multiprocessor systems.

Star Topology:
  where all devices are connected to a central hub or switch that manages data
transmission. It offers efficient communication, easy troubleshooting, and high
performance by reducing data collisions.
 This topology is scalable, allowing new devices to be added without disruption.
However, it is more expensive due to additional cabling and hub costs, and the entire
network depends on the hub—if it fails, the network goes down.
 Star topology is commonly used in home and office networks due to its reliability and
efficiency.

Ring Topology:
 Ring Topology connects each node to exactly two other nodes, forming a closed loop.
 Data flows in a unidirectional or bidirectional manner.
 Reduces data collisions and ensures efficient transmission.
 A single node failure can disrupt the network unless fault tolerance is implemented.
 Commonly used in telecommunications and local area networks (LANs).

Mesh Topology:
Mesh Topology in which each of the nodes of the network is connected to each of the other
nodes in the network with a point-to-point link – this makes it possible for data to be
simultaneously transmitted from any single node to all of the other nodes.
Hybrid Topology:

 Hybrid Topology combines two or more different network topologies.

 Provides flexibility and scalability based on network requirements.
 Offers better fault tolerance and optimized performance.
 Can be complex to design and manage compared to single topologies.
 Commonly used in large organizations and data centers for efficient networking.

Tree Topology:

 Tree Topology follows a hierarchical structure with a root node at the top.
 Each node connects to a fixed number of lower-level nodes (branching factor).
 Uses point-to-point links to connect different levels of nodes.
 The top-level (root) node has no parent and serves as the main connection point.
 Provides easy scalability by adding more branches.
 Commonly used in large networks and organizational structures.
 If the root node fails, the entire network may be affected.
Applications of Multiprocessor Network Topologies
Multiprocessor network topologies play a crucial role in various high-performance
computing environments. Their applications include:
1. Supercomputing – Used in large-scale scientific simulations, weather forecasting,
climate modeling, and molecular dynamics simulations.
2. Cloud Computing & Data Centers – Supports distributed computing for cloud
services like AWS, Google Cloud, and Microsoft Azure.
3. Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning – Enables efficient training and
deployment of deep learning models using parallel processing.
4. Big Data Analytics – Helps in processing large datasets for business intelligence,
fraud detection, and real-time analytics.
5. Telecommunications – Used in network infrastructure for routing and data packet
switching.
6. Internet of Things (IoT) – Supports edge computing and real-time data processing in
IoT environments.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiprocessor Network Topologies

Advantages:
1. Increased Performance – Multiple processors working together enhance
computational speed and efficiency.
2. Parallel Processing – Enables concurrent execution of multiple tasks, improving
system throughput.
3. Scalability – Easily expands by adding more processors without major structural
changes.
Disadvantages:
1. High Cost – Setting up and maintaining multiprocessor systems is expensive.
2. Complexity – Designing and managing a multiprocessor system is more complicated
than a single processor system.
3. Communication Overhead – Requires efficient interconnection networks to avoid
data transfer delays.
4. Synchronization Issues – Tasks running in parallel need to be synchronized, which
can lead to additional processing overhead.
Multiprocessor network topologies enhance computing performance, scalability, and
efficiency by enabling parallel processing. While they offer high-speed computation and
reliability, challenges like cost, communication overhead, and complexity exist. Choosing the
right topology depends on performance and scalability needs. With technological
advancements, these topologies will continue to drive innovation in AI, big data, and cloud
computing.

PART-C
1.Evaluate the below C code using MIMD and SIMD machine as efficient as possible:
For(i=0;i<2000;i++)
For(j=0;j<3000;j++)

Array[i][j]=array[j][i]+200;

Understanding the Given Code:

for(i = 0; i < 2000; i++)
for(j = 0; j < 3000; j++)
Array[i][j] = Array[j][i] + 200;

 Outer loop: Iterates i from 0 to 1999 (2000 iterations).

 Inner loop: Iterates j from 0 to 2999 (3000 iterations).
 Total Iterations: 2000×3000= 6,000,000 computations.
 Operation: Memory access + integer addition.
The program reads from Array[j][i], adds 200, and stores the result in
Array[i][j].

Evaluation on MIMD Machines:

What is MIMD?
 MIMD machines have multiple processors that can execute different instructions on
different data simultaneously.
 Each processor can work independently on its own task.
Efficient Implementation on MIMD:
 The outer loop (i) can be parallelized across multiple processors.
 Each processor can handle a subset of rows (i) and compute the transposed updates
independently.
Optimized Code for MIMD:
 #pragma omp parallel for private(j)
for (i = 0; i < 2000; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < 3000; j++) {
array[i][j] = array[j][i] + 200;
}
}

Explanation:
 The #pragma omp parallel for directive splits the outer loop (i) across multiple
processors.
 Each processor computes a portion of the rows (i) independently.
 No data dependencies exist between rows, so this approach is efficient.

Evaluation on SIMD Machines

What is SIMD?
SIMD machines execute the same instruction on multiple data elements

simultaneously.
 They are ideal for operations that can be vectorized (e.g., adding a constant to an
array).
Efficient Implementation on SIMD:
The inner loop (j) can be vectorized, as the same operation (array[j][i] + 200) is

applied to multiple elements.
 SIMD instructions can process multiple j values in parallel.
Optimized Code for SIMD:

for (i = 0; i < 2000; i++) {

#pragma omp simd
for (j = 0; j < 3000; j++) {
array[i][j] = array[j][i] + 200;
}
}

Explanation:
 The #pragma omp simd directive vectorizes the inner loop (j).
  SIMD instructions process multiple j values in parallel, adding 200 to each element.

Optimized Code for Both MIMD and SIMD:To combine the benefits of MIMD and SIMD,
we can parallelize the outer loop (i) using MIMD and vectorize the inner loop (j) using
SIMD:

#pragma omp parallel for private(j)

for (i = 0; i < 2000; i++) {

#pragma omp simd

for (j = 0; j < 3000; j++) {

array[i][j] = array[j][i] + 200;

Performance:
 MIMD: Parallelizes the outer loop across multiple processors.
 SIMD: Vectorizes the inner loop for each processor.
 Combined Speedup: Significant improvement over sequential execution.

2. Write down a list of your daily activities that you typically do on a weekday. For
instance get out of bed, take a shower, get dressed, eat breakfast, brush your teeth, dry
your hair etc (minimum ten activities). Which of these activities can be done in form of
parallelism. For each activity discuss if they are working in parallel, but if not, why they
are not. Estimate how much shorter time it will take to complete all the activities if it is
done in parallel.

Analysis of Daily Activities Using Parallelism:

Parallelism is the concept of performing multiple tasks simultaneously to reduce overall
time. Some activities in daily life can be executed in parallel, while others must be
performed sequentially due to dependencies. Below is an analysis of typical weekday
activities and their potential for parallel execution.

List of Daily Activities:

1. Wake up
2. Brush teeth
3. Take a shower
4. Get dressed
5. Prepare breakfast
6. Eat breakfast
 7. Check phone/emails
8. Pack work/school bag
9. Wear shoes
10. Commute to work/school

Identifying Parallelizable Activities

Can be
Estimated
Activity Done in Reason
Time Saved
Parallel?

Wake up ❌ No Must be done first 0 min

Can do while
Brush teeth ✅ Yes checking 2 min
phone/emails

Take a shower ❌ No Sequential task 0 min

Can listen to
Get dressed ✅ Yes news/music while 1 min
dressing

Prepare Can cook while

✅ Yes 3 min
breakfast checking emails

Can check phone or

Eat breakfast ✅ Yes read news while 2 min
eating

Check Can do while

✅ Yes 3 min
phone/emails eating/brushing teeth

Can do while
Pack bag ✅ Yes waiting for food to 2 min
cook

Can do while
Wear shoes ✅ Yes 1 min
listening to a podcast

Can read
Commute to emails/listen to an
✅ Yes 5 min
work/school audiobook while
traveling
Time Estimation Without Parallelism (Sequential Execution):
In a sequential approach, every activity is performed one after another. Assuming an
approximate time for each task:

Activity Time Required (Minutes)

Wake up 2 min

Brush teeth 3 min

Take a shower 10 min

Get dressed 5 min

Prepare breakfast 10 min

Eat breakfast 10 min

Check phone/emails 5 min

Pack work/school bag 3 min

Wear shoes 2 min

Commute to work/school 30 min

Total Time (Sequential Execution) 80 minutes

Time Estimation With Parallelism:

In a parallel approach, multiple tasks are performed at the same time wherever possible.
Tasks that can overlap include:

Parallel Task Combination Time Taken (Minutes)

Brushing teeth + Checking phone/emails 3 min

Taking a shower (No parallelism possible) 10 min

Getting dressed + Listening to news/music 5 min

Preparing breakfast + Checking phone/emails 10 min

Eating breakfast + Checking phone/emails 10 min

 Parallel Task Combination Time Taken (Minutes)

Packing bag + Waiting for food to cook 3 min

Wearing shoes + Listening to a podcast 2 min

Commuting + Reading emails/listening to news 30 min

Total Time (With Parallelism) 60 minutes

Time Saved Using Parallelism:

 Total time without parallelism: 80 minutes

 Total time with parallelism: 60 minutes
 Time saved: 20 minutes (~25% reduction in total time)

Applying parallelism in daily activities reduces the total time by approximately 20

minutes, making the routine more efficient.

3.Consider the following portions of two different programs running at the same time
on four processors in a symmetric multicore processor (SMP). Assume that before this
code is run, both x and y are 0? Core l: x=2;
Core 2: y=2;
Core 3: w=x+ y +1;
Core 4: z=x + y;
(i) What if all the possible resulting values of w, ? For each possible outcomes, explain
how we might arrive at those values.
(ii) Develop the execution more deterministic so that only one set of values is possible?

Let’s analyse the given program running on four cores in a symmetric multicore processor
(SMP). The initial values of x and y are 0. The code is as follows:
 Core 1: x = 2;
 Core 2: y = 2;
 Core 3: w = x + y + 1;
 Core 4: z = x + y;
We need to determine the possible values of w and z based on the order of execution of these
instructions. Since the cores are running concurrently, the order of execution is not fixed, and
different interleaving can lead to different results.

(i) Possible Values of w and z:

The values of w and z depend on the order in which the cores execute their instructions. Let’s
analyse the possible scenarios:

Scenario 1: Core 1 and Core 2 execute first

 Core 1: x = 2; (now x = 2)
 Core 2: y = 2; (now y = 2)
 Core 3: w = x + y + 1; (w = 2 + 2 + 1 = 5)
 Core 4: z = x + y; (z = 2 + 2 = 4)
Result: w = 5, z = 4
Scenario 2: Core 1 executes first, Core 3 and Core 4 execute before Core 2
 Core 1: x = 2; (now x = 2)
 Core 3: w = x + y + 1; (w = 2 + 0 + 1 = 3) (since y is still 0)
 Core 4: z = x + y; (z = 2 + 0 = 2) (since y is still 0)
 Core 2: y = 2; (now y = 2)
Result: w = 3, z = 2
Scenario 3: Core 2 executes first, Core 3 and Core 4 execute before Core 1
 Core 2: y = 2; (now y = 2)
 Core 3: w = x + y + 1; (w = 0 + 2 + 1 = 3) (since x is still 0)
 Core 4: z = x + y; (z = 0 + 2 = 2) (since x is still 0)
 Core 1: x = 2; (now x = 2)
Result: w = 3, z = 2
Scenario 4: Core 3 and Core 4 execute before Core 1 and Core 2
 Core 3: w = x + y + 1; (w = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1) (since both x and y are still 0)
 Core 4: z = x + y; (z = 0 + 0 = 0) (since both x and y are still 0)
 Core 1: x = 2; (now x = 2)
 Core 2: y = 2; (now y = 2)
Result: w = 1, z = 0

Summary of Possible Outcomes:

1. w = 5, z = 4 (if Core 1 and Core 2 execute first)
 2. w = 3, z = 2 (if Core 1 executes first, but Core 3 and Core 4 execute before Core 2)
3. w = 3, z = 2 (if Core 2 executes first, but Core 3 and Core 4 execute before Core 1)
4. w = 1, z = 0 (if Core 3 and Core 4 execute before Core 1 and Core 2)

(ii) Making Execution Deterministic:

To ensure that only one set of values is possible, we need to enforce a specific order of
execution. This can be achieved using synchronization mechanisms such
as barriers or locks. Here’s how we can make the execution deterministic:

Solution: Use Barriers

 Insert a barrier after Core 1 and Core 2 to ensure that x and y are both updated before
Core 3 and Core 4 read their values.

How It Works:
1. Core 1 sets x = 2 and waits at the barrier.
2. Core 2 sets y = 2 and waits at the barrier.
3. Once both Core 1 and Core 2 reach the barrier, Core 3 and Core 4 are allowed to
proceed.
4. Core 3 calculates w = 2 + 2 + 1 = 5.
5. Core 4 calculates z = 2 + 2 = 4.
Result: Always w = 5, z = 4.

 Without synchronization, the values of w and z can vary depending on the order of
execution.
 By introducing barriers, we can enforce a deterministic execution order, ensuring that
w = 5 and z = 4 are the only possible outcomes.

4.Summarize the merits and demerits of clusters and warehouse scales computer.

Clusters and warehouse-scale computers (WSCs) are two essential architectures in modern
computing. Clusters are a collection of interconnected computers that work together to
function as a single system, while WSCs are large-scale data centers designed for cloud
computing, big data processing, and large-scale web services. Each has its own advantages
and disadvantages, making them suitable for different applications.
Merits and Demerits of Clusters

Merits of Clusters:
1. High Performance: Multiple nodes work together, providing better computational
power and processing speed.
2. Scalability: Additional nodes can be added to enhance performance as demand
increases.
3. Cost-Effective: Clusters use commodity hardware, making them more affordable
compared to supercomputers.
4. Fault Tolerance: If one node fails, the workload can be redistributed among other
nodes, ensuring system reliability.
5. Parallel Processing: Enables efficient task execution by distributing workloads
across multiple nodes.
6. Customizability: Can be tailored to specific needs such as high-performance
computing (HPC) or data storage solutions.

Demerits of Clusters:
1. Complex Setup and Management: Requires specialized knowledge to configure and
maintain.
2. Network Dependency: Performance may be limited by network latency and
communication overhead.
3. Power and Cooling Requirements: Large clusters generate significant heat and
consume high power.
4. Software Compatibility Issues: Some applications may not be optimized for cluster
environments.
5. Synchronization Challenges: Tasks running in parallel need to be well-coordinated
to avoid inefficiencies.

3. Merits and Demerits of Warehouse-Scale Computers (WSCs)

Merits of Warehouse-Scale Computers:

1. Massive Storage and Processing Power: Designed to handle petabytes of data and
thousands of simultaneous requests.
2. High Availability: Redundant power supplies, networking, and storage ensure
minimal downtime.
3. Efficient Resource Utilization: Virtualization and resource pooling maximize
computing efficiency.
4. Scalability: Can dynamically allocate resources based on demand, making it ideal for
cloud computing.
5. Economies of Scale: Large-scale operations reduce the per-unit cost of computing
resources.
 6. Support for Big Data and AI Workloads: Optimized for running machine learning,
artificial intelligence, and data analytics applications.

Demerits of Warehouse-Scale Computers:

1. High Initial Investment: Setting up a WSC requires significant capital expenditure.
2. Energy Consumption: Requires vast amounts of electricity for operation and
cooling.
3. Security Risks: Centralized data storage increases vulnerability to cyberattacks and
data breaches.
4. Complex Maintenance: Requires skilled personnel to manage hardware, software,
and network infrastructure.
5. Latency Issues: Data retrieval and processing may experience delays due to network
congestion.
6. Environmental Impact: High energy consumption leads to increased carbon
footprint.

Both clusters and warehouse-scale computers have their own strengths and weaknesses.
Clusters offer a cost-effective and scalable solution for high-performance computing, whereas
WSCs provide massive processing power and storage capabilities suited for large-scale
applications. The choice between the two depends on factors like computational needs,
budget, scalability requirements, and energy efficiency considerations. Future advancements
in distributed computing and cloud technologies will continue to enhance their capabilities
and efficiency.