CHAPTER 23

RADAR NAVIGATION

PRINCIPLES OF RADAR OPERATION

2300. Introduction 2302. The Transmitter

Radar determines distance to an object by measuring In traditional marine radar sets, those produced since
the time required for a radio signal (moving at the speed of the 1940s, the transmitter is a special electronic oscillator
light) to travel from a transmitting antenna to the object, diode tube known as a magnetron. The magnetron produces
reflect off that object, and return as a received echo. very high power microwaves (25 KW and greater) for very
Distance, or range, can be found by the simple formula: short periods of time.
Recently, another type of radar has been introduced
range = 1/2 (C x t) into the commercial marine industry know as solid state or
where range is in nautical miles, coherent radar. In modern solid state radars, the pulses gen-
C = the speed of light in nautical miles per second, and erated by special circuitry in the transmitter are of much
t = the time in seconds from the time of pulse transmis- less power, much longer in length, and of varying frequen-
sion to echo reception. cy. This type of radar does not use a magnetron and
generates an entirely different waveform. Presently, solid
Because the value of C is very large (162,000 NM/sec), state radar is only available in the S-Band and will be fur-
t is very small, 0.0001 sec for a target at a range of 10 miles ther discussed in the following sections.
for example.
Such measurements can be converted into lines of po- 2303. The Receiver
sition (LOP's) comprised of circles with radius equal to the
distance to the object. Since marine radars use directional The function of the receiver is to amplify the strength
antennae, they can also determine an object's bearing. How- of the very weak return echoes. The enhanced signals can
ever, due to its design, radar's bearing measurements are then be used to produce video signals which are presented
much less accurate than its distance measurements. Under- as targets on the display. The amplifiers in a traditional
standing this concept is crucial to ensuring the optimal magnetron radar have to deal with only one frequency,
employment of the radar for safe navigation. either 3000 MHz or 10000 MHz depending on the radar set.
A solid state radar receiver however, must process a much
2301. Signal Characteristics more complex signal with changing frequency. This variable fre-
quency, or chirp, necessitates signal processing within the
In most marine navigation applications, the radar receiver known as pulse compression, which shortens the com-
signal is pulse modulated. Signals are generated by a timing paratively long, 5 - 18 microsecond transmitted pulse into a pulse
circuit so that energy leaves the antenna in very short of similar length to traditional radars (0.05 - 1.0 µsec), while at the
pulses, usually less than one millionth of a second (or 1 same time increasing signal amplitude, thus yielding the same
µsec) in duration. When transmitting, the antenna is detection and range measuring capabilities. A very great advan-
connected to the transmitter but not the receiver. As soon as tage of solid state radars over magnetron radars is their superior
the pulse leaves, an electronic switch disconnects the ability to filter out rain and sea clutter effects and therefore assist
antenna from the transmitter and connects it to the receiver. the radar observer in identification of land targets used in radar
Another pulse is not transmitted until after the preceding navigation.
one has had time to travel to the most distant target within
range and return. Since the interval between pulses is long 2304. The Antenna
compared with the length of a pulse, strong signals can be
provided with low average power. The duration or length of Nearly all modern commercial marine radars use a type of
a single pulse is called pulse length, pulse duration, or antenna known as a slotted waveguide. See Figure 2304 for a de-
pulse width. This pulse emission sequence repeats a great piction of a slotted waveguide antenna. Both solid state and
many times, perhaps 1,000 per second. This rate defines the magnetron radar sets utilize this antenna configuration because it
pulse repetition rate (PRR). The returned pulses are is simple, efficient, and produces a beam that minimizes unwant-
displayed on an indicator screen or display. ed side lobes (side lobes will be discussed later in this chapter).

383
384 RADAR NAVIGATION

Figure 2304. Slotted waveguide antenna.

2305. The Display changes as the ship changes heading. In the stabilized
“north-upward” presentation, gyro north is always at the
The radar display is often referred to as the plan posi- top of the scope.
tion indicator (PPI). On a PPI, the sweep appears as a
radial line, centered at the center of the scope and rotating 2306. The Radar Beam
in synchronization with the antenna. Any returned echo
causes a brightening of the display screen at the bearing and The pulses of energy comprising the radar beam would
range of the object. The glow continues after the sweep ro- form a single lobe-shaped pattern of radiation if emitted in
tates past the target. free space. Figure 2306a shows this free space radiation
On a PPI, a target’s actual range is proportional to its pattern, including the undesirable minor lobes or side lobes
distance from the center of the scope. A movable cursor associated with practical antenna design. This radiation pat-
helps to measure ranges and bearings. In the “heading- tern, as well as the effects of diffraction, reflection and
upward” presentation, which indicates relative bearings, attenuation described below, are common to both magne-
the top of the scope represents the direction of the ship’s tron and solid state generated radar signals. Although the
head. In this destabilized presentation, the orientation radiated energy is concentrated into a relatively narrow
 RADAR NAVIGATION 385

main beam by the antenna, there is no clearly defined enve-

lope of the energy radiated, although most of the energy is
concentrated along the axis of the beam.
The radiation diagram shown in Figure 2306b depicts
relative values of power in the same plane existing at the
same distances from the antenna or the origin of the radar
beam. Maximum power is in the direction of the axis of
the beam. Power values diminish rapidly in directions
away from the axis. The beam width is taken as the angle
between the half-power points.
Figure 2306a. Freespace radiation pattern.

Figure 2306b. Radiation diagram.

The beam width depends upon the frequency or wave- the beam would not intersect the horizon at all times.
length of the transmitted energy, antenna design, and the The main lobe of the radar beam is composed of a
dimensions of the antenna. For a given antenna size (an- number of separate lobes in the vertical dimension, as op-
tenna aperture), narrower beam widths result from using posed to the single lobe-shaped pattern of radiation as
shorter wavelengths. For a given wavelength, narrower emitted in free space. This phenomenon is the result of in-
beam widths result from using larger antennas, or i.e., terference between radar waves taking a direct line-of-
beam width is inversely proportional to antenna aperture. sight path to a target, and those waves that are reflected
Because marine radar antennas are long in the horizontal from the surface of the sea before striking the target. There
dimension and narrow in the vertical dimension, they pro- is a slight difference in distance between which the direct
duce a beam that is narrow in the horizontal direction and and indirect waves must travel. See Figure 2306c. These
somewhat wider in the vertical direction. The narrow hor- reflected (indirect) waves interfere either constructively
izontal beam is desirable for bearing accuracy while the or destructively with the direct waves depending upon the
wide vertical beam is needed to account for the pitching waves' phase relationship. This sets up the possibility of
and rolling of a vessel in a seaway. If the vertical beam poor target response for objects at certain ranges from
was as narrow as the horizontal beam, a vessel in rough own ship.
weather would experience intermittent target response as

Figure 2306c. Direct and indirect waves.

386 RADAR NAVIGATION

2307. Effects of Distance, Target Response, Attenuation 2309. Factors Affecting Radar Interpretation
and Diffraction
Radar’s value as a navigational aid depends on the
Just as a light source reflected in a mirror appears much navigator’s understanding its characteristics and
dimmer than the direct image, radar echoes are much limitations. Whether measuring the range to a single
weaker than the transmitted pulses due to the general reflective object or trying to discern a shoreline lost amid
spreading out of the radar signal energy with distance. The severe clutter, knowledge of the characteristics of the
strengths of these echoes are also dependent upon the individual radar used are crucial. Some of the factors to be
amount of transmitted energy striking the targets and the considered in interpretation are discussed below:
size and reflecting properties of the targets known as radar
• Resolution in Range. In Part A of Figure 2309a, a
cross section.
transmitted pulse has arrived at the second of two tar-
Attenuation is the scattering and absorption of the gets of insufficient size or density to absorb or reflect
energy in the radar beam as it passes through the all of the energy of the pulse. While the pulse has trav-
atmosphere. It causes a decrease in echo strength. eled from the first to the second target, the echo from
Attenuation is greater in 3-cm rather than 10-cm radar. the first has traveled an equal distance in the opposite
Atmospheric water particles (heavy fog, rain and snow) can direction. At B, the transmitted pulse has continued on
significantly degrade the performance of a 3-cm radar beyond the second target, and the two echoes are re-
system. During periods of heavy precipitation, the radar turning toward the transmitter. The distance between
observer should switch to the 10-cm set if one is available. leading edges of the two echoes is twice the distance
Diffraction is the bending of a wave as it passes an ob- between targets and so the display will indicate two
struction. Because of diffraction there is some illumination distinct targets. The correct distance between targets
of the region behind an obstruction or target by the radar will be shown on the display, which is calibrated to
beam. Diffraction effects are greater at the lower frequen- show half the distance traveled out and back. At C the
cies with longer wavelengths (S-Band). Thus, the radar targets are closer together and the pulse length has been
beam of 10-cm radar tends to illuminate more of the shad- increased. The two echoes merge, and on the scope
ow region behind an obstruction than the beam of X-Band they will appear as a single, large target. At D the pulse
radar of 3-cm wavelength. length has been decreased, and the two echoes appear
separated. The ability of a radar to separate targets
2308. Refraction close together on the same bearing is called resolution
in range. It is related primarily to pulse length. The
If the radar waves traveled in straight lines, the minimum distance between targets that can be distin-
guished as separate is one half the pulse length. This
distance to the radar horizon would be dependent only on
(half the pulse length) is the apparent depth or thick-
the power output of the transmitter and the height of the
ness of a target but in no way represents that actual size
antenna. In other words, the distance to the radar horizon
of a small isolated target like a buoy or boat. Thus, sev-
would be the same as that of the geometrical horizon for the
eral ships close together on nearly the same bearing
antenna height. However, atmospheric density gradients
may appear as an island. Echoes from a number of
bend radar rays as they travel to and from a target. This
small boats, piles, breakers, or even a single large ship
bending is called refraction.
close to the shore may blend with echoes from the
The distance to the radar horizon does not always limit shore, resulting in an incorrect indication of the posi-
the distance from which echoes may be received from tar- tion and shape of the shoreline.
gets. Assuming that adequate power is transmitted, echoes
may be received from targets beyond the radar horizon if • Resolution in Bearing. Echoes from two or more tar-
their reflecting surfaces extend above it. The distance to the gets close together at the same range may merge to form
radar horizon is the distance at which the radar rays pass a single, wider echo. The ability to separate targets
tangent to the surface of the Earth. close together at the same range is called resolution in
The following formula, where h is the height of the an- bearing. Bearing resolution is a function of two vari-
tenna in feet, gives the theoretical distance to the radar ables: horizontal beam width and range to the targets. A
horizon in nautical miles: narrower horizontal beam and/or a shorter distance to
the objects will allow for better bearing resolution.

D = 1.22 h . • Height of Antenna and Target. If the radar horizon is

between the transmitting vessel and the target, the
lower part of the target will not be visible. A large
D = the range in nautical miles vessel may appear as a small craft, or a shoreline may
h = height of the antenna. appear at some distance inland.
 RADAR NAVIGATION 387

Figure 2309a. Resolution in range.

• Reflecting Quality and Aspect of Target. Echoes a non-perpendicular one. A vessel seen broadside
from several targets of the same size may be quite returns a stronger echo than one heading directly
different in appearance. A metal surface reflects radio toward or away. Some surfaces absorb most radar
waves more strongly than a wooden surface. A surface energy rather that reflecting it.
perpendicular to the beam returns a stronger echo than
388 RADAR NAVIGATION

• Frequency. A 3-cm radar has the ability to discern Mud flats and marshes normally reflect radar pulses
smaller targets than a 10-cm set. For example, a very only a little better than a sand spit. The weak echoes received
small boat or a submarine periscope might be invisible at low tide disappear at high tide. Mangroves and other thick
in S-Band but detectable in X-Band. In a calm sea, a 3- growth may produce a strong echo. Areas that are indicated
cm radar, properly tuned, can detect a single bird or as swamps on a chart, therefore, may return either strong or
even a soda can. weak echoes, depending on the density type, and size of the
vegetation growing in the area.
Atmospheric noise, sea return, and precipitation com-
Sand dunes covered with vegetation are usually well
plicate radar interpretation by producing clutter. Clutter is
back from a low, smooth beach, and the apparent shoreline
usually strongest near the vessel. Strong echoes from tar-
determined by radar appears at the line of the dunes rather
gets of interest can sometimes be discerned by reducing
than the true shoreline. This can lead navigators to believe
receiver gain to eliminate weaker signals. By watching the
they are farther away from the beach than they really are, a
display during several rotations of the antenna, the operator
potentially hazardous situation.
can often discriminate between clutter and a target even
when the signal strengths from clutter and the target are Lagoons and inland lakes usually appear as blank areas
equal. The echoes from real targets will remain relatively on a PPI because the smooth water surface returns no
stationary on the display while those caused by clutter will energy to the radar antenna. In some instances, even the
appear to move around randomly with each sweep. sandbar or reef surrounding the lagoon may not appear on
Another major problem lies in determining which the PPI because it lies too close to the water.
features in the vicinity of the shoreline are actually Coral atolls and long chains of islands may produce
represented by echoes shown on the display. Particularly in long lines of echoes when the radar beam is directed
cases where a low lying shore remains below the radar perpendicular to the line of the islands. This indication is
horizon, there may be considerable uncertainty. especially true when the islands are closely spaced. The
A related problem is that certain features on the shore reason is that the spreading resulting from the width of the
will not return echoes because they are blocked or shadowed radar beam exceeds the radar's resolution in bearing and
from the radar beam by other physical features or causes the echoes to blend into continuous lines. When the
obstructions. This shadowing effect in turn causes the image same chain of islands is viewed lengthwise, or obliquely,
painted on the display to differ from the charted image of the however, each island may produce a separate return if the
area. distance between the islands does not exceed the radar's
If the navigator is to be able to interpret the presentation resolution in range.
on the radar display, he or she must understand the character- Surf breaking on a reef around an atoll produces a
istics of radar propagation, the capabilities of his radar set, ragged, variable line of echoes. Even the smallest of rocks
the reflecting properties of different types of radar targets, projecting above the surface of the water may be discerned
and the ability to analyze his chart to determine which depending on their shape and distance from own ship.
charted features are most likely to reflect the transmitted If the land rises in a gradual, regular manner from the
pulses or to be shadowed. Experience gained during clear shoreline, no part of the terrain produces an echo that is
weather comparison between radar and visual images is stronger than the echo from any other part. As a result, a
invaluable. general haze of echoes appears on the PPI, and it is difficult
Land masses are generally recognizable because of the to ascertain the range to any particular part of the land.
steady brilliance of the relatively large areas painted on the Blotchy echoes are returned from hilly ground, be-
PPI. Also, land should be at positions expected from the ship's cause the crest of each hill returns a good echo though the
navigational position. Although land masses are readily area beyond is in a radar shadow. If high receiver gain is
recognizable, the primary problem is the identification of used, the pattern may become solid except for very deep
specific land features. Identification of specific features can be depressions.
quite difficult because of various factors in addition to Low islands ordinarily produce small echoes. When
shadowing, including distortion resulting from beam width thick palm trees or other foliage grow on the island, strong
and pulse length, and uncertainty as to just which charted echoes often are produced because the horizontal surface of
features are reflecting the echoes the water around the island forms a sort of corner reflector
Sand spits and smooth, clear beaches normally do not with the vertical surfaces of the trees. As a result, wooded
appear on the PPI at ranges beyond 1 or 2 miles because these islands give good echoes and can be detected at a much
targets have almost no area that can reflect energy back to the greater range than barren islands.
radar. Such a smooth horizontal surface will reflect all radar Sizable land masses may be missing from the radar dis-
signals away from the antenna and so are essentially play because of shadowing. A shoreline which is continuous
invisible. If waves are breaking over a sandbar, echoes may on the PPI display when the ship is at one position, may not
be returned from the surf. Waves may, however, break well appear continuous when the ship is at another position and
out from the actual shoreline, so that ranging on the surf may scanning the same shoreline. The radar beam may be blocked
be misleading. from a segment of this shoreline by an obstruction such as a
 RADAR NAVIGATION 389

promontory. An indentation in the shoreline, such as a cove distorted angularly by an amount equal to the effective horizontal
or bay, appearing on the PPI when the ship is at one position, beam width. Also, the target images always are distorted radially
may not appear when the ship is at another position nearby. by an amount at least equal to one-half the pulse length (150 me-
Radar shadowing alone can cause considerable differences ters per microsecond of pulse length).
between the PPI display and the chart presentation. This ef- See Figure 2309b. It illustrates the effects of own ship posi-
fect in conjunction with beam width and pulse length tion, horizontal beam width, and pulse length on the radar image
distortion of the PPI display can cause even greater differenc- of a coastline. Because of beam width distortion, a straight, or
es, possibly leading to confusion and navigational error. nearly straight shoreline often appears crescent-shaped on the
The returns of objects close to shore may merge with the PPI. This effect is greater with the wider beam widths. Note that
shoreline image on the PPI, because of distortion effects of hori- this distortion increases as the angle between the beam axis and
zontal beam width and pulse length. Target images on the PPI are the shoreline decreases. Figure 2309c, Figure 2309d and Figure

Figure 2309b. Effects of ship’s position, beam width, and pulse length on radar shoreline. Figure 2309c, Figure 2309d and
Figure 2309e correspond to position A, B and C in the image above.

2309e correspond to positions A, B and C in Figure 2309b. 3. The radar shadow behind both mountains. Distortion
See Figure 2309f. View A shows the actual shape of the owing to radar shadows is responsible for more
shoreline and the land behind it. Note the steel tower on the low confusion than any other cause. The small island does
sand beach and the two ships at anchor close to shore. The heavy not appear because it is in the radar shadow.
line in View B represents the shoreline on the PPI. The dotted 4. The spreading of the land in bearing caused by beam
lines represent the actual position and shape of all targets. Note in width distortion. Look at the upper shore of the
particular: peninsula. The shoreline distortion is greater to the west
1. The low sand beach is not detected by the radar. because the angle between the radar beam and the shore
2. The tower on the low beach is detected, but it looks like a is smaller as the beam seeks out the more westerly shore.
ship in a cove. At closer range the land would be detected 5. Ship No. 1 appears as a small peninsula. Its return has
and the cove-shaped area would begin to fill in; then the merged with the land because of the beam width
tower could not be seen without reducing the receiver gain. distortion.
390 RADAR NAVIGATION

Figure 2309c. 12 mile scale (off-center display) at 0700 Figure 2309e. 6 mile scale (display center) at 0800 position.
position. See position A in Figure 2309b. See position C in Figure 2309b.

2310. Recognition of Unwanted Echoes

Indirect or false echoes are caused by reflection of the

main lobe of the radar beam off own ship's structures such
as masts, stacks, kingposts or deck cargo, especially
containers. When such reflection from obstructions does
occur, the echo will return from a legitimate radar contact
to the antenna by the same indirect path. Consequently, the
echo will appear on the PPI at the bearing of the reflecting
surface. As shown in Figure 2310a, the indirect echo will
appear on the PPI at the same range as the direct echo
received, assuming that the additional distance by the
indirect path is negligible.
Characteristics by which indirect echoes may be recog-
nized are summarized as follows:
1. Indirect echoes will often occur in shadow sectors.
2. They are received on substantially constant relative
bearings (the direction of the obstruction), although
the true bearing of the radar contact may change
appreciably.
Figure 2309d. 12 mile scale (display centered) at 0730 3. They appear at the same ranges as the
position. See position B in Figure 2309b. corresponding direct echoes.
4. When plotted, their movements are usually
6. Ship No. 2 also merges with the shoreline and forms a abnormal.
bump. This bump is caused by pulse length and beam 5. Their distorted or fuzzy shapes may indicate that
width distortion. Reducing receiver gain might cause they are not direct echoes.
the ship to separate from land, provided the ship is not
too close to the shore. The rain clutter control could also Side-lobe effects are readily recognized in that they
be used to attempt to separate the ship from land by produce a series of echoes (See Figure 2310b) on each side
effectively reducing the pulse lengths within the of the main lobe echo at the same range as the latter. Semi-
receiver. circles, or even complete circles, may be produced.
 RADAR NAVIGATION 391

Figure 2309f. Distortion effects of radar shadow, beam width, and pulse length.

Because of the low energy of the side-lobes, these effects tween pulses. In this case, (162,000 NM/sec ÷ 2000 PPS ÷
will normally occur only at the shorter ranges. The effects 2) + 7.5 = 48 nautical miles.
may be minimized or eliminated, through use of the gain Naturally, since we are on the 12-mile scale, the target
and anti-clutter controls, but always at the risk of failing to should not be visible and so must be a second-trace echo.
detect weaker targets like buoys or small boats. The intro- Electronic interference effects, which may occur when
duction of slotted wave guide antennas has drastically near another radar operating in the same frequency band as
reduced the side-lobe problem. Nevertheless, when strong that of own ship, are usually seen on the radar as a large
reflecting targets are present at close range, side lobe effects number of small bright dots either scattered at random or in
will still be encountered and may be difficult to eliminate the form of curving dotted lines extending from the center
entirely without severely reducing gain. to the edge of the PPI.
Multiple echoes may occur when a strong echo is re-
Interference effects are greater at the longer radar
ceived from another ship at close range. A second or third
range scale settings. Interference effects can be distin-
or more echoes may be observed on the radarscope at dou-
guished easily from normal echoes because they do not
ble, triple, or other multiples of the actual range of the radar
appear in the same places on successive rotations of the
contact (Figure 2310c).
antenna. Most radar systems have interference rejection
Second-trace echoes (multiple-trace echoes) are controls (IR) that eliminate most of the unwanted
echoes received from a contact at an actual range greater interference effects.
than the radar range setting. If an echo from a distant target
Stacks, masts, containers, and other structures, may cause a
is received after the next pulse has been transmitted, the
reduction in the intensity of the radar beam beyond these
echo will appear on the display at the correct bearing but
obstructions, especially if they are close to the radar antenna. If
not at the true range. Second-trace echoes are unusual, ex-
the angle at the antenna subtended by the obstruction is more
cept under abnormal atmospheric conditions, or conditions
than a few degrees, the reduction of the intensity of the radar
under which super-refraction or ducting is present. Second-
beam beyond the obstruction may produce a blind sector. Less
trace echoes may be recognized through changes in their
reduction in the intensity of the beam beyond the obstructions
positions on the display when changing range scales with
may produce shadow sectors. Within a shadow sector, small
different pulse repetition rates (PRR), their hazy, streaky, or
targets at close range may not be detected, while larger targets at
distorted shapes (especially noticeable with large land tar-
much greater ranges will appear.
gets), and their erratic movements on plotting.
As illustrated in Figure 2310d, a target echo is detected The echo from an overhead power cable can be wrongly
on a true bearing of 090° at a distance of 7.5 miles. On identified as the echo from a ship on a steady bearing and de-
changing the PRR from 2,000 to 1,800 pulses per second in creasing range. Course changes to avoid the contact are
Figure 2310e, the same target is detected on a bearing of ineffective; the contact remains on a steady bearing, decreasing
090° at a distance of 3 miles. The change in the position of range. This phenomenon is particularly apparent for the power
the target indicates that the echo is a second-trace echo. The cable spanning the Straits of Messina.
actual distance of the target is the distance as indicated on
the PPI plus half the distance the radar waves travel be-
392 RADAR NAVIGATION

Figure 2310a. Indirect echo.

2311. Aids to Radar Navigation

Radar navigation aids help identify radar targets and

increase echo signal strength from otherwise poor radar
targets.
Buoys are particularly poor radar targets. Weak, fluc-
tuating echoes received from these targets are easily lost in
the sea clutter. To aid in the detection of these targets, radar
reflectors, designated corner reflectors, may be used. These
reflectors may be mounted on the tops of buoys or designed
into the structure.
Each corner reflector, as shown in Figure 2311a, con-
sists of three mutually perpendicular flat metal surfaces. A
radar wave striking any of the metal surfaces or plates will
be reflected back in the direction of its source. Maximum
energy will be reflected back to the antenna if the axis of the
radar beam makes equal angles with all the metal surfaces.
Frequently, corner reflectors are assembled in clusters to
maximize the reflected signal.
Although radar reflectors are used to obtain stronger
echoes from radar targets, other means are required for more
Figure 2310b. Side lobe effects. positive identification of radar targets. Radar beacons are
transmitters operating in the marine radar frequency band,
which produce distinctive indications on the radar displays of
ships within range of these beacons. There are two general
 RADAR NAVIGATION 393

Figure 2310c. Multiple echoes.

Figure 2310d. Second-trace echo. Figure 2310e. Second-trace echo after altering PRR.

classes of these beacons: racons, which provide both emitted on the same frequency as that of the triggering
bearing and range information to the target, and ramarks radar, in which case it is superimposed on the ship's radar
which provide bearing information only. However, if the display automatically. However, the only racons in service
ramark installation is detected as an echo on the display, the are "in band" beacons which transmit in one of the marine
range will be available also. radar bands, usually only the 3-centimeter band.
A racon is a radar transponder which emits a charac- The racon signal appears on the PPI as a radial line
teristic signal when triggered by a ship's radar. The signal is originating at a point just beyond the position of the radar
394 RADAR NAVIGATION

beacon, or as a Morse Code signal as shown in Figure introduced by the ramark signal on the scope. The ramark
2311b, emanating from the beacon in a direction radially signal as it appears on the PPI is a radial line from the cen-
outward from the center of the display. The Morse Code ter. The radial line may be a continuous narrow line, a
symbol of the racon signal helps to identify important nav- broken line a series of dots, or a series of dots and dashes
igational aids on the navigator’s chart. (See Figure 2311c). Ramarks are not as common as racons
A ramark is a radar beacon which transmits either con- and are not as useful for navigational purposes as they do
tinuously or at intervals. The latter method of transmission not indicate the range to the transmitting beacon.
is used so that the PPI can be inspected without any clutter

Figure 2311a. Corner reflectors.

Figure 2311b. Coded racon signal. Figure 2311c. Ramark appears a broken radial line.
 RADAR NAVIGATION 395

RADAR PILOTING

2312. Introduction Though verifying soundings is always a good practice

in all navigation scenarios, its importance increases when
When navigating in restricted waters, a mariner most piloting using only radar. One of the most common and se-
often relies on visual piloting to provide the accuracy rious errors in radar navigation involves object
required to ensure ship safety. Visual piloting, however, misidentification. These errors can be discovered through
requires clear weather; often, mariners must navigate correlation of fathometer readings with expected charted
through fog or other conditions of restricted visibility. depths. Assuming proper operation of the fathometer,
When weather conditions render visual piloting impossible soundings give the navigator invaluable conformation on
on a vessel not equipped with ECDIS, radar navigation the reliability of radar fixes.
provides a method of fixing a vessel's position with
sufficient accuracy to allow safe passage. See Chapter 10 2314. Fix by Radar Bearings
Piloting for a detailed discussion of integrating radar into a
piloting procedure on a vessel using paper charts. However, When determining a fix by radar bearings (or visual
even on ECDIS equipped vessels, radar provides a vital bearings) take bearings of objects on the beam first and
positional cross-checking capability that is paramount to those ahead or astern last. The time of the fix will be the
the practice of safe and prudent navigation. time that the objects abeam were measured. This is because
the rate of change of bearing is highest for objects on the
2313. Fix by Radar Ranges beam and lowest for those ahead and astern. Again, this
procedure minimizes the fix error due to the time delay in
Since radar can more accurately determine ranges than taking a round of bearings.
bearings, the most accurate radar fixes result from measur- But the inherent inaccuracy of fixes composed solely
ing and plotting a series of ranges to two or more objects. If of radar bearings as discussed above makes this method less
one measures the range to objects directly ahead or astern accurate than fixing position by radar ranges. Use this
first and objects closest to the beam last, the time of the fix method to plot a position quickly on the chart when
will be the time the ranges were measured to objects ahead approaching restricted waters to obtain an approximate
or astern. In other words, the fix time is the time that dis- ship's position for evaluating radar targets to use for range
tances were measured to objects with the greatest rate of measurements. This method is not suitable while piloting in
change of range (range rate) due to own ship's motion. This restricted waters and should only be used if no more
minimizes measurement time delay errors without resorting accurate method (combining visual bearings with radar
to the use of running fixes. Record the ranges to the naviga- ranges for example) is available.
tion aids used and lay the resulting range arcs down on the
chart. Theoretically, these lines of position should intersect 2315. Fix by Range and Bearing to One Object
at a point coincident with the ship's position at the time of
the fix. Where possible, use objects widely separated in Visual piloting requires bearings from at least two
bearing (60o-90o) for the greatest accuracy. See Figure objects; radar, with its ability to determine both bearing and
2313. range from one object, allows the navigator to obtain a fix
where only a single navigation aid is available. An example
of using radar in this fashion occurs in approaching a harbor
whose entrance is marked with a single, prominent object
such as Chesapeake Light at the entrance of the Chesapeake
Bay. Well beyond the range of any land-based visual
navigation aid, and beyond the visual range of the light
itself, a shipboard radar can detect the light and provide
bearings and ranges for the ship's piloting party. But care
should be taken. Navigators must ensure they take fixes on
the navigation aid and not some nearby stationary vessel.
This methodology is limited by the inherent inaccuracy
associated with radar bearings; typically, a radar bearing is
accurate to within about 5° of the true bearing due to factors
such as beam width distortion. Therefore, the navigator
must carefully evaluate the resulting position, possibly
checking it with a sounding. If a visual bearing is available
Figure 2313. Fix by radar ranges. from the object, use that bearing instead of the radar bearing
396 RADAR NAVIGATION

when laying down the fix. This illustrates the basic concept 2317. Parallel Indexing
discussed above: radar ranges are inherently more accurate
than radar bearings. One must also be aware that even Whenever a vessel is being navigated in confined waters,
though the radar is gyro stabilized, there may be a gyro traditional position fixing methods become inadequate. The
error of more than a degree or so. Radar and visual bearings time lag inherent in taking a visual bearing, radar bearing or
will be in error by that amount. radar range, plotting positions on a nautical chart, obtaining a
fix, and then acting on the information with a possible course
Prior to using this method, navigators must ensure they
change may be as much as five minutes or more, even for
have correctly identified the object from which the bearing
experienced navigators. If sea room is severely restricted and
and range are to be taken. Using only one navigation aid for there are hazards to navigation in the area, such delays could
both lines of position can lead to disaster if the navigation lead to disaster. What we must do in this unforgiving situation
aid is not properly identified. is to monitor the vessel's position constantly through
continuous position fixes. ECDIS is of course greatly
2316. Fix Using Tangent Bearings and Range preferable to paper chart navigation in these circumstances but
suffers from complete reliance on GPS position fixes. Radar
This method combines bearings tangent to an object can provide similar real-time navigation capability not reliant
with a range measurement from some point on that object. on GPS utilizing a technique known as parallel indexing.
The object must be large enough to provide sufficient bear- A properly prepared parallel indexing plot will quickly
ing spread between the tangent bearings; often an island or show the navigator when the vessel begins to deviate from the
peninsula works well. Identify some prominent feature of desired track. This will enable corrective measures to be taken
immediately without resorting to time-consuming standard
the object that is displayed on both the chart and the radar
fixing methods. Parallel indexing can be indispensable when a
display. Take a range measurement from that feature and
vessel must be navigated through confined waters during re-
plot it on the chart. Then determine the tangent bearings to
stricted visibility or when executing a critical turn. Also, in
the feature and plot them on the chart. The range LOP areas with few or unreliable navigational aids, parallel index-
should not intersect where the tangent bearing LOPs inter- ing can prove decisive to safe navigation.
sect but somewhat farther out. The fix position will be the The first step in setting up a parallel indexing plot is to
point midway between the tangent bearing lines along the examine the nautical chart where the piloting will take
range LOP (see Figure 2316). place. Imagine that we wish to follow a track line that
Steep-sided features work the best. Tangents to low, slop- leaves a small island or rock to starboard at a distance of 2
ing shorelines will seriously reduce accuracy, as will tangent miles off when abeam. The track line course is 045º (see
bearings in areas of excessively high tides, which can change Figure 2317). If we are able to place an electronic line on
the location of the apparent shoreline by many meters. the radar screen bearing 045º-225º at a range of 2 miles to
starboard, all we will have to do when the island comes onto
the radar display is to maneuver the ship to keep the island
on that line which in turn locates (indexes) the vessel on the
track line.
One way to conduct parallel indexing on a modern ra-
dar display is to utilize the Electronic Bearing Line (EBL)
feature. Most radars have the ability to offset the EBL from
the center of the display. This allows it to be used as a single
parallel index line. Once the EBL bearing is set to that of the
vessel's track line, the origin can be floated out to the de-
sired distance tangent to a Variable Range Marker (VRM)
set to that distance.
Modern radar sets are usually fitted with a dedicated
parallel indexing (PI) feature that may take many forms de-
pending on the radar manufacturer, and are easier to use
than the floating EBL. While the details of these PI features
may be quite different, they all have the following in
common:

1. The display of an electronic PI line, wholly or par-

tially across the radar screen
2. The PI line is adjustable in direction (bearing) and
Figure 2316. Fix using tangent bearings and range. distance (range) from own ship
 RADAR NAVIGATION 397

Figure 2317. Parallel indexing setup.

3. Once set at desired bearing and range, the PI line is elegant, also carry a greater risk of error in construction. A
fixed relative to own ship point will be reached where there is little to be gained by an
excessively elaborate setup because it may also lead to a
It is vital that when placing a single PI line on the radar more cluttered and confusing radar display. A vessel that
display, the bearing of the line is set first, then the range. If routinely makes passages through navigationally challeng-
done in reverse order, the distance of the PI line from own ing waters would be better advised to rely more on the
ship to target will be less than desired.
ECDIS and use a simpler parallel indexing setup on the ra-
The method described above is very basic and utilizes
dar as a backup and for cross checking.
only a single index line and a single index target. But the
level of sophistication of indexing required varies with the
situation. A passage may call for many lines on different 2318. References
scales, multiple index targets, margin lines, danger zones
and wheel over points. The more complicated the setup, of Pecota, S., (2006). Radar Observer Manual, 6th.
course, the more time and effort on the part of the navigator Marine Education Textbooks. Section 2317 reprinted with
is demanded. More complex indexing schemes, however permission.