Chapter 3: Real

Vector Spaces
Dr. Suresh Kumar

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Some standard sets of real numbers
Set of natural numbers:
N = {1, 2, 3, ................}
Set of integers:
Z = {........, −1, −2, −3, 0, 1, 2, 3, ................}
Set of rational numbers:
Q = {p/q : p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0}
Set of irrational numbers:
I = {x : x 6= p/q for all p, q ∈ Z}
Set of real numbers: R = {x : x ∈ Q or x ∈ I}
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Axioms of real numbers
1. Closure property of addition:
a + b ∈ R for all a, b ∈ R.
2. Commutative property of addition:
a + b = b + a for all a, b ∈ R.
3. Associative property of addition:
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c for all a, b, c ∈ R.
4. Additive identity: a + 0 = a = 0 + a for all a ∈ R.
5. Additive inverse:
a + (−a) = 0 = (−a) + a for any a ∈ R.
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6. Closure property of multiplication:
ab ∈ R for all a, b ∈ R.
7. Commutative property of multiplication:
ab = ba for all a, b ∈ R.
8. Associative property of multiplication:
a(bc) = (ab)c for all a, b, c ∈ R.
9. Multiplicative identity:
a.1 = a = 1.a for all a ∈ R.
10. Multiplicative inverse:
a(1/a) = 1 = (1/a)a for any non-zero a ∈ R.
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11. Multiplication is distributive over addition:
a(b + c) = ab + ac = (b + c)a for all a, b, c ∈ R.
Note: In real numbers, division is only right distributive over
addition.
For example,
(2 + 3)/7 = 2/7 + 3/7.
But
7/(2 + 3) 6= 7/2 + 7/3.

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Real Vector Space
A non-empty set V is said to be a real vector space if two
operations + and . are defined such that for all u, v, w ∈ V
and a, b ∈ R,
1. u + v ∈ V
2. u + v = v + u
3. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
4. 0 ∈ V such that u + 0 = u = 0 + u.
5. −u ∈ V with u + (−u) = 0 = (−u) + u.
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6. a.u ∈ V
7. a.(u + v) = a.u + a.v
8. (a + b).u = a.u + b.u
9. (ab).u = a.(b.u)
10. 1.u = u
We call the members of V as vectors while the operation + as
vector addition.
We call the members of R as scalars while the operation . as
scalar multiplication.
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Using the properties of vector space, for any u ∈ V,
prove the following:
(1) a.0 = 0
(2) 0.u = 0
(3) (−1).u = −u.
Ex. The set V = {0}, carrying the only real number 0,
is a real vector space with respect to the addition and
multiplication operations of real numbers.

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Ex. The set R of all real numbers is a vector space
with respect to the following operations:
u + v = u + v, (Vector Addition)
a.u = au, (Scalar Multiplication)
for all a, u, v ∈ R.

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Ex. R2 = R × R = {[x1, x2] : x1, x2 ∈ R} is a vector space w.
r. t. the following operations:
[x1, x2] + [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1, x2 + y2],
a.[x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2],
for all a ∈ R and [x1, x2], [y1, y2] ∈ R2.
Sol. Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2] and w = [z1, z2] be
members of V = R2, and a, b be any two real numbers.

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1. Closure Property:
u + v = [x1, x2] + [y1, y2]
= [x1 + y1, x2 + y2] ∈ R2.

2. Commutative Property:
u + v = [x1, x2] + [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1, x2 + y2],
v + u = [y1, y2] + [x1, x2] = [y1 + x1, y2 + x2].
But [x1 + y1, x2 + y2] = [y1 + x1, y2 + x2].
∴ u + v = v + u.
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3. Associative Property:
(u + v) + w = ([x1, x2] + [y1, y2]) + [z1, z2] =
([x1 + y1, x2 + y2]) + [z1, z2] = [(x1 + y1) + z1, (x2 + y2) + z2],
u + (v + w) = [x1, x2] + ([y1, y2] + [z1, z2]) =
[x1, x2] + ([y1 + z1, y2 + z2]) = [x1 + (y1 + z1), x2 + (y2 + z2)].
But (x1 + y1) + z1 = x1 + (y1 + z1),
(x2 + y2) + z2 = x2 + (y2 + z2). ∴ (u + v) + w = u + (v + w).

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4. Existence of identity:
There exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R 2 such that
u + 0 = [x1, x2] + [0, 0] = [x1 + 0, x2 + 0] = [x1, x2] = u,
0 + u = [0, 0] + [x1, x2] = [0 + x1, 0 + x2] = [x1, x2] = u.
So u + 0 = u = 0 + u. Therefore, [0, 0] is additive identity in
R 2.

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5. Existence of inverse:
There exists −u = [−x1, −x2] ∈ R 2 such that
u+(−u) = [x1, x2]+[−x1, −x2] = [x1 −x1, x2 −x2] = [0, 0] = 0,
(−u) + u = [−x1, −x2] + [x1, x2] = [−x1 + x1, −x2 + x2] =
[0, 0] = 0.
So u + (−u) = 0 = (−u) + u.
This shows that −u = [−x1, −x2] is additive inverse of
u = [x1, x2] in R 2.

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6. a.u = a.[x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2] ∈ R 2.
7. a.(u + v) = a.([x1, x2] + [y1, y2]) = a[x1 + y1, x2 + y2] =
[a(x1 + y1), a(x2 + y2)] = [ax1 + ay1, ax2 + ay2],
a.u + a.v = a.[x1, x2] + a.[y1, y2] = [ax1, ax2] + [ay1, ay2] =
[ax1 + ay1, ax2 + ay2].
∴ a.(u + v) = a.u + a.v.

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8. (a + b).u = (a + b)[x1, x2] = [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2] =
[ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2],
a.u + b.u = a[x1, x2] + b[x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2] + [bx1, bx2] =
[ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2].
∴ (a + b).u = a.u + b.u.
9. (ab).u = (ab).[x1, x2] = [(ab)x1, (ab)x2],
a.(b.u) = a.(b.[x1, x2]) = a.[bx1, bx2] = [a(bx1), a(bx2)] =
[(ab)x1, (ab)x2] = (ab).u.
10. 1.u = 1.[x1, x2] = [1.x1, 1.x2] = [x1, x2] = u.
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Ex. The set Mmn = {[aij]m×n : aij ∈ R} of all m × n
matrices with real entries is a vector space with
respect to the following operations:
[aij]m×n + [bij]m×n = [aij + bij]m×n,
a.[aij]m×n = [aaij]m×n,
for all a ∈ R and [aij]m×n, [bij]m×n ∈ Mmn.

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Ex. All
( polynomials in x of degree ≤ n )
Xn
Pn = aixi = a0 + a1x + .... + anxn : ai ∈ R form a
i=0
vector space w. r. t.:
Xn n
X n
X
i i
ai x + bix = (ai + bi)xi,
i=0 i=0 i=0
n
X n
X
a. aixi = aaixi,
i=0 i=0
n
X
for all a ∈ R and aixi ∈ Pn.
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Ex. The set Φ = {f : f is defined on [0, 1]} is a vector
space with respect to the following operations:
f + g = f + g, (Vector Addition)
a.f = af, (Scalar Multiplication)
for all a ∈ R and f, g ∈ Φ.
Note: The set
Φ = {f : f is defined on [0, 1], & f(1/2) = 1} is not a
vector space with respect to the above operations.
Why?
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Ex. The set R+ of positive real numbers is a vector
space with respect to the operations:
u + v = uv (vector addition)
a.u = ua (scalar multiplication)
for all a ∈ R and u, v ∈ R+.

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Ex. Show that the set R of real numbers is a vector
space with respect to the operations:
u + v = (u5 + v5)1/5 (Vector addition)
a.u = a1/5u (Scalar multiplication)
for all a, u, v ∈ R.
Note: It is not a vector space, if the scalar
multiplication is defined as
a.u = au. Why? Which property fails?

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Subspace
If W is a subset of a vector space V such that W is
also a vector space under the same operations as in
V, then W is called a subspace of V.
Ex. The set W = {[x1, 0] : x1 ∈ R} is a subspace of R2.
Note: For subspace, verification of vector addition
and scalar multiplication is sufficient.

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Theorem: A subset W of a vector space V is a subspace
of V if and only if W is closed with respect to vector
addition and scalar multiplication.
Ex. The set W = {[x1, 0] : x1 ∈ R} is a subspace of R2.
Sol. Let u = [x1, 0], v = [y1, 0] ∈ W and a ∈ R. Then
u + v = [x1, 0] + [y1, 0] = [x1 + y1, 0] ∈ W,
a.u = a.[x1, 0] = [ax1, 0] ∈ W.

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Ex. Verify whether W = {[x, y] : x − y = 0, x, y ∈ R}
is asubspace of R2.
Ex. Verify whether W = {[x, y] : y = x2, x, y ∈ R}
is asubspace of R2.
Ex. Verify
 whether
 
p q
W= : ps − qr 6= 0, p, q, r, s ∈ R is a subspace
r s
of M22.

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Ex. Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of a vector
space V.
(i) Show that W1 ∩ W2 is a subspace of V.
(ii) Give an example to show that W1 ∪ W2 need not
be a subspace of V.
(iii) Show that W1 ∪ W2 is subspace of V iff either
W1 ⊂ W2 or W2 ⊂ W1.

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Span of a Set
The set of all linear combinations of finite number of
members of a subset S of a vector space V is called the
span of S, and is denoted by span(S) or L(S). There-
fore, we have
L(S) = {a1v1 + ..... + anvn : ai ∈ R, vi ∈ S}.
Ex. If S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]}, then
L(S) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1) : a, b ∈ R}
= {(a, b) : a, b ∈ R} = R2.
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Ex. Show that span of the set
S = {[2, 3, 4], [1, 5, 7], [3, 11, 13]} is R3.
Sol. By definition,
L(S) = {a[2, 3, 4] + b[1, 5, 7] + c[3, 11, 13] : a, b, c ∈ R}
= {[2a + b + 3c, 3a + 5b + 11c, 4a + 7b + 13c] : a, b, c ∈ R}.
For
 simplified
 span, 
2 3 4 1 0 0
1 5 7  ∼ 0 1 0 . =⇒ L(S) = R3.
3 11 13 0 0 1
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Ex. Find simplified span of the set
S = x3 − 1, x2 − x, x − 1 in P3.
Sol. For simplified span, we write coefficients of the
polynomials
 as row vectors.
 
1 0 0 −1 1 0 0 −1
0 1 −1 0  ∼ 0 1 0 −1 .
0 0 1 −1 0 0 1 −1
L(S) = {a(x − 1) + b(x 2 − 1) + c(x − 1) : a, b, c ∈ R} =
3

{ax 3 + bx 2 + cx − a − b − c : a, b, c ∈ R}.
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−1 1 0 0 −1 0
Ex. S = , , in M22. Sol. For
0 0 1 −1 0 1
simplified
 span,we write
 
−1 1 0 0 1 0 0 −1
 0 0 1 −1 ∼ 0 1 0 −1 .
−1 0 0 1 0 0 1 −1
       
1 0 0 1 0 0
L(S) = a +b +c : a, b, c ∈ R
0 −1 0 −1 1 −1
  
a b
= : a, b, c ∈ R .
c −a − b − c
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Note: Span of the empty set is defined to be the singleton
set containing the zero vector, that is, L(φ) = {0}.
Theorem: Let S be subset of a vector space V. Then prove
the following:
(i) L(S) is a subset of V
(ii) L(S) is a subspace of V
(iii) L(S) is the minimal subspace of V containing S.

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Linearly independent vectors
A subset S = {v1, v2, ......, vn} of a vector space V is
said to be linearly dependent (LD) if there exist real
numbers a1, a2, ......, an not all zero such that
a1v1 + a2v2 + .......... + anvn = 0.
If S is not LD, that is, a1v1 + a2v2 + .......... + anvn = 0
implies a1 = 0, a2 = 0, ......, an = 0, then S is said to be
linearly independent (LI).

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Ex. S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} is LI in R2.
Ex. S = {[1, 2], [2, 4]} is LD in R2.
Ex. S = {[3, 1, −1], [−5, −2, 2], [2, 2, −1]} is LI in R3.
Theorem: Two vectors in a vector space are LD if and
only if one vector is scalar multiple of the other.

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Theorem: A finite set S containing at least two vectors
is LD iff some vector in S can be expressed as a linear
combination of the other vectors in S.
Theorem: A non-empty finite subset S of a vector
space V is LI iff every vector v ∈ L(S) can be expressed
uniquely as a linear combination of the members of S.

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Ex. Any set containing zero vector is always LD while
a singleton set containing a non-zero vector is LI.
Note: An infinite subset S of a vector space V is LI
iff every finite subset of S is LI. For example, the set
S = {1, x, x2, .......} is an infinite LI set in P (the vector
space of all polynomials).

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Basis of a vector space
A subset B of a vector space V is a basis of V if B is LI and
L(B) = V.
Ex. The set B = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} is a basis of R2, called the
standard basis of R2.
For, B = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} is LI since a[1, 0] + b[0, 1] = [0, 0]
yields a = 0, b = 0.
Also, L(B) = R2 since any [x1, x2] ∈ R2 can be written as
[x1, x2] = x1[1, 0] + x2[0, 1],
a linear combination
Dr. Suresh Kumar of the members of the set 35 / 43
Ex. B = {[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1]} is the standard basis of
R3 .
Ex. B = {[1, 2, 1], [2, 3, 1], [−1, 2, −3]} is a basis of R3.
       
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Ex. B = , , , is the standard
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
basis of M22.
Ex. B = {1, x, x2, ........, xn} is standard basis of Pn.

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Theorem: If B1 is a finite basis of a vector space V, and
B2 is any other basis of V, then B2 has same number
of vectors as in B1.
Note: A vector space may have infinitely many finite
bases. However, the number of vectors in each basis
would be same as suggested by the above theorem.

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Dimension of a vector space
The number of elements in the basis of a vector space
is called its dimension.
A vector space with finite dimension is called a finite
dimensional vector space.
Ex. The basis B = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} of R2 carries two vec-
tors. So dim(R2) = 2.
Ex. The basis of M22 carries 4 vectors. So dim(M22) = 4.

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Theorem: Any maximal LI subset of a spanning set of
a vector space forms a basis of the vector space.
Ex. The set S = {[1, 0], [0, 1], [1, 5]} spans R2. It is easy
to verify that {[1, 0], [0, 1]}, {[1, 0], [1, 5]}, {[0, 1], [1, 5]}
all being maximal LI subsets of S are bases of R2.

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Theorem: Every LI subset of a vector space can be
extended to form a basis of the vector space.
Ex. The set S = {[1, 3, 7]} is a LI subset of R3. It is
easy to verify that the extended set
{[1, 3, 7], [0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1]} is a basis of R3.

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Important Note:
If we remove one or more vectors from the basis set
of a vector space, it is no more a spanning set of the
vector space.
If we insert one or more vectors in the basis set, it is
no more LI.
Thus, number of elements in the basis set does not
vary.

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Theorem: If W is subspace of a vector space V, then
dim(W) ≤ dim(V).
Ex. Find a basis of a subspace of R4 spanned by
S = {[3, −5, 2, 4], [1, −2, 2, 1], [−1, 2, −1, 1]}.
Sol.
 Using suitable  row  operations,
 we find
3 −5 2 4 1 0 0 15
 1 −2 2 1 ∼ 0 1 0 9  .
−1 2 −1 1 0 0 1 2
S = {[3, −5, 2, 4], [1, −2, 2, 1], [−1, 2, −1, 1]} being LI is
itself is a basis of the subspace of R4.
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Note: Row vectors of the row equivalent matrix of the
basis vectors matrix also form
a basis.
So in the previous example, the set
{[1, 0, 0, 15], [0, 1, 0, 9], [0, 0, 1, 2]}
is also a basis of the subspace of R4.

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