Stress:

• Stress or Accent is an important feature of English. Stress is generally defined as the degree of
prominence of syllable.
• If a word has more than one syllable one of the syllables stand from the rest.
• Example: in the word table /teible/ The first syllable /tei/ is more important than the second
syllable /b/.

Stress classification:

• Primary accent: the syllable on which there is a pitch change is said to have the primary
accent.
• Primary stress indicates by a half straight bar.
• Secondary accent; Any other prominent syllable is said to have secondary accent
• Secondary stress indicates by ‘’,’’ tertiary stress indicated by ‘ weak stress indicated by ~.

Stress change according to functions;

• The accent is on the first syllable if the word is a noun or adjective.

• Ex: Conduct , Subject
• The stress is on the second syllable if it is a verb
• Ex con’duct , sub' ject.

Rules

• Rules for Accentual patterns:

• All parts of speech in a line are not equally important in value. Nouns, verbs, Demonstrative
and Interrogative, Pronouns , Adjectives and adverbs being of greater value recwive stress.
• Longer words contain two accented;
• Syllables the primary stress and the secondary stress
• Ex; am -i—nation.
• Nouns of 2 syllables have generally the first syllable accented
• Ex: Ho-nour.
• Adjective in all degrees of comparison have the stress on the first syllable
• Ex: Gen-tler. Gen-tlest.
• When a word of 2 syllables is used as both noun and adjective the stress is on the first syllabus
In noun and second in adjective.
• Ex: Au-gust( Month)
• Au-' gust( Personality)
• When a word of 2 syllables is used as both adjectives and verb it is stressed on the first
syllable in adjective and sound in verb.
• Ex: Ab- Sent ( Adjective an absent girl)
• Ab-' sent: (Verb – She absented herself from class)
• When a word of a syllables is uses as both noun and verb it is stressed on the first syllable in a
noun and second in a verb.
• Words with weak prefixes are accented on the root.
 • Ex: A' cross.
• The in flexional suffixes such as es, ing , ed, and derivational suffixes like age , ance, endo, not
effect the accent.
• Ex: ‘break, ‘ breakage.
• Words ending in- ity have primary accent on the antic penultimate syllable the third.

Intonation:
• The patters of vibrations of the pitch of our voice when we speak constitute the Intonation of
a language.
• The rote at which the vocal cords vibrate warn we speak or sing is called the frequency of
vibrations. This determines the pitch of our voice. The more rapidly the vocal cords vibrate the
higher will be the pitch.
• Stress and Intonation are interlinked emotional degree of the speaker affect the Intonation.

The Tones:

• A syllable which is said on a level tone high or low is said to have a static tone.
• A high tone: Marked with a symbol [l] above and in front of the syllable -men A low tone
symbol[i] below and in front of the syllable.
• The syllable on which there is a pitch movement is said to have a kinetic tone.

Falling tone: A falling tune is used

a) In ordinary statements made with out emotion

b) In ‘wh' question said in unfriendly way.
c) In commands Finished your/ work , Who/ did it?.

Rising Tone:

• A Rising tone is used in

a) Incomplete utterances
b) Yes /questions
c) In ‘wh' question said in a friendly way.
d) In polite request “ Can you help meme?”, Luckily , I went there’s

The Falling- Rising tone

• This tone is used for special implications.

• She is very clever.
 Transcription exercise:

Unit-3: Grammar

• Definition of Grammar
• Different Approaches of Grammar – Descriptive, Prescriptive and Functional

Unit-4: Syntax

• Structural analysis ( I.C. analysis)

• Deep and surface structure.

Unit-5: Semantics

• Word, morphemes
• Word meaning association (semantics)

Unit:O3

• What is Grammar?

• Grammar (noun): the structure and system of a language, usually consider to consist of syntax and
morphology. Or Grammar is the set of rules which help us to understand language. Grammar is the
structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are aware of how it works, the
more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language.

• Main types of grammar:

• a) Descriptive grammar : Refers to the structure of a language as it's actually used by speakers and
writers.
• B) Prescriptive grammar: Refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be
used. Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in
descriptive grammar (called linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words,
phrases, clauses, and sentences

• On the other hand, prescriptive grammaticism lay out rules about what they believe to be the
“correct” or “incorrect” use of language.

Further types of Grammar:

• Comparative Grammar: The analysis and comparison of the grammatical structures of

related languages. Contemporary work in comparative grammar is concerned with "a faculty
of language that provides an explanatory basis for how a human being can acquire a first
language. In this way, the theory of grammar is a theory of human language and hence
establishes the relationship among all languages." And Comparative is the name for the
grammar used when comparing two things. The two basic ways to compare are using as ..
as or than. For example: She's twice as old as her sister. He's not as stupid as he looks! This
computer is better than that one.
• Generative Grammar: A grammar (or set of rules) that indicates the structure and
interpretation of sentences which native speakers of a language accept as belonging to the
language. The basic areas of study include phonology (the study of the sound patterns of
language), morphology (the study of the structure and meaning of words),
• Syntax(the study of the structure of sentences), and semantics (the study of linguistic
meaning). Adopting the term generative from mathematics, linguist Noam Chomsky
introduced the concept of generative grammar in the 1950s. Simply put, a generative
grammar is a theory of competence: a model of the psychological system of unconscious
knowledge that underlies a speaker's ability to produce and interpret utterances in a
language A good way of trying to understand Chomsky's point is to think of a generative
grammar as essentially a definition of competence: a set of criteria that linguistic structures
must meet to be judged acceptable.
• Mental Grammar: The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to
produce language that other speakers can understand. "All humans are born with the
capacity for constructing a Mental Grammar, given linguistic experience; this capacity for
language is called the Language Faculty. One way to clarify mental or competence grammar
is to ask a friend a question about a sentence. Your friend probably won't know why it's
correct, but that friend will know if it's correct. So one of the features of mental or
competence grammar is this incredible sense of correctness and the ability to hear
something that 'sounds odd' in a language.
• Performance Grammar: A description of the syntax of English as it is actually used by
speakers in dialogues. "Performance grammar thus far centers attention on language
production; it is my belief that the problem of production must be dealt with before problems
of reception and comprehension can properly be investigated."

• Traditional Grammar: The collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the structure of
language that is commonly taught in schools. "We say that traditional grammar is prescriptive
because it focuses on the distinction between what some people do with language and what they
ought to do with it, according to a pre-established standard. . . . The chief goal of traditional
grammar, therefore, is perpetuating a historical model of what supposedly constitutes proper
language."
• Transformational Grammar: A theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language
by linguistic transformations and phrase structures. "In transformational grammar, the term 'rule' is
used not for a precept set down by an external authority but for a principle that is unconsciously yet
regularly followed in the production and interpretation of sentences. A rule is a direction for forming a
sentence or a part of a sentence, which has been internalized by the native speaker." Though it is
certainly true, as many writers have pointed out, that sentence- combining exercises existed before
the advent of transformational grammar, it should be evident that the transformational concept of
embedding gave sentence combining a theoretical foundation upon which to build Universal
Grammar:

• The system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human languages and considered
to be innate. "Taken together, the linguistic principles of Universal Grammar constitute a theory of
the organization of the initial state of the mind/brain of the language learner--that is, a theory of the
human faculty for language

Differences type of approaches:

• There are two different approaches to talking about language called prescriptive grammar and descriptive
grammar.

• Prescriptive grammar is focused on how language should be used. Descriptive grammar, on the other
hand, focuses on how language is used. Think of prescriptive grammar like a prescription from the
doctor. Prescription medication comes with directions about how and when to take it, what it is used for,
and what you shouldn’t do while taking it. Likewise, prescriptive grammar gives directions for how you
should speak, what language to use and avoid, and rules for how not to use language. The goal is to define
a particular “proper” way of using language.

• Descriptive grammar is the approach many linguistic scholars and dictionaries take towards language. This
approach focuses on the way native speakers use language and tries to theorize about the underlying
mental grammar framework that produces it. The goal is to answer questions about what a language is
like, what forms it has and how it is used in different circumstances.

• The functions of the various forms of grammar are as important for students to understand as
the forms. The functional approach focuses on the appropriateness of the form for a
communicative process and does not dwell on the distinction between "grammatical" and
"ungrammatical" forms.

• Functional grammar allows linguists to analyze, compare, and parse the grammars of all human
languages. The functional approach is most likely the way our brain understands and uses
language.

Syntax:

• The word syntax comes from Ancient Greek: "coordination", which consists
of "together", and “an ordering".
• In linguistics, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the
structure of sentences (sentence structure) in a given language, usually including word
order. The term syntax is also used to refer to the study of such principles and
processes. The goal of many is to discover the syntactic rules common to all
languages. One basic description of a language's syntax is the sequence in which
 the subject (S), verb (V), and object (O) usually appear in sentences. Over 85% of
languages usually place the subject first, either in the sequence SVO or the
sequence SOV. The other possible sequences are VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV, the last
three of which are rare. In most generative theories of syntax, these surface differences
arise from a more complex clausal phrase structure, and each order may be compatible
with multiple derivations.

Structural analysis ( I.C. analysis)

WHAT IS IC ANALYSIS

• tool in structural linguistics • Immediate - Constituent Analysis • A system of

grammatical analysis • Analyses sentence structure • Introduced by Leonard
Bloomfield in 1933 • Further developed by Roulon Wells and Zellig Harris

DEFINITION IC Analysis is:

• a system • of breaking down sentences • into their smallest meaningful constituents •

for analyzing their structure.

FEATURES

• Idea– a sentence is a sequence of components • Sentence – CONSTRUCTION • I,

am giving a presentation – IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS • I, am, give + ing, a,
present + ation – ULTIMATE CONSTITUENTS • Order of elements is (usually)
unchanged • IC cuts are (usually) binary • Isolates the constituents hierarchically
Functional Labelling

• On the basis of the function of the constituents • Structure of predication (Subject +

Predicate) • Structure of modification (Head + Modifier) • Structure of complementation
(Verbal + Complement) • Structure of subordination (Subordinator + Dependent unit) •
Structure of co ordination (Independent unit + Coordinator + Independent unit)

LIMITATIONS

• Constructional homonymy • Ambiguous sentences • Discontinuous expressions • A

method • Simply describes, no theory • A lot of exceptions

Deep structure:( meaning of the sentence)

• In transformational and generative grammar, deep structure (also known

as deep grammar or D-structure) is the underlying syntactic structure—or
level—of a sentence
Surface structure ( spoken or written sentence without knowing exact meaning)
• The surface structure of a sentence is the final stage in the syntactic representation of a
sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and
which thus most closely corresponds to the structure of the sentence we articulate and
hear.
Unit 05: Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences; at its simplest, it concerns
with the relation of linguistic forms to non-linguistic concepts and mental representations in order
to explain how sentences are understood by the speakers of a language.

A morpheme is the smallest meaningful lexical item in a language. A morpheme is not necessarily
the same as a word. The main difference between a morpheme and a word is that a morpheme
sometimes does not stand alone, but a word, by definition, always stands alone.

In semantics, associative meaning refers to the particular qualities or

characteristics beyond the denotative meaning that people commonly think of
(correctly or incorrectly) in relation to a word or phrase. Also known
as expressive meaning and stylistic meaning.

Concluded