Operational Amplifiers 673

A
Solution. (i) CMRR = DM
ACM
ADM 2500
∴ ACM = = = 0.083
CMRR 30, 000
(ii) CMRRdB = 20 log10 (30,000) = 89.5 dB
(iii) In Fig. 25.14, the differential input voltage is the difference between the voltages on input 1
and that on input 2. Since input 2 is grounded, its voltage is zero.
∴ Differential input voltage = 500 µV – 0 = 500 µV
The output signal in this case is taken at output 1.
∴ v out1 = ADM × (500 µV) = (2500 × 500) µV = 1.25 V
(iv) The common-mode input is 1V r.m.s. and the common-mode gain is ACM = 0.083.
∴ Noise on the output = ACM × (1V) = (0.083) (1V) = 83 mV

25.9 D.C. Analysis of Differential

Amplifier (DA)
When no signal is applied to a DA, d.c. or
quiescent conditions prevail in the circuit.
From the transistor circuit theory, we can find
*bias voltages and bias currents in the circuit.
Fig. 25.15 shows the basic arrangement for an
npn differential amplifier. Typical circuit
values have been assumed to make the
treatment illustrative. The circuit is
symmetrical i.e., the transistors Q1 and Q2 are
identical; collector loads are equal (RC1 = RC2)
and base resistors RB are equal. We assume that
base current is very small so that we can ignore
the voltage drops across base resistors i.e.,
VB1 = VB2 j **0V Fig. 25.15
Now VE = VB1 – 0.7 = VB2 – 0.7 = ***0 – 0.7 = – 0.7 V
∴ VE1 = VE2 = VE = – 0.7 V
† Voltage across RE = VEE – VBE
-VEE+VRE+VBE+VRB=0
VEE − VBE
Current in RE, IE =
RE
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* Bias voltages and currents mean d.c. values.

** As we shall see, for the considered circuit values, IB1 = IB2 = 2.86 µA.
∴ Base voltage, VB = IB × RB = 2.86 µA × 10 kΩ =28.6 mV. Compared to the –15V of VEE, this is
a negligible amount of voltage.
*** VBE = 0.7 V. There is a plus-to-minus drop in going from the base to emitter. Since base voltage is 0V,
VE = –0.7 V.
† Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the loop consisting of VEE, the base-emitter junction of Q1 and
RB, we have,
VRE = VEE – VBE – VRB = VEE – VBE – 0 = VEE – VBE
674 Principles of Electronics
The current through the emitter resistor RE is called @tail current. For the circuit values
considered in Fig.25.15, we have,
V − VBE (15 − 0.7)V
Tail current, IE = EE = = 0.572 mA
RE 25 kΩ
Because of the symmetry in the circuit, IE must split equally between Q1 and Q2.
I 0.572 mA
∴ IE1 = IE2 = E = = 0.286 mA
2 2
Now IC1 j IE1 = 0.286 mA ; IC2 j IE2 = 0.286 mA
I C1 0.286 mA IC 2
Also IB1 = = = 2.86 µA ; IB2 = = 2.86 µA
β 100 β
VC1 = VCC – IC1 RC1 = 15 V – 0.286 mA × 10 kΩ = 12.1 V
VC2 = VCC – IC2 RC2 = 15 V – 0.286 mA × 10 kΩ = 12.1 V
Note that bold type results are bias voltages or bias currents. An important point to see is that
VC1 = VC2 = 12.1 V. It means that there is no potential difference between the collectors. Therefore,
the differential d.c. output for a balanced DA is zero.
Example 25.6. Find the bias voltages and currents for the differential amplifier circuit shown
in Fig. 25.16.
Solution. Note that there is no resistor in the collector circuit of Q1. This makes no difference
in the values of the two collector currents because the collector currents are determined by the
emitter circuit, not the collector circuit. This arrangement will only affect VC1. Because of
symmetry in the base-emitter circuits of Q1 and Q2, we have,
I
IE1 = IE2 = E
2

Fig. 25.16
Ignoring the base current, the emitter voltage for both transistors is VE = – 0.7 V.
V − VBE (12 − 0.7)V
Now, Tail current, IE = EE = = 0.452 mA
RE 25 kΩ
∴ IE1 = IE2 = IE/2 = 0.452 mA/2 = 0.226 mA
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@ If you look at the circuit, you can see that emitter resistor RE is like a tail.
 Operational Amplifiers 675
Now, IC1 = IC2 = 0.226 mA (∵ IC1 j IE1 and IC2 j IE2)
∴ IB1 = IB2 = 0.226 mA/β = 0.226 mA/100 = 2.26 µA
VC1 = VCC = 12V ; VC2 = VCC – IC2RC2 = 12 – 0.226 mA × 10 kΩ = 9.7V
Example 25.7. In Fig. 25.17, the transistors are identical with βdc = 100. Find the output
voltage.

Fig. 25.17
VEE − VBE (15 − 0.7)V
Solution. Tail current, IE = = = 0.953 mA
RE 15 kΩ
Since the transistors are identical, the tail current IE splits equally between the two transistors.
Therefore, emitter current of each transistor = 0.953 mA/2 = 0.477 mA.
Since IC j IE = 0.477 mA, Vout = VCC – ICRC = 15 – 0.477 mA × 15 kΩ = 7.85 V

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 Operational Amplifiers 677

25.10 Overview of Differential Amplifier

Fig. 25.20 shows double-ended input and single-ended output differential amplifier (DA). In other
words, there are two input signals and one output signal. A DA is *normally operated in this
fashion. When input signal v1 (input 1) is applied, the output signal is in phase with the input signal
i.e., there is no phase shift in the output signal. For this reason, input signal v1 is called non-
inverting input. When input signal v2 (input 2) is applied, the output signal is 180° out of phase with
the input signal. For this reason, input signal v2 is called inverting input.

Fig. 25.20 Fig. 25.21

The differential amplifier amplifies the difference between the two input voltages. This point is
illustrated in Fig. 25.21. The difference between the input voltages is vin = v1 – v2 i.e.,
vin = v1 – v2
where v1 = the voltage applied to the noninverting input
v2 = the voltage applied to the inverting input
vin = the difference voltage that will be amplified
It is important to remember that the differential amplifier is amplifying the difference between
the input terminal voltages.
25.11 Parameters of DA (or OP–amp) due to Mismatch of
Transistors
Our discussion on the differential amplifier (DA) has been based on the assumption that the
transistors are perfectly matched i.e., they have exactly the same electrical characteristics. In
practice, this cannot happen. There will always be some difference between the characteristics of
the two transistors. This leads us to the following two parameters of DA (or OP– amp) :
1. Output offset voltage 2. Input offset current
1. Output Offset Voltage. Even though the transistors in the differential amplifier are very
closely matched, there are some differences in their electrical characteristics. One of these
differences is found in the values of VBE for the twso transistors. When VBE1 ≠ VBE2, an imbalance
is created in the differential amplifier. The DA (or OP-amp) may show some voltage at the output

* One input can be grounded (i.e., at 0V).

678 Principles of Electronics
even when the voltage applied between two input terminals is zero. This is called output offset
voltage. This point is illustrated in Fig. 25.22. Note that with the inputs of DA grounded, the output
shows a measurable voltage. This voltage is a result of the imbalance in the differential amplifier,
which causes one of the transistors to conduct harder than the other.

Fig. 25.22 Fig. 25.23

There are several methods that may be used to eliminate output offset voltage. One of these is
to apply an input offset voltage between the input terminals of DA (or OP- amp) so as to make
output 0V as shown in Fig. 25.23. The value of input offset voltage (Vi0) required to eliminate the
output offset voltage is given by;
V (offset )
Vi0 = out ...A is voltage gain.
A
2. Input Offset Current. When the output offset voltage of a DA (or OP- amp) is eliminated,
there will be a slight difference between the input currents to the noninverting and inverting inputs
of the device. This slight difference in input currents is called input offset current and is caused by
a beta (β) mismatch between the transistors in the differential amplifier. As an example, suppose IB1
= 75 µA and IB2 = 65 µA. Then,
Iin (offset) = 75 – 65 = 10 µA
The difference in the base currents indicates how closely matched the transistors are. If the
transistors are identical, the input offset current is zero because both base currents will be equal.
But in practice, the two transistors are different and the two base currents are not equal.
25.12 Input Bias Current
The inputs to an OP- amp require some amount of d.c. biasing current for the transistors in the
differential amplifier. The input bias current is defined as the average of the two d.c. base currents
i.e.,
I B + I B2
Iin(bias) = 1
2
For example, if IB1 = 85 µA and IB2 = 75 µA, then the
input bias current is
85 + 75
Iin(bias) = = 80µA
2
This means that when no signal is applied, the inputs
of OP- amp (i.e., DA) will draw a d.c. current of 80 µA.
The fact that both transistors in the differential
amplifier require an input biasing current leads to the
following operating restriction : An OP- amp will not
Fig. 25.24
work if either of its inputs is open. For example, look
 Operational Amplifiers 679
at the circuit shown in Fig. 25.24. The *non-inverting input is shown to have an open between the
OP- amp and ground. The open circuit would not allow the d.c. biasing current required for the
operation of the differential amplifier (The transistor associated with the inverting input would
work but not the one associated with the non-inverting input). Since the differential amplifier
would not work, the overall OP-amp circuit would not work. Thus an input bias current path must
always be provided for both OP-amp inputs.
Example 25.11. In Fig. 25.25, the left transistor has βdc = 90 and the right transistor has βdc
= 110. Find (i) the input offset current (ii) input bias current. Neglect VBE.
Solution.
VEE − VBE (15 − 0)V
(i) Tail current, IE = =
RE 1 M Ω = 15 µA
The emitter current in each transistor is
IE1 = IE2 = IE/2 = 15µA/2 = 7.5 µA
The base current in the left transistor is
I E1 7.5 µA
IB1 = = = 83.3 nA
β 90
The base current in the right transistor is
I E 2 7.5 µA
IB2 = = = 68.2 nA
β 110
∴ Input offset current is given by;
Iin(offset) = IB1 – IB2 = 83.3 – 68.2 = 15.1 nA
(ii) The input bias current is the average of the two base currents. Fig. 25.25

I B1 + I B 2 83.3 + 68.2
∴ Input bias current, Iin(bias) = = = 75.8 nA
2 2
Example 25.12. The data sheet of an IC OP-amp gives these values : Iin(offset) = 20 nA and
Iin(bias) = 80 nA. Find the values of two base currents.
Solution. An Iin(offset) of 20 nA means that one base current is 20 nA greater than the other.
There is no way to tell which of the two base currents will be greater. It can go either way in mass
production. Assume that IB1 is greater than IB2. Then,
I in(offset) 20nA
IB1 = I in(bias ) + = 80 nA + = 90 nA
2 2
I in(offset) 20nA
IB2 = I in(bias ) − = 80 nA − = 70 nA
2 2
If IB2 is greater than IB1, then the values are reversed i.e., IB1 = 70 nA and IB2 = 90 nA.
680 Principles of Electronics

25.13 A.C. Analysis of Differential Amplifier

A differential amplifier (DA) has a noninverting input and an inverting input. Fig. 25.27 shows the
differential amplifier (DA) that is used in IC OP- amps. Note the circuit has double-ended input and
single-ended output.

Fig. 25.27 Fig. 25.28

If you look at the differential amplifier circuit in Fig. 25.27, it responds to the difference
between the voltages at the two input terminals. In other words, DA responds to vin (= v1 – v2).
Therefore, the circuit shown in Fig. 25.27 can be drawn as shown in Fig. 25.28.
Ideally (i.e., VBE is negligible), the tail current IE in Fig. 25.27 is IE = VEE/RE. Once the values
of VEE and RE are set, the tail current is constant. Therefore, to simplify a.c. analysis, we can replace
the tail current by a current source (IE) as shown in Fig. 25.29. This will simplify the a.c. analysis of
the circuit with almost no loss of accuracy.
 Operational Amplifiers 681

Fig. 25.29 Fig. 25.30

A.C. Equivalent Circuit. We can easily find the a.c. equivalent circuit of differential amplifier by
applying the usual rules to Fig. 25.29. The rules are to short all the capacitors, and reduce all d.c.
sources to zero. Since a differential amplifier has no capacitors, all that we have to do is to reduce
the d.c. sources to zero. Reducing a voltage source to zero is equivalent to replacing it by a short.
Reducing a current source to zero is equivalent to opening it. In Fig. 25.29, this means ground the
VCC point, ground the VEE point and open the current source. Applying these conditions to
Fig. 25.29, we get the a.c. equivalent circuit of differential amplifier shown in Fig. 25.30.
Voltage gain. Fig. 25.30 shows the a.c. equivalent circuit of a differential amplifier. This is
how a differential amplifier looks to an a.c. signal. Note that r′e (= 25 mV/d.c. emitter current) is the
a.c. emitter resistance. Since the two r′es are in series, the same a.c. emitter current exists in both
transistors. The a.c. emitter current is given by;
vin
ie =
2re′
This expression is easy to remember because it is almost identical to a CE amplifier where ie =
vin/r′e. The only difference is the factor 2 because a differential amplifier uses two transistors.
The a.c. collector current is approximately equal to the a.c. emitter current i.e. ic  ie.
vin ⎡ vin ⎤
∴ Output voltage, vout = icRC = R
2re′ C ⎢∵ ie  ic = 2r ′ ⎥
⎣ e⎦

vout RC
∴ Voltage gain, A = =
vin 2re′
This gain of DA is referred to as differential-mode voltage gain and is usually denoted by ADM.
RC
∴ Differential voltage gain, ADM =
2re′
Input impedance. The a.c. emitter current is given by;
vin
ie = 2r ′  β ib (ä ic = βib j ie)
e
682 Principles of Electronics

vin
∴ ib = 2 βre′

Now ib is the a.c. input current to the differential amplifier. Therefore, vin/ib is the input
impedance.
∴ Input impedance, Zi = 2βr′e
684 Principles of Electronics

25.14 Common-mode Voltage Gain (ACM)

The common-mode signals are equal in amplitude and have the same phase. Fig. 25.34(i) shows the
common-mode operation of a differential amplifier (DA). Note that the same input voltage, vin(CM)
is being applied to each base. Ideally, there is no a.c. output voltage with a common-mode input
signal. It is because a differential amplifier is designed to respond to the difference between two
input signals. If there is no difference between the inputs, the output of DA is zero. In practice, the
two halves of the differential amplifier are never completely balanced and there is a very small a.c.
output voltage for the common-mode signal.

(i) (ii)
Fig. 25.34
The circuit shown in Fig. 25.34(i) can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 25.34(ii). In this equivalent
circuit, the two parallel resistances of 2 RE produce an equivalent resistance of RE. Therefore, this
equivalent circuit will not affect the output voltage. Assuming identical transistors, the two emitter
currents will be equal and produce the same voltage across emitter resistors. Therefore, there is no
current through the wire between the emitters. We can remove this wire and the circuit becomes as
shown in Fig. 25.35 (i).
A.C. equivalent circuit. To get the a.c. equivalent circuit, we can reduce both supply voltages
to zero i.e., we ground each supply point. Replacing the transistors by their a.c. equivalent circuits,
we get a.c. equivalent circuit of differential amplifier for commom-mode operation as shown in Fig.
25.35 (ii). We can derive the voltage gain of an *unbypassed CE circuit. Here we will use 2 RE in
place of RE.
vout RC
∴ Common-mode voltage gain, ACM = =
vin (CM ) re′ + 2RE
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

* We have derived the voltage gain of bypassed capacitor CE amplifier in Art. 10.13 as : Av = RC / ré .
Without bypass capacitor, the emitter is no longer at a.c. ground. Instead, RE is seen by the a.c. signal
between the emitter and ground and effectively adds to ré in the above formula. Therefore, voltage
RC
gain without the bypass capacitor becomes: Av =
r e' + RE
 Operational Amplifiers 685

(i) (ii)
Fig. 25.35

25 mV
where r′e = a.c. emitter resistance =
d.c. emitter current
In most cases, r′e is very small as compared to RE, it (r′e) is dropped from the formula.
RC
∴ ACM =
2 RE
The common-mode voltage gain (ACM) is very small. For example, a typical DA may have RC = 150
kΩ and RE = 143 kΩ.
RC 150 kΩ
∴ ACM = = = 0.52
2 RE 2 143 k