422 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

t t

FIGURE 9.1 Examples of time-varying current: (a) sinusoidal,

(b) rectangular, (c) triangular.

the basis of our discussions in the remaining part of the text. For this reason, Section 9.5
should be regarded as the heart of this text.

9.2 FARADAY’S LAW

After Oersted’s experimental discovery (upon which Biot–Savart and Ampère based their
laws) that a steady current produces a magnetic field, it seemed logical to find out whether
magnetism would produce electricity. In 1831, about 11 years after Oersted’s discovery,
Michael Faraday in London and Joseph Henry in New York discovered that a time-varying
magnetic field would produce an electric current.1
According to Faraday’s experiments, a static magnetic field produces no current flow;
but in a closed circuit, a time-varying field produces an induced voltage (called electromo-
tive force or simply emf) that causes a flow of current.

Faraday discovered that the induced emf, Vemf (in volts) in any closed circuit is
equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit.

This is called Faraday’s law, and it can be expressed as

dl d
Vemf 5 2 5 2N (9.1)
dt dt
where l 5 N is the flux linkage, N is the number of turns in the circuit, and  is the flux
through each turn. The negative sign shows that the induced voltage acts in such a way as

1
For details on the experiments of Michael Faraday (1791–1867) and Joseph Henry (1797–1878), see W. F. Magie,
A Source Book in Physics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1963, pp. 472–519.
 9.2 Faraday’s Law 423

FIGURE 9.2 A circuit showing emf-producing field Ef

B
and electrostatic field Ee.

to oppose the flux producing it. This behavior is described as Lenz’s law2. Lenz’s law states
the direction of current flow in the circuit is such that the induced magnetic field produced
by the induced current opposes change in the original magnetic field.
Recall that we described an electric field as one in which electric charges experience
force. The electric fields considered so far are caused by electric charges; in such fields,
the flux lines begin and end on the charges. However, electric fields of other kinds are not
directly caused by electric charges. These are emf-produced fields. Sources of emf include
electric generators, batteries, thermocouples, fuel cells, and photovoltaic cells, which all
convert nonelectrical energy into electrical energy.
Consider the electric circuit of Figure 9.2, where the battery is a source of emf. The
electrochemical action of the battery results in an emf-produced field Ef. Due to the accu-
mulation of charge at the battery terminals, an electrostatic field Ee 1 5 2=V 2 also exists.
The total electric field at any point is

E 5 Ef 1 Ee(9.2)

Note that Ef is zero outside the battery, Ef and Ee have opposite directions in the battery,
and the direction of Ee inside the battery is opposite to that outside it. If we integrate
eq. (9.2) over the closed circuit, we have

C E dl 5 C Ef dl 1 0 5 3 Ef dl
P
# # # 1 through battery 2 (9.3a)
L L N

where A Ee # dl 5 0 because Ee is conservative. The emf of the battery is the line integral
of the emf-produced field, that is,

Vemf 5 3 Ef # dl 5 23 Ee # dl 5 IR(9.3b)
P P

N N

since Ef and Ee are equal but opposite within the battery (see Figure 9.2). It may also be
regarded as the potential difference 1 VP 2 VN 2 between the battery’s open-circuit termi-
nals. It is important to note the following facts.
1. An electrostatic field Ee cannot maintain a steady current in a closed circuit, since
AL Ee dl 5 0 5 IR.
#
2. An emf-produced field Ef is nonconservative.
3. Except in electrostatics, voltage and potential difference are usually not equivalent.

2
After Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz (1804–1865), a Russian professor of physics.
 424 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

9.3 TRANSFORMER AND MOTIONAL ELECTROMOTIVE FORCES

Having considered the connection between emf and electric field, we may examine how
Faraday’s law links electric and magnetic fields. For a circuit with a single turn 1 N 5 1 2 ,
eq. (9.1) becomes

d
Vemf 5 2 (9.4)
dt
In terms of E and B, eq. (9.4) can be written as

Vemf 5 C E # dl 5 2 3 B # dS(9.5)
d
L dt S

where  has been replaced by e S B # dS and S is the surface area of the circuit bounded by
the closed path L. It is clear from eq. (9.5) that in a time-varying situation, both electric
and magnetic fields are present and are interrelated. Note that d l and dS in eq. (9.5) are in
accordance with the right-hand rule as well as Stokes’s theorem. This should be observed
in Figure 9.3. The variation of flux with time as in eq. (9.1) or eq. (9.5) may be caused in
three ways:
1. By having a stationary loop in a time-varying B field
2. By having a time-varying loop area in a static B field
3. By having a time-varying loop area in a time-varying B field
Each of these will be considered separately.

A. Stationary Loop in Time-Varying B Field (Transformer emf)

In Figure 9.3 a stationary conducting loop is in a time-varying magnetic B field.
Equation (9.5) becomes

Vemf 5 C E # dl 5 23
'B #
dS(9.6)
L S 't

FIGURE 9.3 Induced emf due to a stationary loop in a time-

varying B field.

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 9.3 Transformer and Motional Electromotive Forces 425

This emf induced by the time-varying current (producing the time-varying B field) in a
­stationary loop is often referred to as transformer emf in power analysis, since it is due
to transformer action. By applying Stokes’s theorem to the middle term in eq. (9.6), we
­obtain

3 1 = 3 E 2 dS 5 23
# 'B #
dS(9.7)
S S 't

For the two integrals to be equal, their integrands must be equal; that is,

'B
=3E52 (9.8)
't

This is one of the Maxwell’s equations for time-varying fields. It shows that the time-­
varying E field is not conservative 1 = 3 E 2 0 2 . This does not imply that the principles
of energy conservation are violated. The work done in taking a charge about a closed path
in a time-varying electric field, for example, is due to the energy from the time-varying
magnetic field. Observe that Figure 9.3 obeys Lenz’s law: the induced current I flows such
as to produce a magnetic field that opposes the change in B(t).

B. Moving Loop in Static B Field (Motional emf)

When a conducting loop is moving in a static B field, an emf is induced in the loop. We
recall from eq. (8.2) that the force on a charge moving with uniform velocity u in a mag-
netic field B is

Fm 5 Qu 3 B(8.2)

We define the motional electric field Em as

Fm
Em 5 5 u 3 B(9.9)
Q
If we consider a conducting loop, moving with uniform velocity u as consisting of a large
number of free electrons, the emf induced in the loop is

Vemf 5 C Em # dl 5 C 1 u 3 B 2 # dl(9.10)
L L

This type of emf is called motional emf or flux-cutting emf because it is due to motional
action. It is the kind of emf found in electrical machines such as motors, generators, and
alternators. Figure 9.4 illustrates a two-pole dc machine with one armature coil and a two-
bar commutator. Although the analysis of the dc machine is beyond the scope of this text,
we can see that voltage is generated as the coil rotates within the magnetic field. Another

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 426 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

FIGURE 9.4 A direct-current machine.

e­ xample of motional emf is illustrated in Figure 9.5, where a rod is moving between a
pair of rails. In this example, B and u are perpendicular, so eq. (9.9) in conjunction with
eq. (8.2) becomes

Fm 5 I,
, 3 B(9.11)

or

Fm 5 I,B(9.12)

and eq. (9.10) becomes

Vemf 5 uB,(9.13)

By applying Stokes’s theorem to eq. (9.10), we have

3 1 = 3 Em 2 dS 5 3 = 3 1 u 3 B 2 dS
# #
S S
or

= 3 Em 5 = 3 1 u 3 B 2 (9.14)

Notice that unlike eq. (9.6), there is no need for a minus sign in eq. (9.10) because Lenz’s
law is already accounted for.

FIGURE 9.5 Induced emf due to a moving

loop in a static B field.

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 9.3 Transformer and Motional Electromotive Forces 427

To apply eq. (9.10) is not always easy; some care must be exercised. The following
points should be noted.
1. The integral in eq. (9.10) is zero along the portion of the loop where u 5 0. Thus
dl is taken along the portion of the loop that is cutting the field (along the rod in
Figure 9.5), where u has nonzero value.
2. The direction of the induced current is the same as that of Em or u 3 B. The limits
of the integral in eq. (9.10) are selected in the direction opposite to the induced
­current, thereby satisfying Lenz’s law. In Figure 9.5, for example, the integration
over L is along 2ay, whereas induced current flows in the rod along ay.

C. Moving Loop in Time-Varying Field

In the general case, a moving conducting loop is in a time-varying magnetic field. Both
transformer emf and motional emf are present. Combining eqs. (9.6) and (9.10) gives the
total emf as

Vemf 5 C E # dl 5 23 dS 1 C 1 u 3 B 2 # dl(9.15)
'B #
L S 't L

or from eqs. (9.8) and (9.14),

'B
=3E52 1 = 3 1 u 3 B 2 (9.16)
't

Note that eq. (9.15) is equivalent to eq. (9.4), so Vemf can be found using either eq. (9.15) or
(9.4). In fact, eq. (9.4) can always be applied in place of eqs. (9.6), (9.10), and (915).

A conducting bar can slide freely over two conducting rails as shown in Figure 9.6.
EXAMPLE 9.1
Calculate the induced voltage in the bar
(a) If the bar is stationed at y 5 8 cm and B 5 4 cos 106taz mWb/m2
(b) If the bar slides at a velocity u 5 20ay m/s and B 5 4az mWb/m2
(c) If the bar slides at a velocity u 5 20ay m/s and B 5 4 cos 1 106t 2 y 2 az mWb/m2

FIGURE 9.6 For Example 9.1.

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 428 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

Solution:
(a) In this case, we have transformer emf given by

Vemf 5 23 dS 5 3 3 4 1 1023 2 1 106 2 sin 106t dx dy

0.08 0.06
'B #
S 't y50 x50

5 4 1 103 2 1 0.08 2 1 0.06 2 sin 106t

5 19.2 sin 106t V

The polarity of the induced voltage (according to Lenz’s law) is such that point P on the bar
is at lower potential than Q when B is increasing.
(b) This is the case of motional emf:

Vemf 5 3 1 u 3 B 2 # dl 5 3
0
1 uay 3 Baz 2 # dx ax
L x5,

5 2uB, 5 220A4 3 1023 2 A0.06 2

5 24.8 mV

(c) Both transformer emf and motional emf are present in this case. This problem can be
solved in two ways.

Method 1: Using eq. (9.15), we write

Vemf 5 23 dS 1 3 1 u 3 B 2 # dl
'B #
       (9.1.1)
S 't L

53 3 4.10 1 10 2 sin 1 10 t 2 yr 2 dyr dx

0.06 y
23 6 6

x50 0

13
0
3 20ay 3 4.1023 cos 1 106t 2 y 2 az 4 # dx ax
0.06
y
5 240 cos 1 106t 2 yr 2 ` 2 80 1 1023 2 1 0.06 2 cos 1 106t 2 y 2
0
5 240 cos 1 106t 2 y 2 2 240 cos 106t 2 4.8 1 1023 2 cos 1 106t 2 y 2
          . 240 cos 1 106t 2 y 2 2 240 cos 106t (9.1.2)

because the motional emf is negligible compared with the transformer emf. Using trigono-
metric identity, we write

A1B A2B
cos A 2 cos B 5 22 sin sin
2 2
y y
Vemf 5 2480 sina106t 2 b sin V (9.1.3)
2 2

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 9.3 Transformer and Motional Electromotive Forces 429

Method 2: Alternatively, we can apply eq. (9.4), namely,

'
Vemf 5 2 (9.1.4)
't
where
 5 3 B # dS

y 0.06
53 3 4 cos 1 106t 2 y 2 dx dy
y50 x50
y
5 24 1 0.06 2 sin 1 106t 2 y 2 `
y50

5 20.24 sin 1 10 t 2 y 2 1 0.24 sin 106t mWb

6

But
dy
5 u S y 5 ut 5 20t
dt
Hence,

 5 20.24 sin 1 106t 2 20t 2 1 0.24 sin 106t mWb

'
Vemf 5 2 5 0.24 1 106 2 20 2 cos 1 106t 2 20t 2 2 0.24 1 106 2 cos 106t mV
't
. 240 cos 1 106t 2 y 2 2 240 cos 106t V (9.1.5)

which is the same result in (9.1.2). Notice that in eq. (9.1.1), the dependence of y on time
is taken care of in e 1 u 3 B 2 # dl, and we should not be bothered by it in B/t. Why?
Because in computing the transformer emf, the loop is assumed stationary. This is a subtle
point one must keep in mind in applying eq. (9.1.1). For the same reason, the second
method is always easier.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 9.1

Consider the loop of Figure 9.5. If B 5 0.5az Wb/m2, R 5 20 V, , 5 10 cm, and the
rod is moving with a constant velocity of 8ax m/s, find

(a) The induced emf in the rod

(b) The current through the resistor
(c) The motional force on the rod
(d) The power dissipated by the resistor.

Answer: (a) 0.4 V, (b) 20 mA, (c) 2ax mN, (d) 8 mW.

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 430 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 9.2 The loop shown in Figure 9.7 is inside a uniform magnetic field B 5 50ax mWb/m2. If
side DC of the loop cuts the flux lines at the frequency of 50 Hz and the loop lies in the
yz-plane at time t 5 0, find
(a) The induced emf at t 5 1 ms
(b) The induced current at t 5 3 ms

Solution:
(a) Since the B field is time invariant, the induced emf is motional, that is,

Vemf 5 3 1 u 3 B 2 # dl
L

where

dlr r df
dl 5 dlDC 5 dz az, u5 5 a 5 rvaf
dt dt f

r 5 AD 5 4 cm, v 5 2pf 5 100p

Because u and dl are in cylindrical coordinates, we transform B into cylindrical coordi-

nates by using eq. (2.9):

B 5 Boax 5 Bo 1 cos f ar 2 sin f af 2

where Bo 5 0.05. Hence,

ar af az
u 3 B 5 †0 rv 0 † 5 2rvBo cos f az
Bo cos f 2Bo sin f 0

FIGURE 9.7 For Example 9.2; polarity is for

increasing emf.

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 9.3 Transformer and Motional Electromotive Forces 431

and

1 u 3 B 2 # dl 5 2rvBo cos f dz 5 20.04 1 100p 2 1 0.05 2 cos f dz

5 20.2p cos f dz

Vemf 5 3
0.03
2 0.2p cos f dz 5 26p cos f mV
  z50

To determine f, recall that

df
v5 S f 5 vt 1 Co
dt
where Co is an integration constant. At t 5 0, f 5 p/2 because the loop is in the yz-plane
at that time, Co 5 p/2. Hence,

p
f 5 vt 1
2
and
p
Vemf 5 26p cosavt 1 b 5 6p sin 1 100pt 2 mV
2
At t 5 1 ms, Vemf 5 6p sin 1 0.1p 2 5 5.825 mV

(b) The current induced is

Vemf
i5 5 60p sin 1 100pt 2 mA
R
At t 5 3 ms,

i 5 60p sin 1 0.3p 2 mA 5 0.1525 A

PRACTICE EXERCISE 9.2

Rework Example 9.2 with everything the same except that the B field is changed to:

(a) B 5 50ay mWb/m2—that is, the magnetic field is oriented along the y-direction
(b) B 5 0.02tax Wb/m2—that is, the magnetic field is time varying.

Answer: (a) 217.93 mV, 20.1108 A, (b) 20.5 mV, 241.92 mA.

EXAMPLE 9.3 The magnetic circuit of Figure 9.8 has a uniform cross section of 1023 m2. If the circuit is
energized by a current i1 1 t 2 5 3 sin 100pt A in the coil of N1 5 200 turns, find the emf
induced in the coil of N2 5 100 turns. Assume that m 5 500 mo.

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 432 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

FIGURE 9.8 Magnetic circuit of

Ex­ample 9.3.

Solution:
The flux in the circuit is

Ᏺ N1i1 N1i1mS
5 5 5
᏾ ,/mS 2pro

According to Faraday’s law, the emf induced in the second coil is

d N1N2mS di1
V2 5 2N2 52
dt 2pro dt
100 # 1 200 2 # 1 500 2 # 1 4p 3 1027 2 # 1 1023 2 # 300p cos 100pt
52
2p 1 10 3 1022 2
5 26p cos 100pt V

PRACTICE EXERCISE 9.3

A magnetic core of uniform cross section 4 cm2 is connected to a 120 V, 60 Hz

generator as shown in Figure 9.9. Calculate the induced emf V2 in the secondary
coil.

Answer: 72 V.

FIGURE 9.9 For Practice Exercise 9.3.

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 9.4 Displacement Current 433

9.4 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

In Section 9.3 we have essentially reconsidered Maxwell’s curl equation for electrostatic
fields and modified it for time-varying situations to satisfy Faraday’s law. We shall now
­reconsider Maxwell’s curl equation for magnetic fields (Ampère’s circuit law) for time-
varying conditions.
For static EM fields, we recall that

= 3 H 5 J(9.17)

But the divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero (see Example 3.10).
Hence,
= # 1 = 3 H 2 5 0 5 = # J(9.18)

The continuity of current in eq. (5.43), however, requires that

'rv
=#J52 2 0(9.19)
't
Thus eqs. (9.18) and (9.19) are obviously incompatible for time-varying conditions. We
must modify eq. (9.17) to agree with eq. (9.19). To do this, we add a term to eq. (9.17) so
that it becomes
= 3 H 5 J 1 Jd(9.20)

where Jd is to be determined and defined. Again, the divergence of the curl of any vector
is zero. Hence:

= # 1 = 3 H 2 5 0 5 = # J 1 = # Jd(9.21)

In order for eq. (9.21) to agree with eq. (9.19),

'rv ' 'D

= # Jd 5 2= # J 5 5 1= # D2 5 = # (9.22a)
't 't 't
or
'D
Jd 5 (9.22b)
dt

Substituting eq. (9.22b) into eq. (9.20) results in

'D
=3H5J1 (9.23)
't

This is Maxwell’s equation (based on Ampère’s circuit law) for a time-varying field. The
term Jd 5 'D/'t is known as displacement current density and J is the conduction current

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 434 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

density 1 J 5 sE 2 .3 The insertion of Jd into eq. (9.17) was one of the major contributions
of Maxwell. Without the term Jd, the propagation of electromagnetic waves (e.g., radio or
TV waves) would be impossible. At low frequencies, Jd is usually neglected compared with
J. However, at radio frequencies, the two terms are comparable. At the time of Maxwell,
­high-frequency sources were not available and eq. (9.23) could not be verified experi-
mentally. It was years later that Hertz succeeded in generating and detecting radio waves,
thereby verifying eq. (9.23). This is one of the rare cases of a mathematical argument paving
the way for experimental investigation.
Based on the displacement current density, we define the displacement current as

Id 5 3 Jd # dS 5 3
'D #
dS(9.24)
S S 't

We must bear in mind that displacement current is a result of time-varying electric field. A
typical example of such current is the current through a capacitor when an alternating volt-
age source is applied to its plates. This example, shown in Figure 9.10, serves to illustrate
the need for the displacement current. Applying an unmodified form of Ampère’s circuit
law to a closed path L shown in Figure 9.10(a) gives

C H dl 5 3 J dS 5 Ienc 5 I (9.25)
# #
L S1

where I is the current through the conductor and S1 is the flat surface bounded by L.
If we use the balloon-shaped surface S2 that passes between the capacitor plates, as in
Figure 9.10(b),

C H dl 5 3 J dS 5 Ienc 5 0(9.26)
# #
L S2

because no conduction current 1 J 5 0 2 flows through S2. This is contradictory in view

of the fact that the same closed path L is used. To resolve the conflict, we need to include

FIGURE 9.10 Two surfaces of integration

showing the need for Jd in Ampère’s circuit
law.

3
Recall that we also have J 5 rvu as the convection current density.

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 9.4 Displacement Current 435

the displacement current in Ampère’s circuit law. The total current density is J 1 Jd. In
eq. (9.25), Jd 5 0, so that the equation remains valid. In eq. (9.26), J 5 0, so that

C H dl 5 3 Jd dS 5 dt 3 D dS 5 dt 5 I (9.27)
# # d # dQ
L S2 S2

So we obtain the same current for either surface, although it is conduction current in S1
and displacement current in S2.

EXAMPLE 9.4
A parallel-plate capacitor with plate area of 5 cm2 and plate separation of 3 mm has a
­voltage 50 sin 103t V applied to its plates. Calculate the displacement current assuming
e 5 2eo.

Solution:

V
D 5 eE 5 e
d
'D e dV
Jd 5 5
't d dt
Hence,

eS dV dV
Id 5 Jd # S 5 5C
d dt dt
which is the same as the conduction current, given by

dQ drs dD dE eS dV dV
Ic 5 5S 5S 5 eS 5 5C
dt dt dt dt d dt dt
10 29
5 3 1024
Id 5 2 # # # 103 3 50 cos 103t
36p 3 3 1023
5 147.4 cos 103t nA

PRACTICE EXERCISE 9.4

In free space, E 5 20 cos 1 vt 2 50x 2 ay V/m. Calculate

(a) Jd
(b) H
(c) v

Answer: (a) 220veo sin 1 vt 2 50x 2 ay A/m2, (b) 0.4 veo cos 1 vt 2 50x 2 az A/m,
(c) 1.5 3 1010 rad/s.

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 436 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

9.5 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN FINAL FORMS

The Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) is regarded as the founder of
electromagnetic theory in its present form. Maxwell’s celebrated work led to the discovery
of electromagnetic waves.4 Through his theoretical efforts when he was between 35 and
40 years old, Maxwell published the first unified theory of electricity and magnetism. The
theory comprised all previously known results, both experimental and theoretical, on
electricity and magnetism. It further introduced displacement current and predicted the
existence of electromagnetic waves. Maxwell’s equations were not fully accepted by many
scientists until 1888, when they were confirmed by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857–1894).
The German physicist was successful in generating and detecting radio waves.
The laws of electromagnetism that Maxwell put together in the form of four equations
were presented in Table 7.2 in Section 7.6 for static conditions. The more generalized forms
of these equations are those for time-varying conditions shown in Table 9.1. We notice
from the table that the divergence equations remain the same, while the curl equations have
been modified. The integral form of Maxwell’s equations depicts the underlying physical
laws, whereas the differential form is used more frequently in solving problems. For a field
to “qualify” as an electromagnetic field, it must satisfy all four Maxwell’s equations. The
importance of Maxwell’s equations cannot be overemphasized because they summarize all
known laws of electromagnetism. We shall often refer to them in the remainder of this text.
Since this section is meant to be a compendium of our discussion in this text, it is
worthwhile to mention other equations that go hand in hand with Maxwell’s equations.
The Lorentz force equation

F 5 Q 1 E 1 u 3 B 2 (9.28)

TABLE 9.1 Generalized Forms of Maxwell’s Equations

Differential Form Integral Form Remarks

C D dS 5 3 rv dv
= # D 5 rv Gauss’s law
#
S v

C B dS 5 0
=#B50 Nonexistence of isolated magnetic charge*
#
S

C E d l 5 2 't 3 B dS
'B ' Faraday’s law
=3E52 # #
't L S

C H d l 5 3 aJ 1 't b dS
'D 'D # Ampère’s circuit law
=3H5J1 #
't L S

*This is also referred to as Gauss’s law for magnetic fields.

4
Maxwell’s work can be found in his two-volume Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (New York: Dover, 1954).

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 9.5 Maxwell’s Equations in Final Forms 437

is associated with Maxwell’s equations. Also the equation of continuity

'rv
=#J52 (9.29)
't
is implicit in Maxwell’s equations. The concepts of linearity, isotropy, and homogeneity of a
material medium still apply for time-varying fields; in a linear, homogeneous, and isotropic
medium characterized by s, «, and m, the constitutive relations

D 5 eE 5 eoE 1 P (9.30a)
B 5 mH 5 mo 1 H 1 M 2 (9.30b)
J 5 sE 1 rvu (9.30c)

hold for time-varying fields. Consequently, the boundary conditions remain valid for time-
varying fields, where an is the unit normal vector to the boundary.

E1t 2 E2t 5 0 or 1 E1 2 E2 2 3 an 5 0(9.31a)

H1t 2 H2t 5 K or 1 H1 2 H2 2 3 an 5 K (9.31b)

D1n 2 D2n 5 rs or 1 D1 2 D2 2 # an 5 rs (9.31c)

B1n 2 B2n 5 0 or 1 B 2 2 B 1 2 # an 50 (9.31d)

However, for a perfect conductor 1 s . ` 2 in a time-varying field,

E 5 0, H 5 0, J50 (9.32)

and hence,

Bn 5 0, Et 5 0 (9.33)

For a perfect dielectric 1 s . 0 2 , eqs. (9.31) hold except that K 5 0. Though eqs. (9.28) to
(9.33) are not Maxwell’s equations, they are associated with them.
To complete this summary section, we present a structure linking the various potentials
and vector fields of the electric and magnetic fields in Figure 9.11. This electromagnetic flow
diagram helps with the visualization of the basic relationships between field quantities. It
also shows that it is usually possible to find alternative formulations, for a given problem, in
a relatively simple manner. It should be noted that in Figure 9.11(b) and (c), we introduce rm
as the free magnetic density (similar to rv), which is, of course, zero, Ae as the electric vector
potential (analogous to A), and Jm as the magnetic current density (analogous to J). Using
terms from stress analysis, the principal relationships are typified as follows:
(a) compatibility equations

= # B 5 rm 5 0 (9.34)

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 437 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 438 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

FIGURE 9.11 Electromagnetic flow diagrams showing the relationship between the poten-
tials and vector fields: (a) electrostatic system, (b) magnetostatic system, (c) electromag-
netic system. [Adapted with permission from the Publishing Department of the Institution
of Electrical Engineers.]

and

'B
=3E52 5 Jm(9.35)
't
(b) constitutive equations

B 5 mH(9.36)

and

D 5 eE(9.37)

(c) equilibrium equations

= # D 5 rv(9.38)

and

'D
=3H5J1 (9.39)
't

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 438 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 9.6 Time-Varying Potentials 439

†
9.6 TIME-VARYING POTENTIALS

For static EM fields, we obtained the electric scalar potential as

V53
rv dv
(9.40)
v 4peR
and the magnetic vector potential as

A53
mJ dv
(9.41)
v 4pR

We would like to examine what happens to these potentials when the fields are time vary-
ing. Recall that A was defined from the fact that = # B 5 0, which still holds for time-­
varying fields. Hence the relation

B 5 = 3 A(9.42)

holds for time-varying situations. Combining Faraday’s law as expressed in eq. (9.8) with
eq. (9.42) gives

'
=3E52 1 = 3 A 2 (9.43a)
't
or

'A
= 3 aE 1 b 5 0(9.43b)
't

Since the curl of the gradient of a scalar field is identically zero (see Practice Exercise 3.10),
the solution to eq. (9.43b) is

'A
E1 5 2=V (9.44)
't
or

'A
E 5 2=V 2 (9.45)
't

From eqs. (9.42) and (9.45), we can determine the vector fields B and E, provided the
­potentials A and V are known. However, we still need to find some expressions for A and
V similar to those in eqs. (9.40) and (9.41) that are suitable for time-varying fields.
From Table 9.1 or eq. (9.38) we know that = # D 5 rv is valid for time-varying condi-
tions. By taking the divergence of eq. (9.45) and making use of eqs. (9.37) and (9.38), we obtain

rv '
=#E5 5 2=2V 2 1= # A2
e 't

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 439 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 440 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

or
' r
=2V 1 1 = # A 2 5 2 v (9.46)
't e
Taking the curl of eq. (9.42) and incorporating eqs. (9.23) and (9.45) results in
' 'A
= 3 = 3 A 5 mJ 1 em a2=V 2 b
't 't
(9.47)
'V '2A
5 mJ 2 me = a b 2 me 2 
't 't
where D 5 eE and B 5 mH have been assumed. By applying the vector identity

= 3 = 3 A 5 = 1 = # A 2 2 =2A(9.48)

to eq. (9.47),
'V '2A
=2A 2 = 1 = # A 2 5 2mJ 1 me = a b 1 me 2 (9.49)
't 't
A vector field is uniquely defined when its curl and divergence are specified. The curl of
A has been specified by eq. (9.42); for reasons that will be obvious shortly, we may choose
the divergence of A as

'V
= # A 5 2me (9.50)
't
This choice relates A and V, and it is called the Lorenz condition for potentials.5 We had this
in mind when we chose = # A 5 0 for magnetostatic fields in eq. (7.59). By imposing the
Lorenz condition of eq. (9.50), eqs. (9.46) and (9.49), respectively, become

'2V rv
=2V 2 me 2 5 2 e (9.51)
't

and
'2 A
=2A 2 me 5 2mJ(9.52)
't2

which are wave equations to be discussed in the next chapter. The reason for choosing
the Lorenz condition becomes obvious as we examine eqs. (9.51) and (9.52). The Lorenz
condition uncouples eqs. (9.46) and (9.49) and also produces a symmetry between
­
eqs. (9.51) and (9.52). It can be shown that the Lorenz condition can be obtained from
the ­continuity equation; therefore, our choice of eq. (9.50) is not arbitrary. Notice that
eqs. (6.4) and (7.60) are special static cases of eqs. (9.51) and (9.52), respectively. In other
words, potentials V and A satisfy Poisson’s equations for time-varying conditions. Just as

5
Not to be confused with Hendrick A. Lorentz, Ludvig V. Lorenz (1829–1891) was a Danish m
­ athematician
and physicist.

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 440 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 9.7 Time-Harmonic Fields 441

eqs. (9.40) and (9.41) are the solutions, or the integral forms of eqs. (6.4) and (7.60), it can
be shown that the solutions6 to eqs. (9.51) and (9.52) are

V53
3 rv 4 dv
(9.53)
v 4peR
and

A53
m 3 J 4 dv
 (9.54)
v 4pR

The term [rv] (or [J]) means that the time t in rv 1 x, y, z, t 2 [or J 1 x, y, z, t 2 ] is replaced by
the retarded time t given by
R
tr 5 t 2 (9.55)
u
where R 5 0 r 2 rr 0 is the distance between the source point r and the observation
point r and
1
u5 (9.56)
"me
is the velocity of wave propagation. In free space, u 5 c . 3 3 108 m/s is the speed of
light in a vacuum. Potentials V and A in eqs. (9.53) and (9.54) are, respectively, called the
retarded electric scalar potential and the retarded magnetic vector potential. Given rv and J,
V and A can be determined by using eqs. (9.53) and (9.54); from V and A, E and B can be
determined by using eqs. (9.45) and (9.42), respectively.

9.7 TIME-HARMONIC FIELDS

So far, our time dependence of EM fields has been arbitrary. To be specific, we shall assume
that the fields are time harmonic.

A time-harmonic field is one that varies periodically or sinusoidally with time.

Not only is sinusoidal analysis of practical value, but also it can be extended to most
waveforms by Fourier analysis. Sinusoids are easily expressed in phasors, which are more
convenient to work with. Before applying phasors to EM fields, it is worthwhile to have a
brief review of the concept of phasor.
A phasor is a complex number that contains the amplitude and the phase of a sinusoi-
dal oscillation. As a complex number, a phasor z can be represented as

z 5 x 1 jy 5 r lf(9.57)

6
For example, see D. K. Cheng, Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetics. Reading, MA: A
­ ddison-Wesley,
1993, pp. 253–254.
 442 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

or

z 5 r e jf 5 r 1 cos f 1 j sin f 2 (9.58)

where j 5 "21, x is the real part of z, y is the imaginary part of z, r is the magnitude of
z, given by

r 5 0 z 0 5 "x2 1 y2(9.59)
and f is the phase of z, given by
y
f 5 tan21 (9.60)
x
Here x, y, z, r, and f should not be mistaken as the coordinate variables, although they
look similar (different letters could have been used but it is hard to find better ones).
The phasor z can be represented in rectangular form as z 5 x 1 jy or in polar form as
z 5 r lf 5 r e jf. The two forms of representing z are related in eqs. (9.57) to (9.60) and
illustrated in Figure 9.12. Addition and subtraction of phasors are better performed in
rectangular form; multiplication and division are better done in polar form.
Given complex numbers
z 5 x 1 jy 5 r lf, z1 5 x1 1 jy1 5 r1 lf1, and z2 5 x2 1 jy2 5 r2 lf2

the following basic properties should be noted.

addition:
z1 1 z2 5 1 x1 1 x2 2 1 j 1 y1 1 y2 2 (9.61a)
subtraction:
z1 2 z2 5 1 x1 2 x2 2 1 j 1 y1 2 y2 2 (9.61b)
multiplication:

z1z2 5 r1r2 l f1 1 f2 (9.61c)

iiii
division:
z1 r1
5 l f 1 2 f2 (9.61d)
z2 r2 iiii
FIGURE 9.12 Representation of a phasor
z 5 x 1 jy 5 r lf.

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 442 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 9.7 Time-Harmonic Fields 443

Square root:

"z 5 "r l f/2 (9.61e)

ii
Complex conjugate:

z* 5 x 2 jy 5 r l2f 5 re2jf(9.61f)
ii
Other properties of complex numbers can be found in Appendix A.2.
To introduce the time element, we let

 5 t 1  (9.62)

where u may be a function of time or space coordinates or a constant. The real (Re) and
imaginary (Im) parts of
rej 5 re j(t1) 5 re j e jt (9.63)
are respectively given by
Re re jf 5 r cos(t 1 ) (9.64a)
and
Im re jf 5 r sin(t 1 ) (9.64b)
Thus, a sinusoidal current I(t) 5 Io cos(t 1 ), for example, equals the real part of Ioe je jt.
The current I(t) 5 Io sin(t 1 ), which is the imaginary part of Ioe je jt, can be repre-
sented as the real part of Ioe je jte 2j90 because sin  5 cos( 2 90). However, in perform-
ing our mathematical operations, we must be consistent in our use of either the real part or
the imaginary part of a quantity, but never both at the same time.
The complex term Ioe j, which results from dropping the time factor e jt in I(t), is
called the phasor current, denoted by Is; that is,
Is 5 Ioe j 5 Io  (9.65)
where the subscript s denotes the phasor form of I(t). Thus I(t) 5 Io cos(t 1 ), the instan-
taneous form, can be expressed as
I(t) 5 Re  Ise jt  (9.66)
In general, a phasor is a complex quantity and could be a scalar or a vector. If a vector A(x,
y, z, t) is a time-harmonic field, the phasor form of A is As(x, y, z); the two quantities are
related as

A(x, y, z, t) 5 ReAs (x, y, z)e jt (9.67)

Note that the phasor is a function of position, not a function of time. For example,
if A 5 Ao cos 1 vt 2 bx 2 ay, we can write A as

A 5 Re 1 Aoe2jbxaye jvt 2 (9.68)

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 443 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 444 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

Comparing this with eq. (9.67) indicates that the phasor form of A is

As 5 Aoe2jbxay(9.69)

Notice from eq. (9.67) that

'A '
5 Re 1 Ase jvt 2
't 't (9.70)
5 Re 1 jvAse jvt 2 

showing that taking the time derivative of the instantaneous quantity is equivalent to mul-
tiplying its phasor form by jv. That is,
'A
S jvAs(9.71)
't
Similarly,

3 A 't S
As
(9.72)
jv
Note that the real part is chosen in eq. (9.67) as in circuit analysis; the imaginary part
could equally have been chosen. Also notice the basic difference between the instantaneous
form A 1 x, y, z, t 2 and its phasor form As 1 x, y, z 2 : the former is time dependent and real,
whereas the latter is time invariant and generally complex. It is easier to work with As and
obtain A from As whenever necessary by using eq. (9.67).
We shall now apply the phasor concept to time-varying EM fields. The field quantities
E 1 x, y, z, t 2 , D 1 x, y, z, t 2 , H 1 x, y, z, t 2 , B 1 x, y, z, t 2 , J 1 x, y, z, t 2 , and rv 1 x, y, z, t 2 and their
derivatives can be expressed in phasor form by using eqs. (9.67) and (9.71).

Let us see how we can write Maxwell’s equations in phasor form. For example, ­consider
'
 3 E (x, y, z, t) 5 2 B (x, y, z, t)(9.73)
't
We let
E (x, y, z, t) 5 Re Es(x, y, z)e jt
and
B (x, y, z, t) 5 Re Bs(x, y, z)e jt
Substituting these in eq. (9.73) gives
'
= 3 e Re 3 Esejvt 4 f 5 2 e Re 3 Bsejvt 4 f  (9.74)
't
We consider the left-hand side of eq. (9.74). The curl operation operates only on
(x, y, z),

= 3 e Re 3 Esejvt 4 f 5 Re e 3 = 3 Es 4 ejvt f  (9.75)

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 444 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 9.7 Time-Harmonic Fields 445

We similarly consider the right-hand side of eq. (9.74), keeping in mind that Bs does not
depend on time:
' '
2 e Re 3 Bsejvt 4 f 5 2Re e Bs ejvt f 5 2Re 5 jvBsejvt 6  (9.76)
't 't
Comparing eqs. (9.75) and (9.76), we obtain
= 3 Es 5 2jvBs(9.77)
which is the phasor form of eq. (9.73). Other Maxwell’s equations can be treated in a
similar manner, and we obtain Table 9.2. From Table 9.2, note that the time factor e jvt
disappears because it is associated with every term and therefore factors out, resulting in
time-independent equations. Herein lies the justification for using phasors: the time factor
can be suppressed in our analysis of time-harmonic fields and inserted when necessary.
Also note that in Table 9.2, the time factor e jvt has been assumed. It is equally possible
to have assumed the time factor e2jvt, in which case we would need to replace every j in
Table 9.2 with 2j.

TABLE 9.2 Time-Harmonic Maxwell’s Equations

Assuming Time Factor e jvt
Point Form Integral Form

= # Ds 5 rvs C Ds dS 5 3 rvs dv
#

= # Bs 5 0 C Bs dS 5 0
#

C Es d l 5 2jv 3 Bs dS
= 3 Es 5 2jvBs # #

C Hs d l 5 3 1 Js 1 jvDs 2 dS
= 3 Hs 5 Js 1 jvDs # #

EXAMPLE 9.5
Evaluate the complex numbers
j 1 3 2 j4 2 *
(a) z1 5
1 21 1 j6 2 1 2 1 j 2 2

11j 1/2
(b) z2 5 c d
4 2 j8

Solution:
(a) This can be solved in two ways: working with z in rectangular form or polar form.
Method 1 (working in rectangular form):
Let
z3z4
z1 5
z5z6

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 445 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 446 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

where

z3 5 j
z4 5 1 3 2 j4 2 * 5 the complex conjugate of 1 3 2 j4 2
5 3 1 j4

We note parenthetically that one can find the complex conjugate of a complex number
simply by replacing every j with 2j:
z5 5 21 1 j6
and
z6 5 1 2 1 j 2 2 5 4 2 1 1 j4 5 3 1 j4
Hence,
z3z4 5 j 1 3 1 j4 2 5 24 1 j3
z5z6 5 1 21 1 j6 2 1 3 1 j4 2 5 23 2 j4 1 j18 2 24
5 227 1 j14

and 24 1 j3
z1 5
227 1 j14
Multiplying and dividing z1 by 227 2 j14 (rationalization), we have

1 24 1 j3 2 1 227 2 j14 2 150 2 j25

z1 5 5 2
1 227 1 j14 2 1 227 2 j14 2 27 1 142
5 0.1622 2 j0.027 5 0.1644 l29.46°
iii
Method 2 (working in polar form):
z3 5 j 5 1 l 90°
ii
z4 5 1 3 2 j4 2 * 5 1 5 l 253.132 * 5 5 l 53.13°
iiii iii

z5 5 1 21 1 j6 2 5 "37 l 99.46°
iii
z6 5 1 2 1 j 2 2 5 1 "5 l 26.56 2 2 5 5 l 53.13°
iii iii
Hence,
1 1 l 90° 2 1 5 l 53.13° 2
z1 5 i i iii
1 "37 l 99.46° 2 1 5 l 53.13° 2
iii iii
1
5 l 90° 2 99.46° 5 0.1644 l29.46°
"37 iiiiii iiii
5 0.1622 2 j0.027

as obtained before.

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 446 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 9.7 Time-Harmonic Fields 447

(b) Let
z7 1/2
z2 5 c d
z8
where
z7 5 1 1 j 5 "2 l 45°
ii
and
z8 5 4 2 j8 5 4"5 l 263.4°
iii
Hence
z7 "2 l 45°
5 ii 5 "2 l45° 2 263.4°
z8 4"5 l 263.4° 4"5 iiiiii
iii
5 0.1581 l 108.4°
iii
and
z2 5 "0.1581 l 108.4°/2
iiii
5 0.3976 l54.2°
ii

PRACTICE EXERCISE 9.5

Evaluate these complex numbers:

11j 2
(a) j3 c d
22j
(b) 6 l30° 1 j5 2 3 1 e j45°

Answer: (a) 0.24 1 j0.32, (b) 2.03 1 j8.707.

EXAMPLE 9.6 Given that A 5 10 cos 1 108t 2 10x 1 60° 2 az and Bs 5 1 20/j 2 ax 1 10 e j2px/3 ay, express A
in phasor form and Bs in instantaneous form.

Solution:

A 5 Re 3 10e j1vt210x160°2az 4
where v 5 108. Hence

A 5 Re 3 10e j160º210x2 az e jvt 4 5 Re 1 Ase jvt 2

or
As 5 10 e j160°210x2az

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 447 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 448 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

If
20
Bs 5 a 1 10e j2px/3ay 5 2j20ax 1 10e j2px/3ay
j x
5 20e2jp/2ax 1 10e j2px/3ay

B 5 Re 1 Bse jvt 2

5 Re c20e j1vt2p/22ax 1 10e j1vt12px/32ayd

2px
5 20 cos 1 vt 2 p/2 2 ax 1 10 cosavt 1 bay
3
2px
5 20 sin vt ax 1 10 cosavt 1 bay
3

PRACTICE EXERCISE 9.6

If P 5 2 sin 1 10t 1 x 2 p/4 2 ay and Qs 5 e jx 1 ax 2 az 2 sin py, determine the phasor

form of P and the instantaneous form of Qs.

2e j1x23p/42ay, sin p y cos 1 vt 1 x 2 1 ax 2 az 2 .

Answer: 

EXAMPLE 9.7
The electric field and the magnetic field in free space are given by

50
E5 cos 1 106t 1 bz 2 af V/m
r

Ho
H5 cos 1 106t 1 bz 2 ar A/m
r

Express these in phasor form and determine the constants Ho and b such that the fields
­satisfy Maxwell’s equations.

Solution:
The instantaneous forms of E and H are written as

E 5 Re 1 Ese jvt 2 , H 5 Re 1 Hse jvt 2 (9.7.1)

where v 5 106 and phasors Es and Hs are given by

50 jbz Ho jbz
Es 5 e af, Hs 5 e ar(9.7.2)
r r

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 448 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 9.7 Time-Harmonic Fields 449

For free space, rv 5 0, s 5 0, e 5 eo, and m 5 mo, so Maxwell’s equations become

= # D 5 eo= # E 5 0 S = # Es 5 0 (9.7.3)
= # B 5 mo= # H 5 0 S = # Hs 5 0 (9.7.4)
'E
= 3 H 5 sE 1 eo S = 3 Hs 5 jveoEs (9.7.5)
't
'H
= 3 E 5 2mo S = 3 Es 5 2jvmoHs(9.7.6)
't

Substituting eq (9.7.2) into eqs. (9.7.3) and (9.7.4), it is readily verified that two Maxwell’s
equations are satisfied; that is,

1 '
= # Es 5 1E 2 5 0
r 'f fs
1 '
= # Hs 5 1 rHrs 2 5 0
r 'r
Now

Ho jbz jHob jbz

= 3 Hs 5 = 3 a e ar b 5 e af(9.7.7)
r r

Substituting eqs. (9.7.2) and (9.7.7) into eq. (9.7.5), we have

jHob jbz 50 jbz

e af 5 jveo e af
r r

or

Hob 5 50 veo(9.7.8)

Similarly, substituting eq. (9.7.2) into eq. (9.7.6) gives

50 jbz Ho jbz
2jb e ar 5 2jvmo e ar
r r
or

Ho 50
5 (9.7.9)
b vmo

Multiplying eq. (9.7.8) by eq. (9.7.9) yields

eo
H2o 5 1 50 2 2
mo

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 449 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 450 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

or

50
Ho 5 650"eo /mo 5 6 5 60.1326
120p

Dividing eq. (9.7.8) by eq. (9.7.9), we get

b2 5 v 2moeo

or

v 106
b 5 6v"moeo 5 6 56
c 3 3 108
5 63.33 3 1023

In view of eq. (9.7.8), Ho 5 0.1326, b 5 3.33 3 1023 or Ho 5 20.1326, b 523.33 3 1023;

only these will satisfy Maxwell’s four equations.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 9.7

sin u
In air, E 5 cos 1 6 3 107t 2 br 2 af V/m.
r
Find b and H.

1 7 1
2 cos u sin 6 3 10 t 2 0.2r ar 2
Answer: 0.2 rad/m, 2 1 2 sin u 3
12pr 120pr
cos 1 6 3 107t 2 0.2r 2 au /m.

EXAMPLE 9.8 In a medium characterized by s 5 0, m 5 mo, e 5 4eo, and

E 5 20 sin 1 108t 2 bz 2 ay V/m

calculate b and H.
Solution:
This problem can be solved directly in time domain or by using phasors. As in Example 9.7,
we find b and H by making E and H satisfy Maxwell’s four equations.
Method 1 (time domain):
Let us solve this problem the harder way—in time domain. It is evident that Gauss’s law for
electric fields is satisfied; that is,

'Ey
=#E5 50
'y

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 450 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 9.7 Time-Harmonic Fields 451

From Faraday’s law,

H 5 2 3 1 = 3 E 2 dt
'H 1
= 3 E 5 2m S
't m

But

ax ay az
' ' ' 'Ey 'Ey
=3E5 ∞ ∞ 5 2 ax 1 a
'x 'y 'z 'z 'x z
0 Ey 0
5 20b cos 1 108t 2 bz 2 ax 1 0

Hence,

m 3
20b
H52 cos 1 108t 2 bz 2 dt ax

20b
52 sin 1 108t 2 bz 2 ax (9.8.1)
m108

It is readily verified that

'Hx
=#H5 50
'x

showing that Gauss’s law for magnetic fields is satisfied. Lastly, from Ampère’s law

e3
'E 1
= 3 H 5 sE 1 e S E5 1 = 3 H 2 dt(9.8.2)
't

because s 5 0.

But

ax ay az
' ' ' 'Hx 'Hx
=3H5 ∞ ∞ 5 a 2 a
'x 'y 'z 'z y 'y z
Hx 0 0
20b2
5 cos 1 108t 2 bz 2 ay 1 0
m108

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 451 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 452 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

where H in eq. (9.8.1) has been substituted. Thus eq. (9.8.2) becomes

3 cos 1 10 t 2 bz 2 dt ay
20b2 8
E5
me108
20b2
5 sin 1 108t 2 bz 2 ay
me1016

Comparing this with the given E, we have

20b2
5 20
me1016

or

108 1 2 2 108 1 2 2
b 5 6108"me 5 6108"mo # 4eo 5 6 56
c 3 3 108
2
56
3

2
The b would be negative only in metamaterials, for an isotropic medium, b 5 .
3
From eq. (9.8.1),

20 1 2/3 2 8 2z
H51 # 8 sin a10 t 2 b ax
4p 10 1 10 2
27
3

or

1 2z
H51 sin a108t 2 bax A/m
3p 3

Method 2 (using phasors):

E 5 Im 1 Ese jvt 2 S Es 5 20e2jbz ay(9.8.3)

where v 5 108.
Again

'Eys
= # Es 5 50
'y
= 3 Es
= 3 Es 5 2jvmHs S Hs 5
2jvm

09_Sadiku_Ch09.indd 452 25/09/17 1:55 PM

 9.7 Time-Harmonic Fields 453

or

1 'Eys 20b 2jbz

Hs 5 c2 a d 52 e ax (9.8.4)
2jvm 'z x vm

Notice that = # Hs 5 0 is satisfied.

= 3 Hs
= 3 Hs 5 jveEs S Es 5 (9.8.5)
jve

Substituting Hs in eq. (9.8.4) into eq. (9.8.5) gives

1 'Hxs 20b2e2jbz
Es 5 ay 5 ay
jve 'z v 2me

Comparing this with the given Es in eq. (9.8.3), we have

20b2
20 5
v 2me

or

2
b 5 1v"me 5 1
3

as obtained before. From eq. (9.8.4),

20 1 2/3 2 e 2 jbz 1 2 jbz

Hs 5 1 ax 5 1 e ax
108 1 4p 3 1027 2 3p

H 5 Im 1 Hse jvt 2
1
5 ; sin 1 108t 2 bz 2 ax A/m
3p

as obtained before. It should be noticed that working with phasors is considerably simpler than
working directly in time domain. Also, notice that we have used

A 5 Im 1 Ase jvt 2

because the given E is in sine form and not cosine. If we had used

A 5 Re 1 Ase jvt 2

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 454 CHAPTER 9 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

sine would been expressed in terms of cosine, and eq. (9.8.3) would have been

E 5 20 cos 1 108t 2 bz 2 90º 2 ay 5 Re 1 Ese jvt 2

or

Es 5 20e2jbz2j90°ay 5 2j20e2jbzay

and we follow the same procedure.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 9.8

A medium is characterized by s 5 0, m 5 2mo and e 5 5eo. If H 5 2

cos 1 vt 2 3y 2 az A/m, calculate  and E.

Answer: 2.846 3 108 rad/s, 2476.86 cos 1 2.846 3 108t 2 3y 2 ax V/m.

†
9.8 APPLICATION NOTE—MEMRISTOR

In 1971 Leon O. Chua of the University of California–Berkeley introduced the memristor

(Figure 9.13) as one of the four basic circuit elements, coequal in importance with the other
well-known circuit elements, namely, resistor (R), inductor (L), and capacitor (C). The new
element had not been physically realized when Chua proposed it. However, he was the
first to use this moniker. Not until 2008 was a physical approximation of such an element
fabricated, as a TiO2 nanodevice, by Stanley Williams’s group at Hewlett-Packard (HP).

FIGURE 9.13 Schematic of a memristor.

Chua characterized the memristor in terms of the electric charge and the mag-
netic flux. He also linked this relationship with the quasi-static expansion of Maxwell’s

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