MATHEMATICS-II (CSE)

Unit –VI: Statistics and Probability

STATISTICS

Dr B. Vasu

Department of Mathematics
MNNIT, ALLAHABAD
Prayagraj-211004
 THE STATISTICAL METHODS
• Statistical methods are devices by which complex and numerical data are so
systematically treated as to present a comprehensible and intelligible view of
them. In other words, the statistical method is a technique used to obtain,
analyze and present numerical data.

LIMITATION OF STATISTICAL METHODS:

❖ Statistical laws are not exact laws like mathematical or chemical laws.
They are derived by taking a majority of cases and are not true for every
individual. Thus, the statistical inferences are uncertain.
❖ Statistical technique applies only to data reducible to quantitative forms.
❖ Statistical technique is the same for the social as for physical sciences.
❖ Statistical results might lead to fallacious conclusions if they are quoted
short of their context.
 FREQUENCY CHARTS

• Variable: A quantity which can vary from one individual to another is called a variable. It
is also called a variate.
Examples: Wages, barometer readings, rainfall records, heights, and weights are the
common examples of variables.

• Quantities which can take any numerical value within a certain range are called Continuous
variables. Examples: the height of a child at various ages is a continuous variable since, as
the child grows from 120 cm to 150 cm, his height assumes all possible values within the
limit.

• Quantities which are incapable of taking all possible values are called Discontinuous or
Discrete variables.
Examples: the number of rooms in a house can take only the integral values such as 2, 3, 4
etc.
• Frequency Distributions: The scores of 50 students in mathematics are arranged below
according to their roll numbers, the maximum scores being 100. 19, 70, 75, 15, 0, 23, 59, 56, 27,
89, 91, 22, 21, 22, 50, 89, 56, 73, 56, 89, 75, 65, 85, 22, 3, 12, 41, 87, 82, 72, 50, 22, 87, 50, 89,
28, 89, 50, 40, 36, 40, 30, 28, 87, 81, 90, 22, 15, 30, 35.
• The data given in the crude form (or raw form) is called ungrouped data.
• If the data is arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude, it is said to be arranged in
an array.
• Let us now arrange it in the intervals 0–10, 10–20, 20–30, 30–40, 40–50, 50–60, 60–70, 70–80,
80–90, 90–100. This is arranged by a method called the tally method.
• In this we consider every observation and put it in the suitable class by drawing a vertical line.
After every 4 vertical lines, we cross it for the 5th entry and then a little space is left and the next
vertical line is drawn.

This type of
representation is called
a grouped frequency
distribution or simply a
frequency distribution.
• The groups are called the classes and the boundary ends 0, 10, 20, ...... etc. are called class limits.
• In the class limits 10-20, 10 is the lower limit and 20 is the upper limit. The difference between the
upper and lower limits of a class is called its magnitude or class-interval.
• The number of observations falling within a particular class is called its frequency or class frequency.
The frequency of the class 80-90 is 11.
• The variate value which lies mid-way between the upper and lower limits is called mid-value or mid-
point of that class. The mid-points of these are respectively 5, 15, 25, 35, ......
• The cumulative frequency corresponding to a class is the total of all the frequencies up to and
including that class. Thus the cumulative frequency of the class 10-20 is 2 + 4, i.e., 6 the cumulative
frequency of the class 20-30 is 6 + 10, i.e., 16, and so on.

• While preparing the frequency distribution the following points must be remembered:
➢ The class-intervals should be of equal width as far as possible .A comparison of different
distributions is facilitated if the class interval is used for all. The class-interval should be an integer
as far as possible.
➢ The number of classes should never be fewer than 6 and not more than 30. With a smaller
number of classes, the accuracy may be lost, and with a larger number of classes, the computations
become tedious.
➢ The observation corresponding to the common point of two classes should always be put in the
higher class. For example, a number corresponding to the value 30 is to be put up in the class 30-40
and not in 20-30.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

• Representation of frequency distribution by means of a diagram makes the

unwieldy data intelligible and conveys to the eye the general run of the
observations. The graphs and diagrams have a more lasting effect on the
brain.

TYPES OF GRAPHS AND DIAGRAMS:

(1) Histograms,
(2) Frequency Polygon,
(3) Frequency Curve,
(4) Cumulative Frequency Curve or the Ogive,
(5) Histograms,
(6) Bar Diagrams,
(7) Area Diagrams,
(8) Circles or Pie Diagrams,
(9) Prisms,
(10) Cartograms and Map Diagrams,
(11) Pictograms.
1. HISTOGRAMS
❖ To draw the histograms of a given grouped frequency distribution, mark off along a horizontal base
line all the class-intervals on a suitable scale.
❖ With the class-intervals as bases, draw rectangles with the areas proportional to the frequencies of
the respective class-intervals.
❖ For equal class-intervals, the heights of the rectangles will be proportional to the frequencies.
❖ If the class-intervals are not equal, the heights of the rectangles will be proportional to the ratios of
the frequencies to the width of the corresponding classes.
❖ A diagram with all these rectangles is a Histogram.
❖ Histograms are also useful when the class-intervals are not of the same width.
❖ They are appropriate to cases in which the frequency changes rapidly.
FREQUENCY POLYGON
❖ If the various points are obtained by plotting the central values of the
class intervals as x co-ordinates and the respective frequencies as the
y co-ordinates, and these points are joined by straight lines taken in
order, they form a polygon called Frequency Polygon.
❖ In a frequency polygon the variables or individuals of each class are
assumed to be concentrated at the mid-point of the class-interval.

Here in this diagram dotted is the

Histogram and a polygon with lines as
sides is the Frequency Polygon.

FREQUENCY CURVE
❖ If through the vertices of a frequency polygon a smooth freehand curve is drawn,
we get the Frequency Curve. This is done usually when the class-intervals are of
small widths.
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVE OR THE OGIVE
❖If from a cumulative frequency table, the upper limits of the class taken as x co-ordinates and the
cumulative frequencies as the y co-ordinates and the points are plotted, then these points when joined
by a freehand smooth curve give the Cumulative Frequency Curve or the Ogive.
 TYPES OF FREQUENCY CURVES
1. Symmetrical curve or Bell shaped curve
❖ If a curve can be folded symmetrically along a vertical
line, it is called a symmetrical curve.
❖ In this type the class frequencies decrease to zero
symmetrically on either side of a central maximum, i.e., the
observations equidistant from the central maximum have
the same frequency.

2. Moderately asymmetrical or skewed curve

❖If there is no symmetry in the curve, it is called a Skew Curve.
❖ In this case the class frequencies decrease with greater rapidity on one
side of the maximum than on the other.
❖In this curve one tail is always longer than the other. If the long tail is
to the to be a positive side, it is said to be a positive skew curve, if
long tail is to the negative side, it is said to be a negative skew curve.

3.Extremely asymmetrical or J-shaped curve.

When the class frequencies run up to a maximum at one end of the range,
they form a J-shaped curve.

4. U-shaped curve.
In this curve, the maximum frequency is at the ends of the range
and a maximum towards the centre.
• 5. A Bimodal curve has two maxima.

• 6. A multimodal curve has more than two maxima.

 DIAGRAMS
1. Bar diagrams.
❖Bar diagrams are used to compare the simple magnitude of different items.
❖In bar diagrams, equal bases on a horizontal or vertical line are selected and rectangles are constructed with
the length proportional to the given data. The width of bars is an arbitrary factor.
❖The distance between two bars should be taken at about one-half of the width of a bar.
2. Area diagrams.
❖When the difference between two quantities to be compared is large, bars do not show the comparison so
clearly. In such cases, squares or circle are used.
3. Circle or Pie-diagrams.
❖When circles are drawn to represent an area equivalent to the figures, they are said to form pie-diagrams or
circles diagrams. In case of circles, the square roots of magnitudes are proportional to the radii.
4. Subdivided Pie-diagram.
❖ Subdivided Pie-diagrams are used when comparison of the component parts is done with another and the
total. The total value is equated to 360° and then the angles corresponding to the component parts are
calculated.
5. Prisms and Cubes.
❖When the ratio between the two quantities to be compared is very great so that even area diagrams are not
suitable, the data can be represented by spheres, prisms, or cubes. Cubes are in common use. Cubes are
constructed on sides which are taken in the ratio of cube roots of the given quantities.
6. Cartograms or map diagrams.
❖Cartograms or map diagrams are most suitable for geographical data. Rainfalls and temperature in different
parts of the country are shown with dots or shades in a particular map.
7. Pictograms.
❖When numerical data are represented by pictures, they give a more attractive representation. Such pictures
are called pictograms.